Managerial skills administrators should possess:

1. Technical skills
2. Human skills
3. Conceptual skills
4. Design skills

Frederick Taylor

 Father of scientific management.. Early development of management. Industrial engineer.

Henry L. Gantt-

 mechanical engineer. Developed the Gantt chart

 developed graphic methods of describing plans and making possible better managerial
control
 developed the Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)

Henry Fayol

 Father of modern management theory

 French industrialist
 Found out that activities of an industrial undertaking could be divided into six groups;
Technical(production), commercial (buying, selling, exchanging), financial (optimum use of
capital), security (protection of property and persons), accounting (including statistics), and
managerial ( planning, organizing, command, coordination and controlling)
 14 principles of management:
a. Division of work
b. Authority and responsibility
c. Discipline
d. Unity of command
e. Unity of direction
f. Subordination of individual to general interest
g. Remuneration
h. Centralization
i. Scalar chain
j. Order
k. Equity
l. Stability of tenure
m. Initiative
n. Esprit de corps- “in unity, there is strength”. Emphasizes the need for teamwork and the
importance of communication.

CHESTER I. BARNARD

 He was a business executive and was one of the earliest writers that conceived of an
organization as a system which embraced the activities of two or more persons coordinating
their activities to attain a common goal.
 He considered an organization as the binding element common to all cooperative systems.
 Acording to Barnard’s theoretical formulation, the continuance of a successful organization
depends upon two conditions:
a. The accomplishment of the purposes of the organization, which he termed effectiveness
b. The satisfaction of individual motives, which he termed efficiency

ELTON MAYO

 Together with FJ Roethlilsberger gave academic stature to the study of human behavior at work.
 Their experiments concluded that the worker is not a simple tool but a complex personality that
often is difficult to understand
  This phenomenon, arising from workers being noticed has been known as the Hawthorne Effect

HUGO MUNSTERBERG

 Father of industrial psychology

 Saw the importance of applying behavioral science to scientific management
 In his book Psychology and Industrial Efficiency, his objectives were to discover:
a. How to find people whose mental qualities best fit them for the work they are to do
b. Under what psychological conditions the greatest and most satisfactory output can be
obtained from the work of every person
c. How business can influence workers in order to obtain the best results from them
 He was interested in the mutuality of the interests between managers and workers
 His approach is aimed to promote the welfare of workers by reducing their time, increase their
wages and raise their level of life

FRANK B. GILBRETH AND LILLIAN M. GILBRETH

 they stressed that in applying scientific management principles, managers must look at the
workers first and understand their personalities and needs.
 According to them, it is not the monotony of work that causes so much worker dissatisfaction;
but rather, management’s lack of interest in workers

FREDERICK W. TAYLOR

 Father of Scientific Management

 Primary concern was to increase productivity through greater efficiency in production and
increased pay for workers, through the application of the scientific method
 His principles emphasized, using science, creating group harmony and cooperation, achieving
maximum output and developing workers

HENRY L. GANTT

 Discovered the Program Evaluation and Review Technique

 Developed the famous Gantt chart called for the scientific selection of workers and harmonious
cooperation between labor and management

Other contributors to Management

PETER F. DRUCKER

 One of the most prolific writers in management

 Observed that the greatest opportunity for increasing productivity is surely to be found in
knowledge of the work itself, and specially, in management

W. EDWARD DEMING

 Introduced quality control in Japan

 Emphasized that a concern for quality should not be restricted to business
 His principle also applies to government

LAURENCE PETER

 Observed that managers get promoted until they reached the level of their incompetence, but
no further promotion is possible
 Errors in the selection are possible, perhaps even common

WILLIAM OUCHI

 Theory Z
 In theory z, selected Japanese managerial practices are introduced by companies
  One of the characteristics of type z organization is an emphasis on the interpersonal skills that
are needed for group interaction
 There is also an emphasis on informal and democratic relationships based on trust
 Participative management facilitates the free flow of information needed to reach consensus
 Formal planning and objectives are important
 Workers are seen as a whole human beings not simply as factors in production

Management by objectives- a comprehensive managerial system, integrating many key activities,

consciously directed towards effective achievement of organizational and individual objectives. This is
the rationale why organizations require consistent levels of high performance from their employees in
order to survive in a highly competitive environment

Management by objectives processes:

a. Objective setting
b. Action planning
c. Periodic reviews
d. Annual evaluation
 Reasons for employee appraisal-plays a very important role in the reward system. It is the
process of evaluating the performance of employees
 It is necessary in order to allocate resources in a dynamic environment, motivate and reward
employees, and give employees feedback about their work, maintain fair relationships within
groups coach and develop employees and comply with regulations
 The hallmarks of modern appraisal are:
a. Performance orientation
b. Focus on goals or objectives
c. Mutual goal-setting between supervisors and employees
d. Extensive feedback systems
 Performance appraisal provides a systematic basis for assessment of employee contributions,
coaching for improved performance and distribution of economic rewards

THE COMPONENTS OF SCIENCE

1. Scientific Approach
 The scientific method involves determination of facts through observation
2. Systems Approach

APPROACHES TO MANAGEMENT

1. Empirical or case approach

Studies experience through cases, identifies successes and failures
2. Interpersonal Behavior Approach
Focus on interpersonal behavior, human relations, leadership, and motivation. Based on
individual psychology
3. Group Behavior Approach
Emphasis on behavior of people in groups. Based on sociology and social psychology. Primarily
study of group behavior patterns. The study of large groups is often called organizational
behavior
4. Cooperative Social Systems Approach
Concerned with both interpersonal and group behavioral aspects leading to a system of
cooperation
5. Sociotechnical Systems Approach
Focus on productions, office operations and other areas with close relationships between the
technical system and people
6. Decision Theory Approach
Focus on making decisions
7. Systems Approach
 Recognizes importance of studying interrelatedness of planning, organizing and controlling in an
organization as well as the many subsystems
8. Management Science Approach
Looks at management as purely logical process, expressed in mathematical symbols and
relationships
9. Contingency or Situational Approach
Recognizes the influence of given solutions on organizational behavior patterns
10. Managerial roles approach
Roles of Managers:
3 interpersonal roles
4 decision roles
3 informational roles
11. MCKINSEY’S 7-S FRAMEWORK
 Strategy
 Structure
 Systems
 Style
 Staff
 Shared values
 Skills
12. Operational Approach
Draw together concepts, principles techniques and knowledge from other fields and managerial
approaches. The attempt is to develop science and theory with practical application.
Distinguishes between managerial and non-managerial knowledge. Develops classification
system built around the managerial functions of planning, organizing, staffing, leading, and
controlling.

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR:

4 forces affecting organizational behavior:

1. People
2. Structure
3. Technology
4. Environment

DIFFERENT MODELS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR SYSTEM

1. The supportive model

2. The collegial model
3. The custodial model
4. The Autocratic model

Characteristics of Healthy organization:

1. Objectives are widely shared by members and there is a strong and consistent flow of energy
towards those objectives
2. People feel free to signal awareness and difficulties because they expect the problems to be
dealt with and they are optimistic that these problems can be solved
3. Problem solving is highly pragmatic. People work informally and are not preoccupied with
status, territory or second guessing “what higher management will think”
4. The judgement of people lower down in the organization is respected
5. Collaboration Is freely entered into. People readily request the help of others and are willing to
give in turn
6. When there is crisis, the people quickly band together in work until the crisis departs
7. Conflicts are considered important to decision-making and personal growth.
 8. There is a great deal of on-the-job learning based on the willingness to give, seek, and use
feedback and advice
9. Joint critique of progress is routine
10. Relationships are honest
11. People are turned on and highly involved by choice
12. Leadership is flexible, shifting in style and person to suit the situation
13. There is a high degree of trust among people and a sense of freedom and mutual responsibility
14. Risk is accepted as a condition of growth and change
15. What can we learn from each mistake
16. Poor performance os confronted and a joint resolution sought
17. Organizational structure, procedures and policies are fashioned to help people get the job done
and to protect the long-term health of the organization.
18. There is sense of order and yet a high rate of innovation.

PLANNING

Deals with selecting missions and objectives and the actions to achieve them. Planning bridges the gap
from where we are now and where we want be.

Kinds of Plans:

1. Mission or Purpose
2. Goals and objectives
3. Strategies
4. Policies
5. Procedures
6. Rules
7. Programs
8. Budgets

3 Perspectives of Planning:

1. Satisfying perspective
2. Optimizing perspective
3. Innovative perspective

Kinds of Planning:

1. Strategic planning-deciding on the objectives of the organization, the resources necessary to

accomplish the objectives, the policies that should govern the acquisition, use, and the
disposition of these resources. It includes choosing company objectives, planning the
organization, setting personnel policies, setting financial policies and setting marketing policies
and strategies.
2. Management Control- covers activities such as formulating the budget, planning staff levels,
formulating personnel policies working capital expenditure, deciding on plant rearrangement
and deciding routing expenditure. Managers are certain that resources are obtained and utilized
effectively and efficiently in accordance with the attainment of the objectives of the
organization.
3. Operational Planning- assuring that specific projects are carried out effectively and efficiently.
Covers activities such as controlling of hiring of personnel, monitoring the implementation
policies, controlling credit extension and scheduling of production

Steps in Planning process:

1. Be aware of opportunities
2. Establish objectives
3. Develop premises
4. Determine alternatives
5. Evaluate alternative courses of action
 6. Select a course of action
7. Implement the plan
8. Evaluation

ORGANIZING

Means to create a structure with fully integrated parts that are related to each other and is governed by
their relationships to the whole.

Theories of Organizing

1. The classical Theory

2. The neoclassical theory
3. The fusion theory
4. The systems theory
5. The quantitative theory

Organizational Strategy:

1. Growth
2. Finance
3. Organization
4. Personnel
5. Public Relations
6. Products or Services
7. Marketing

CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ORGANIZATION

1. Goal-oriented
2. Psychological orientation
3. Structural systems
4. Technological systems
5. Management systems

Classical Theories in Management:

-Henry Fayol

1. Objectives
2. Specialization
3. Coordination
4. Authority
5. Responsibility
6. Efficiency
7. Delegation

Organizational Development- is a systematic, integrated and planned approach to improve

organizational effectiveness. It is designed to solve problems that decrease operating efficiency at all
levels.

Many OD practitioners use :

1. Team-building
2. Process consultation
3. Job enrichment
4. Organizational Behavior modification
5. Job design
6. Stress management
7. Career and life planning
 8. Management by objectives

Change in policy:

1. Unfreezing
2. Moving or changing
3. Refreezing

STAFFING

This include human resources planning, recruitment, selecting, induction, training and development, the
intent of which is to attract in the organization personnel conceptualized in the design of the various
positions to be filled

Staffing is the process of supplying the organization with the needed personnel to achieve the objectives
for which it has been established.

Personal characteristics and skills manager should possess:

1. A desire to manage
2. The ability to communicate with empathy
3. Integrity and honesty
4. The person’s experience

DIRECTING

Is the process by which manager communicates with and influences other members of the
organization in pursuit of company objectives to achieve desirable ends.

Is perceived to be a process through which the manager energizes the organization into action by
way of motivating and directing members to perform their respective duties and responsibilities.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

1. Psychological
2. Safety and security
3. Social
4. Self-Esteem
5. Self-actualization

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Frederick Herzberg

1. Hygiene or maintenance factors- These constitute the condition in work (better working
conditions, salary, and effective supervision that make employees satisfied but not necessarily
motivated). Absence of these factors will lead to dissatisfaction. Continually increasing the
hygiene factor may not motivate the workers once it has become adequate. It will only keep the
workers from becoming dissatisfied.
2. Motivator or job content factors- These are real motivators. Achievement, responsibility and
recognition. If continuously paid attention to, for instance, providing better opportunities for the
development among workers to experience the, then naturally, these factors, will lead to
motivation of these workers.

MOTIVATORS SATISFIERS
Achievement Company policies and administration
Recognition Quality of supervision
Advancement Relationship with supervisor
Work challenge Peer relations
Possibility for development Pay
Responsibility Job security
Working conditions
Status

According to Herzberg, the motivators are the job factors that are intrinsically motivating the employees
that constitute the most enduring sources of motivation in the work environment. On the other hand,
the satisfiers are important factors because these create dissatisfaction, if not properly attended by
management.

DAVID MCCLELAND’S THEORY

Need Achievement Theory

This theory classifies people in relation to their dominant need for achievement, power or affiliation.

He believes that the basic needs to drive people are:

1. The need for achievement

2. The need for power
3. The need for affiliation
4. The need for competence

SKINNER OPERANT THEORY

Developed by Burrhaus Frederic Skinner

Skinner believed that the environment determines the individual behavior even if he alters the
environment. He argued that the workers can be motivated by properly creating the work environment
and providing rewards or stimulus for desirable worker’s performance. Moreover, it is the external
environment that influences the behavior people exhibit rather than their external needs, wants, and
desires.

Examples of reward/ positive reinforcers are:

1. Participation in decision-making
2. Important assignments
3. Appealing compensation
4. Other incentives and benefits

EXPECTANCY THEORY

The expectancy model implies that, through experience, people learn the kind of rewards
(outcomes) they value more highly than others. These outcomes may or may not be in the order of
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. It is observed that the basis of comparative analysis of what outcomes
they want (valence) and the possible connection between these outcomes and performance
(expectancy), workers develop a drive for action which we call motivation.

HAROLD LEAVITT

He makes a contribution to our understanding of human motivation when he classified human needs
into two, basic and acquired. The basic needs include food, shelter and rest while the acquired needs
are those beliefs and values which people lean by virtue of their membership in a social group and
consequently realized in their daily living. Examples of these ideas are fairness, social justice, equality
and patriotism. The significance of this theory is that it alerts our minds in understanding the importance
of an individual’s social and cultural background and therefore we understand better his perception and
motivations.
POWER IN ORGANIZATIONS:

1. Legitimate Power- power vested on a person by virtue of the authority he has in an organization
2. Expert Power
3. Referent Power
4. Reward Power
5. Punishment Power
6. Relationship Power

STYLES OD DIRECTING

1. Task Management
2. Country club management
3. Middle of the road management
4. Impooverished management
5. Team manager

CONTROLLING

Is a managerial function of measuring and correcting performance in order to make sure that
organizational objectives and plans were deliberately devised to be attained are being accomplished.

3 BASIC CONTROL PROCESS:

1. Establishing standards
2. Measuring performance against these standards
3. Remedies for deviation from standards and plans

COMMMUNICATION

Defined as the transfer of information from a sender to a receiver, with the information being
understood by the receiver.

Chester I. Barnard viewed communication as an essential means by which people are linked together to
an organization to achieve a common purpose.

The primary purpose of communication in an organization is to effect change. To initiate and influence
action for the welfare of the organization. Communication is very important for the internal and external
functioning of the organization because it integrates the managerial functions.

Communication is needed to:

1. Organize human and resources in the most efficient and effective way
2. Establish and disseminate the goals of the organization
3. Develop plans for their achievement
4. Select, develop and appraise members of the organization
5. Lead, direct, motivate and create a climate in which people want to contribute
6. Control Performance

FLOW OF COMMUNICATION IN THE ORGANIZATION

1. Downward communication
2. Upward communication
3. Crosswise communication

TYPE OF COMMUNICATION

1. Written communication
2. Oral communication
3. Non-verbal communication

COMMON PROBLEMS OF COMMUNICATION

 1. Lack of planning
2. Semantic Distortion
3. Poorly expressed message
4. Communication problem in the international environment
5. Loss by transmission and poor retention
6. Poor listening
7. Impersonal communication
8. Distrust, threat and fear
9. Inadequate time for adjustment to change
10. Information overload

BUDGETING

Classification of Budgets

1. Revenue and expense budgets- the most basic is the sales forecast. The sales budget is the
foundation of budgetary control.
2. Time, space, material and product budgets
3. Capital expenditure budgets
4. Cash budgets
5. Balance sheet budget

SOME RISKS IN BUDGETING

1. Overbudgeting
2. Overriding organization goals
3. Hiding inefficiencies
4. Causing inflexibility

FLEXIBLE BUDGETS- designed to provide maximum flexibility consistent with efficiency that
underlies good planning. The flexible budget is based on an analysis of expense items to determine
how individual costs should vary with volume of output.

The task of flexible budgeting involves selecting some unit of measure that reflects volume,
inspecting the different categories of cost, and by statistical studies, methods of engineering analysis
and other means and determining how these cost should vary with volume of output.

ALTERNATIVE BUDGETS- alternative budgets are simply modifications of flexible budgets

SUPPLEMENTARY BUDGETS

Normally, a six-month or one year budget is prepared for the purpose of outlining the company’s
plans, coordinating the various departments and formulating department objectives. This budget
gives every manager a chance to authorize the scheduling output and spending funds above the
basic budget.

ZERO-BASED BUDGETING

Is a budgeting in which each responsibility center calculates its resource needs based on the coming
year’s priorities rather than on the previous year’s budget. The responsibility in this type of
budgeting stresses that expenditures that cannot be justified for the coming year will receive fewer
resources or may be disbanded.

THE BUDGET PROCESS

1. Top-down Budgeting
2. Bottom-up Budgeting

MOTIVATION AND REWARD SYSTEM

Motivating employees is one of the most consistent challenges any manager faces. Motivation results
from a person’s attitudes reacting to a specific situation. It is the strength of the drive toward an action.

MOTIVATIONAL DRIVES

Motivational drives affect the way people view their jobs, and consequently, affect their lives. These
motivational drives reflect the various elements of the culture in which they were shaped—their family,
the school, the church, their work environment and to a certain extent, the books they read.

1. Achievement motivation- a drive to accomplish objectives and get ahead. He will work harder
when he perceives that he will receive personal credit for his efforts.
2. Affiliation motivation- a drive to relate to people effectively. It is observed that people with
affiliation motives work better when they are complimented for their favorable attitudes and
cooperation.

THE NEED-WANT-SATISFACTION CHAIN

Needs-give rise to wants-which cause tensions-which give rise to actions-which result in satisfaction

This explains that needs are not independent of a person’s environment. Many psychological needs are
stimulated by environmental factors.

THE CARROT AND STICK THEORY

This metaphor relates to the use of rewards and penalties in order to induce desired behavior. It merely
originated from the old story that, to make a donkey move one must have to put a carrot in front of it or
jab it with a stick from behind.

Most often, the carrot represents money and the stick represents fear. Fear of loss of job, loss of
income, reduction of bonus, demotion and some other penalty has been and will continue to be a strong
motivator.

DIRECTING MOTIVATION AND PRODUCTIVITY

4 different approaches:

1. Theory X- Theory Y concept as explained by Douglas McGregor

2. The managerial grid delivered by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton
3. The Tridimensional Grid by R. Blake and J. Mouton
4. The four systems of management

In managing people, to obtain maximum productivity, there are three general objectives:

1. To improve the performance of subordinates on their present job in terms of results

accomplished
2. To prepare subordinates to accept increasing responsibility in present jobs
3. To help subordinates grow and develop in terms of higher level jobs.

Thus, the key to productivity is JOB PERFORMANCE and the key to JOB PERFORMANCE is MOTIVATION.
This then, is the challenge which faces each manager, to motivate subordinates toward maximum
productivity.

MCGREGOR’S THEORY X AND THEORY Y ON THE ASSUMPTION ABOUT EMPLOYEES

THEORY X THEORY Y
 The typical person dislikes work and will  Work is as natural as play or rest
avoid it, if possible  People are not inherently lazy. They have
 The typical person lacks responsibility, has become that way as a result of experience
 little ambition and seeks security above all
 Most people must be coerced, controlled,
and threatened with punishment to get
them work
 With these assumptions, the managerial
role is to coerce and control workers.
THE HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY
 People will exercise self-direction and self-
control in the service of objectives to
which they are committed
 People have potential. Under proper
conditions, they learn to accept and seek
responsibility. They have imagination,
ingenuity, creativity that can be applied to
work
 With these assumptions, the managerial
role is to develop the potential in
employees and help them release that
potential toward common objectives.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

1. Physiological needs
2. Security or safety needs
3. Affiliation or acceptance needs
4. Esteem needs
5. Needs for self actualization

JOB ENRICHMENT

Job enrichment attempts to make a job more varied by removing the dullness and monotony associated
with repetitive operations. It simply means enlarging the scope of the job by adding similar tasks
without enhancing responsibility. The essence of the job enrichment is to build into jobs a higher sense
of responsibility and achievement. Jobs may be enriched by giving workers more freedom in deciding
about such things as work methods, sequence, pace or the acceptance or rejection of materials. Job
enrichment is also done by encouraging participation of subordinates and interaction of workers in the
decisions that concern their tasks, by giving workers feedback on their work performance and involving
them in the analysis and change of the physical aspects of work environment.

The weakness of job enrichment apply mainly to jobs requiring low skill level.

LEADERSHIP

A process of influencing people so that they will strive willingly and enthusiastically toward the
achievement of group goals. It does not mean only willingness to work but also willingness to work with
zeal and confidence.

Leadership and motivation are closely interrelated. By understanding motivation, one can appreciate
better what people want and why they act as they do.

Although leadership is highly related to and vital to management, leadership and management are not
similar.

One cans serve as an effective manager but lacks the skill of a leader or the opposite.

John P.Kottler pointed out that manager produces orderly results, leadership creates useful change.

Patricia D. Witherspoon- leadership is not headship, or holding a position of authority regardless of

abilities. Just because a person is appointed to a job or a position does not make him a leader.
Management is not necessarily leadership although some managers may be leaders.

David J. Cherrington- to manage means to direct, to bring about, to accomplish and to have
responsibility for. To lead however, is to inspire, to influence and to motivate.

W. Bennis and B. Nanus- managers are people who do things right; leaders are people who do the right
things.
Daniel Katz and Robert L. Kahn- it is the voluntary aspect of leadership that distinguishes it from other
influence processes, such as power and authority.

J. Stoner, R. Freeman and D. Gilbert Jr.- Some important implications of this definition are the following:

1. Leadership involves the most vital resources of an organization, the people.

2. Power distribution between leaders and group members is unequal.

3. Leadership involves the use of the different forms of power to influence the behavior of the followers

4. Leadership is about values

Cherrington- effective leaders inspire to pursue excellence, to extend themselves, and to go beyond
their perfunctory job requirements by generating creative ideas

ELEMENTS OF LEADERSHIP

1. Ability to use power effectively and in a responsible manner.

2. The ability to comprehend that human beings have different motivation forces at different times
and different situation
3. The ability to inspire
4. The ability to act in a manner that will develop a climate conducive to responding to and
arousing motivations

LEADERSHIP THEORIES

1. The Trait Theory

2. Environment Theory
3. Personal-Environment Theory
4. Exchange Theory
5. Humanistic Theory
6. Exceptional Theory
7. Contingency Theory
8. Path-Goal Theory

2 MAJOR STYLES OF LEADERSHIP:

1. Task-oriented leadership-gains satisfaction from seeing the task performed

2. People-oriented Leadership—the leader looks toward achieving good interpersonal relations by
way of attaining a position of personal prominence in the organization

LEADERSHIP STYLES BASED ON THE USE OF AUTHORITY

1. Autocratic Leader
2. Democratic or Participative Leader
3. Benevolent-Autocrat
4. Liberal Leader or Free-rein Leader

OTHER TYPES OF LEADERSHIP

1. Laissez-Faire- means to let people do as they choose. It allows everything to run at its own
course. The leader is a figure-head and concerns himself with only what he desires, or the title.
2. Manipulative-Inspirational-leader sets the rules and interprets as they see fit.

THREE TYPES OF POWER

1. Coercive Power
2. Utility Power
3. Principle-Centered Power
LIKERT’S FOUR SYSTEMS MANAGEMENT

1. System 2 Management- exploitive-authoritative. Its leaders are highly autocratic. Have little
trust in subordinates. Motivates people through fear and punishment and only occasional
rewards. Limits decision making in the top
2. System 2 Management- benevolent-authoritative. Leaders are patronizing confidence and trust
in subordinates. Motivate with reward and some fear and punishment.
3. System 3 Management- consultative. Leaders have substantial but not complete confidence and
trusts in subordinates. Allowing some specific decisions to be made at lower levels
4. System 4 Management- most participative of all and referred to it as participative group.

Ralph Stogdill

Categorized leader characteristics as being either

1. Personality Traits- integrity, assertiveness

2. Task-related characteristics- responsible having high needs for achievement, task orientation
3. Social characteristics- cooperative, active, possessing good interpersonal skills
Leadership skills must be exhibited not just possessed in order for leadership to be manifested.

CONTINGENCY APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP

1. Organizational culture and policies

2. Employees’ characteristics, expectations and behavior
3. Task requirements
4. Peers expectations and behavior