10.

Bond, Development length and Ductility

 Definition
 Development bond and flexural bond
 Lap splices and development length
 Definition of ductility and strength
 Ductility requirements of different RCC structural elements for earthquake resistance -
Dimensions and detailing
In reinforced concrete, steel is embedded in concrete in such a way that the two materials act
together. Steel provides additional strength to concrete structures, by taking up the tension,
while the concrete withstand the compression. The key to ensure that these two materials
work together is the stress transfer between them. The bond is the grip or the adhesion or
mechanical interlock and bearing in the deformed bars between the reinforcement and
concrete. It is the bond which is responsible for the transfer of axial forces from a reinforcing
bar to the surrounding concrete, thereby providing strain compatibility and composite action of
concrete and steel. If the bond is not enough ‘slipping’ of the reinforcing bars will occur,
destroying the full ‘composite action’.
Bond stress is defined as the shear force per unit of nominal surface area of reinforcing bars
acting; parallel to the bar on the interface between the bar and the surrounding concrete. A
basic requirement of reinforce concrete structure is that the steel and surrounding concrete act
together without any slip of bar relative to the surrounding concrete. For this the bars should
be anchored properly at the ends of beam so that the slippage of bars don’t occur while
carrying loads.
The major factors that influence the bond strength as follows:
 Casting method (pouring, shot concrete, sliding formwork method).
 Position of reinforcing bar during casting
 Level of compression and tension strength of concrete. Shrinkage gives rise to the
tensile stresses in concrete around the bars which may lead to cracking along the bars
thereby causing a reduction in bond resistance
 Admixtures and enhancing materials for concrete.
 Concrete cover and bar spacing.
 Development length, splicing, hooks and cross bars.
 Diameter and shape (rib pattern) of the reinforcing bars, (in case steel bars are used for
reinforcement).
 Adhesion between the concrete and the reinforcing bars.

Development bond and Flexural bond

The design bond stress τbd is defined as the shear force per unit nominal surface area of
reinforcing bar. The stress is acting on the interface between bars and surrounding concrete
and along the direction parallel to the bars.
This concept of design bond stress finally results in additional length of a bar of specified
diameter to be provided beyond a given critical section. Though, the overall bond failure may
be avoided by this provision of additional development length Ld, slippage of a bar may not
always result in overall failure of a beam. It is, thus, desirable to provide end anchorages also to
maintain the integrity of the structure and thereby, to enable it carrying the loads. Clause 26.2
of IS 456 stipulates, “The calculated tension or compression in any bar at any section shall be
developed on each side of the section by an appropriate development length or end anchorage
or by a combination thereof.”
Development bond \ Anchorage bond:
Anchorage bond stress is the bond developed near the extreme end (or cut off point) of a bar
subjected to tension (or compression). It is expressed as ‘the forces on a deformed reinforcing
steel bar divided by the product of the perimeter times the embedded length’.
Let us consider a uniformly loaded cantilever beam as shown in fig (a) below which has been
designed to resist the given factored bending moment and factored shear force. Let us assume
that reinforcement consists of single bar diameterΦ . The free body diagram of bar segment AB
is shown in fig. B. The tensile force at B is equal to
π 2
T= Φ 0.87 σy ....................................... (1)
4
It must be transmitted to concrete by bond stress in the embedment length Ld = AB. If τbd is
average bond stress acting over the surface area πφld,
π
Then, π ϕ Ld τbd= Φ 2 0.87 σy ................................ (2)
4
0.87 σyϕ
Or, Ld= ........................................ (3)
4 τbd

Fig (a) Anchorage bond in tension bars

The length Ld is called development length. Similar situation exist in the free body diagram of
segment BC. Thus, maximum tension force at B is developed or anchored through the distance
BA or BC. Design bond stresses for plain mild steel bars in tension are given in Table below:
Table (a) Design bond stress for MS bars
Concrete M20 M25 M30 M35 M40 and
above
Τbd N/mm2 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.9

The code requires that these τbd values may be increased by 60% for deformed steel bars in
tension. These values may b further increased by 25% for the bars in compression. For fusion
bonded epoxy coated deformed bars, the design bond stress values should be taken 80% of the
values given in Table (a). In case of bundled bars in contact, the development length is given by
that for the individual bars when increased by:
i. 10% for two bars in contact,
ii. 20% for three bars in contact and
iii. 33% for four bars in contact.
The reduction in development length of bundled bars with the increase in number of bars is
due to the reduced contact area between steel and concrete.
Development length for steel bars of different grades and different concretes are given in Table
(b).
Table (b) Development length for single bars
Σy Tension bars Compression bars
(N/mm2) M20 M25 M30 M35 M20 M25 M30 M35
250 46φ 39φ 36φ 32φ 37φ 31φ 29φ 25φ
415 47φ 40φ 38φ 33φ 38φ 32φ 30φ 26φ
500 58φ 49φ 45φ 40φ 46φ 39φ 36φ 32φ

Flexural Bond
Flexural bond is a function of rate of change of moment with respect to distance along span
that is shear.
At certain locations in a beam high bond stress may arise due to large variation of bending
moment over a short distance, that is, high shear force. These bond stresses are called flexural
bond stresses and must be checked at the face of a simple support and at the points of
inflection within continuous spans. At these locations, tensile capacity to be developed is
usually small but the rate of change of tensile stress in the bars is high.
Let us consider segment DE of the cantilever as shown in fig. A. The free body diagram of
segment DE is shown in the inset of the figure. Force of tension at D is greater than that at E. If
the distance between the centre of gravity of the force of compression and force of tension is z,
and the bending moment at D and E are MD and ME,
MD = tdz and ME = tez
TD - TE = π ϕ dx τbd
MD−ME
Or, =π ϕ τbd dx
z
dM
=π ϕ z τbd
dx
V
Τbd¿ ............................. (I)
πϕz

Fig. Flexural bond in tension bars

Equation (I) gives the flexural bond stress in the tension reinforcement at any section of the
beam. In case, there is a group of bars of mixed size, the largest flexural bond stress occurs at
the bar with the largest diameter. If there are N bars of equal size, above equation becomes:
V V
Τbd = = ................................ (II)
π ϕ z z(Σ O)
Where, ΣO=π ϕ N = Total perimeter of all bars in tension at the given section
Similarly, for a group of N bars with equal diameter, Equation (ii) for anchorage bond can be
written as:
0.87 σy At =τbd Ld ϕ N
¿ τbd Ld (Σ O)
0.87 σy At
Τbd= ............................ (III)
Ld (Σ o)
Equating τbd from Equations (II) and (III), yields:
0.87 σy At V
=
Ld ( ΣO ) z( Σ O)
0.87 σy At z
=Ld
V
Ml
Ld= ...................... (IV)
V
Where, Ml = moment of resistance with respect to tension steel alone at the section under
consideration
V = factored shear force at the same section
If the design bond stress τbd is not to be exceeded, the ratio Ml/V must be equal to or greater
than Ld. As an additional factor of safety, the anchorage length Lo has been added to the right
hand side of Eq. IV in the Code, that is:
Ml
Ld ≤ + Lo ............................. 1
V
Where, Ld = development length
Lo = sum of the anchorage beyound the centre of support and equivalent anchorage value of
any hook or mechanical anchorage at a simple support, and Lo is limited to the effective depth
the member or 12 φ whichever is greater at a point of inflection.
Clause 26.2.2.1 of the code gives the anchorage values of bend and hooks as follows:
i. The anchorage value of a bend should be taken as 4φ for each 45o bend subject to a
maximum of 16φ.
ii. The anchorage value of a standard U - type hook is equal to 16φ.
Standard 90o bend and U hook are shown in fig. Below minimum value of n for mild steel is 2
and for other steels is 4.

Fig. Standard bend and hook

Eq. 1 is the same as that given in clause 26.2.3.3(c) of the Code. The code further requires that
the value of Ml/v be increased by 30% when the ends of the reinforcement are confined by a
compressive reaction, such as at a simple support, that is,
Ml
Ld ≤ 1.3 + Lo................. 2
V
Lap splices and development length:
Development length is the length of the bar required to transfer stress from steel to concrete.
According to IS 456, the calculated tension or compression in any bar at any section shall be
developed on each side of the section by an appropriate development length or be end
anchorage or by a combination thereof.
Anchorage length is provided if sufficient development length cannot be able to provided inside
the support/fixed end. L value is generally considered as 8 times dia. For 90 degree bend while
6 times dia for 135 degree bend and 4 times dia. For a 180 degree bend. In almost all cases we
use 90 degree bend.
Reinforcement Splicing (cl. 26.2.5 of IS 456):
Reinforcement is needed to be joined to make it longer by overlapping sufficient length or by
welding to develop its full design bond stress. They should be away from the sections of
maximum stress and be staggered. IS 456 (cl. 26.2.5) recommends that splices in flexural
members should not be at sections where the bending moment is more than 50 per cent of the
moment of resistance and not more than half the bars shall be spliced at a section.
Lap Splices (cl. 26.2.5.1 of IS 456): Lap length is the length of the overlap of bar required to
safely transfer stress from one bar to another. Lap length is different in case of tension and
compression zones and mainly depends on the grade of concrete and steel. If two different dia.
Bars are to be lapped, lap length is based on smaller dia. The following are the salient points:
 They should be used for bar diameters up to 36 mm. Larger bars dia. Can be welded
together.
 They should be considered as staggered if the centre to centre distance of the splices is
at least 1.3 times the lap length calculated as mentioned below.
 The lap length including anchorage value of hooks for bars in flexural tension shall be L d
or 30 φ, whichever is greater. The same for direct tension shall be 2Ld or 30 φ,
whichever is greater.
 The straight length of the lap should not be less than 200mm or 15 φ.
 The lap length in compression shall be equal to Ld in compression but not less than 24 φ.
 The lap length shall be calculated on the basis of diameter of the smaller bar when bars
of two different diameters are to be spliced.
 Lap splices of bundled bars shall be made by splicing one bar at a time and all such
individual splices within a bundle shall be staggered.
Definition of ductility and strength
Ductility can be defined as the capacity of a structure or its members to undergo large inelastic
deformations beyond the initial yield deformation without losing much of its load carrying
capacity or without rupture before failure”. Ductility in concrete is defined as the appropriate
percentage of steel reinforcement present in it. Mild steel is an example of ductile material that
can be bent and twisted without rupture. A ductile material is one that can undergo large strain
while resisting loads. In case of reinforced concrete building, the term ductility implies the
ability to sustain significant inelastic deformation prior to collapse.
This term applies to the behavior of a construction when stresses passed the yield strength –
within the phase of plastic deformations. The deformations start to grow nonlinear in
proportion of stresses. On the contrary to the first phase – linear deformations (elastic) -
deformations of steel bars are non -reversible. The high ductility steel has better ability to
absorb the energy than low ductility steel. It can last much longer under the stresses higher
than yield strength with plastic deformation – on the contrary to low ductility steel, which is
more brittle and breaks suddenly, getting light elongations.

The following are the advantages of a reinforced concrete structure having sufficient ductility:

1) A ductile reinforced concrete structure may take care of overloading, load reversals,
impact and secondary stresses due to differential settlement of foundation.

2) A ductile reinforced concrete structure gives the occupant sufficient time to vacate the
structure by showing large deformation before its final collapse. Accordingly, the loss of
life is minimized with the provision of sufficient ductility.

3) Properly designed ductile joints are capable of resisting forces and deformations at the
yielding of steel reinforcement. Therefore, these sections can reach their respective
moment capacities, which is one of the assumptions in the design of reinforced concrete
structures by limit state method.
Strength can be defined as the capacity of an object or substance to withstand great force or
pressure. The ability of a structure to undergo large deformations without collapsing is
called ductility, and the detailing of the structure that enables the structure to have large
ductility is called ductile or ductility detailing.
Design for Ductility
The objectives of the ductile design of reinforced concrete members are to ensure both
strength and ductility for the designed structures or members. Strength of members can be
assured by proper design of the sections following limit state method as explained earlier.
However, for ensuring ductility, specific recommendations are to be followed as given in IS
13920:1993 regarding the materials, dimensions, minimum and maximum percentages of
reinforcement. Further, detailing of reinforcement plays an important role. Accordingly, some
of the major steps to be followed in the design are given below which will ensure sufficient
ductility in the design.
(i) General specification of materials
(a) The minimum grade of concrete shall be M 20 for all buildings, which are more than three
storeys in height (cl. 5.2 of IS 13920:1993).
(b) Steel reinforcing bars of grade Fe 415 or less shall be used. However, steel bars of grades Fe
500 and Fe 550 may be used if they are produced by thermo-mechanical treatment process
having elongation more than 14.5 per cent (cl. 5.3 of IS 13920:1993).
Version 2 CE IIT, Kharagpur
(ii) General guidelines in the design and detailing
(a) Simple and regular layout should be made avoiding any offsets of beams to columns or
offsets of columns from floor to floor. Changes of stiffness of columns should be gradual from
floor to floor. (b) In a reinforced concrete frame, beams and columns should be designed such
that the inelasticity is confined to beams only, while the columns should remain elastic. To
satisfy this requirement, the sum of the moment capacities of the columns at a beam-column
joint for the design axial loads should be greater than the sum of the moment capacities of the
beams along each principal plane. Therefore,
∑ Mcolumn 〉 1.2 ∑ Mbeams (16.22)
Version 2 CE IIT, Kharagpur
The moment capacities of beams and columns are such that the column moments oppose the
beam moments as shown in Fig. 16.40.7.
(c) The beams and columns should be designed taking into account the reversal of stresses due
to the nature of earthquake forces.
(d) Beam-column connections should be made monolithic.
(e) The following are the requirements of flexural members:
• The factored axial stress on the member due to earthquake loading shall not exceed 0.1 fck
(cl. 6.1.1 of IS 13920:1993).
• The width to depth ratio of the member shall preferably be more than 0.3 (cl. 6.1.2 of IS
13920:1993).
Version 2 CE IIT, Kharagpur
• The width of the member should not be less than 200 mm (cl. 6.1.3 of IS 13920:1993).
• The total depth D of the member shall preferably be not more than 1/4 of the clear span (cl.
6.1.4 of IS 13920:1993).
• The minimum percentage of tension steel on any face at any section is ck y f / f24, where fck
and fy are in N/mm2 (cl. 6.2.1b of IS 13920:1993).
• The maximum percentage of steel on any face at any section is 2.5 (cl. 6.2.2 of IS 13920:1993).
• The positive steel at a joint face must be at least equal to half the negative steel at that face
(cl. 6.2.3 of IS 13920:1993).
• The redistribution of moments shall be used only for vertical load moments and not for lateral
load moments (cl. 6.2.4 of IS 13920:1993).
Version 2 CE IIT, Kharagpur
• The anchorage length of top and bottom bars of the beam in an external joint shall be
measured beyond the inner face of the column and should be equal to development length in
tension plus 10 times the bar diameter minus the allowance for 90 degree bends (Fig. 16.40.8).
In an internal joint, both face bars of the beam shall be taken continuously through the column
(cl. 6.2.5 of IS 13920:1993).
• Longitudinal bars shall be spliced if hoops are provided over the entire splice length at a
spacing not exceeding 150 mm, as shown in Fig. 16.40.9. The lap length shall be at least equal
to the development length in tension. However, lap splices should not be provided (a) within a
joint, (b) within a distance of 2d from the face of the joint, and (c) within a quarter length of the
member where flexural yielding may generally occur under the effect of earthquake forces.
Moreover, at one section not more than 50 per cent of the bars should be spliced (cl. 6.2.6 of IS
13920:1993).
Ductility of Building Structures for Earthquake Resistant Design
Ductility for earthquake resistant design is important for buildings, structures and building
materials. Ductility and its importance in design is discussed. To understand the importance of
ductility in influencing the building performance, it is essential to know what is ductility.
Ductility in general gains a definition in material engineering science as the ratio of ultimate
strain to yield strain of the material. In a broader view, we must understand ductility as the
ability of a structure to undergo larger deformations without collapsing. As per special
provisions recommended in codes, the detailing of the structure that lets the structure to gain a
larger ductility other than the contributions of material ductility are called as ductility detailing
or ductile detailing. When a structure undergoes dynamic forces (which is considered as the
seismic demand) the structure could not remain elastic anymore, and the next stage is damage.
It can go through plastic stage or fracture or damage, where stiffness will decrease appreciably
and deformations will be drastically increasing even for a small load. These situations must be
expected by an engineer and we should ensure that our design sustains these loads without
undergoing larger deformations or no collapse. For this target to be achieved, we should
incorporate or increase the ductility of the building.
Unit 8: Design of reinforced concrete structures
The object of reinforced concrete design is to achieve a structure that will result in a safe and
economical solution. For a given structural system, the design problem consists of the following
steps:
1. Idealization of structure for analysis,
2. Estimation of loads,
3. Analysis of idealized structural model to determine axial thrust, shears, bending moments,
and deflections
4. Design of structural elements
5. Material specifications and detailing of reinforcement
6. Detailed structural drawings and schedule of reinforcing bars.

There are four philosophies for the design of reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete as well
as steel structures:
1. Working stress design,
2. Ultimate load design,
3. Limit state design, and
4. Performance based design.

The working stress method was the principal method prevalent in use from the early 1900's
until the early 1960's. Later on, the ultimate load method came in use because of its more
rational approach. From the early 1970's, there has been a transition to the limit state method
because of its still more rational approach which has overcome one of the most serious
drawbacks of the ultimate load method. IS: 456-2000 Code for the design of reinforced
concrete structures and IS: 1343-1980 code for the design of prestressed concrete are based on
the limit state design philosophy. The working stress method is fast disappearing from practice.
The elastic concept is mainly used for computation of deflections which are of interest under
working loads rather than at ultimate loads. Clause 18.2.2 of IS: 456-2000 requires that the
working Stress method may be used only if it is not possible to adopt the limit state design
method.

Working Stress design:

This method assumed that concrete is elastic, steel and concrete act together elastically, and
the relationship between loads and stresses is linear right up to the collapse of the structure.
The basis of the method is that, the permissible stress for concrete and steel are not exceeded
anywhere in the structure when it is subjected to the worst combination of working loads. The
sections are designed in accordance with the elastic theory of bending assuming that both
materials obey the Hooke's law.
The elastic theory assumes a linear variation of strain and stress from zero at the neutral axis to
a maximum at the extreme fiber. Typical stress and strain distributions in a rectangular section
are shown in Fig. 3.1

Where
At = Areaof tensile steel
b=width of section
C=Total force of compression
D=Depth of section
d= Effective depthof the section
Jd=Liver arm ,
Nd=Depth of neutral axis
T =Total force of tension
σ cb=Permessible compressive stress∈concrete
σ st =Permessible tensile stress∈steel
ε c =Compresssive strain ∈concrete
ε st =Tensile strain∈steel

Assumptions of working stress method:

The working stress method is based on the following assumptions:

1. A section which is plane before bending remains plane after bending:
2. Bond between steel and concrete is perfect within the elastic limit of steel.
3. The tensile strength of concrete is ignored.
4. Concrete is elastic, that is, the stress in concrete varies linearly from zero at the neutral axis
to a maximum at the extreme fiber.
280
5. The modular ratio m has the value Where σ cb Is the permissible compressive stress in
3 σ cb
bending in N /m m2 .

PERMISSIBLE STRESSES:
The working stress method is based upon the concept of permissible stresses. Permissible
stresses are obtained by dividing the ultimate strength of concrete or yield strength of steel
(0.2% proof stress) by appropriate factors of safety. The factors of safety used in working stress
method are:
1. For concrete
a. In bending compression – 3.0
b. In direct compression – 4.0
2. For steel – 1.78

There are greater chances of variation of strength of concrete due to improper compaction,
inadequate curing and variation in the properties of concrete. The chances of variation in the
properties of steel are less as it is fabricated in factories where good workmanship and better-
quality control is possible. So, lesser value of factor of safety is used for steel as compared to
concrete.

Factor of safety
The factor of Safety is the ratio of the yield stress of the steel reinforcement or the concrete
cube strength to the corresponding permissible or working stress.

The main drawbacks of the working stress method are as follows

1. Concrete is not elastic. The inelastic behavior of concrete starts right from very low stresses.
The actual stress distribution in a concrete section cannot be described by a triangular
stress diagram.
2. Since factor of safety is on the stresses under working loads, there is no way to account for
different degrees of uncertainty associated with different types of loads. With elastic theory
it is impossible to determine the actual factor of safety with respect to loads.
3. It is difficult to account for shrinkage and creep effects by using the working stress method.

Limit state method:

What are limit states?

Limit states are the acceptable limits for the safety and serviceability requirements of the
structure before failure occurs. The design of structures by this method will thus ensure that
they will not reach limit states and will not become unfit for the use for which they are
intended. It is worth mentioning that structures will not just fail or collapse by violating
(exceeding) the limit states. Failure, therefore, implies that clearly defined limit states of
structural usefulness has been exceeded.

Limit state of collapse was found / detailed in several countries in continent fifty years ago. In
1960 Soviet Code recognized three limit states: (i) deformation, (ii) cracking and (iii) collapse.

How many limit states are there?

There are two main limit states:

1. Limit state of collapse and
2. Limit state of serviceability

1. Limit state of collapse:

The limit states that concern with the safety of people and safety of the structure arc classified
as limit states of collapse or ultimate limit states.

It deals with the strength and stability of structures subjected to the maximum design loads out
of the possible combinations of several types of loads. Therefore, this limit state ensures that
neither any part nor the whole structure should collapse or become unstable under any
combination of expected overloads.
These limit states correspond to the maximum load carrying capacity. Violation of collapse limit
state implies failure in the sense that a clearly defined limit state of structural usefulness has
been exceeded. However, it does not mean a complete collapse
This ultimate limit state may correspond to
a. Flexure,
 b. Compression,
c. Shear, and
d. Torsion.

2. Limit state of serviceability:

The Limit states that concern with the functioning of the structure or structural members under
normal use, or comfort of people or appearance of the construction works shall be classified as
serviceability limit states.
It deals with deflection and cracking of structures under service loads, durability under working
environment during their anticipated exposure conditions during service, stability of structures
as a whole, fire resistance etc.
The verification of serviceability limit states should be based on criteria concerning the
following aspects
a. Deformations that affect
 The appearance,
 The comfort of users, or
 The functioning of the structure (including the functioning of machines services), or that
cause damage to finish or non-structural members;
b. Vibrations
 That cause discomfort to people, or
 That limit the functional effectiveness of the structure;
c. Damage that is likely to adversely affect
 The appearance
 The durability, or
 The functioning of the structure 

All relevant limit states have to be considered in the design to ensure adequate degree of safety
and serviceability. The structure shall be designed on the basis of the most critical limit state
and shall be checked for other limit states.

Assumptions
The design of reinforced concrete section for limit state of collapse in bending based on the
following assumptions:
1. Plane sections normal to the axis remain plane after bending
2. The maximum strain in concrete at the outermost compression fiber is taken 0.35% in
bending regardless of the strength of the concrete,
3. The relationship between stress-strain distribution in concrete is assumed to be parabolic as
0.67 σ ck
shown in Fig. The maximum compressive stress is equal to ∨0.446 σ ck
1.5

4. The tensile strength of concrete is ignored

5. The stress in reinforcement is derived from the representative stress-strain curve for the
type of steel used as shown in Figs. 4.12 and 4.13,
6. And the maximum strain in tension reinforcement in the section at failure should not be
less than the following:
σy
ϵs≥ + 0.002
1.15 E s
Where,
σ y =Characteristic strength of steel
E S=Modulus of elasticity of steel
ϵ s=Strain∈steel at failure

Stress and strain distributions

Strain Distribution:
The assumption of the limit state theory gives a linear strain distribution across the cross
section as shown in figure.
It varies as zero at the neutral axis and maximum at the extreme fibers.

The various silent points of the strain diagram are:

 Strain at neutral axis = 0
 Maximum or ultimate strain in concrete at extreme fiber= 0.0035
 Strain at constant stress of 0.67 Ƒ ck  = 0.002
 Ultimate strain in steel corresponding to maximum stress at failure,
0.87 σ y
¿ + 0.002
Es

Stress distribution
The stress diagram is shown in figure

It has a parabolic shape from A to B and then linear from B to C above the neutral axis.
The various salient points of the stress diagram are:
 Stress at neutral axis (Point. A) = 0
 Stress at 0.002 strain (Point. B) = 0.446 f ck
 Stress at extreme fiber (Point. C) = 0.446 f ck
 Below the neutral axis, the concrete is assumed to be cracked and maximum stress in steel
¿ 0.87 f y
 

Moment of resistance:

Consider a simply supported beam subjected to bending under factored loads. For equilibrium,
total force of compression must be equal to total force of tension. The applied bending
moment at collapse, that is, factored bending moment is equal to the resisting moment on the
section provided by the internal stresses. This is called the ultimate moment of resistance.
Since plane sections are assumed to remain plane before and after bending, a neutral axis exists
above which the entire cross-section is in compression and strain is proportional to distance
from the neutral axis. Below the neutral axis, the cross section is in tension and therefore, the
concrete is assumed to have cracked. The depth from the extreme compression fiber to the
centroid of tensile forces is called the effective depth d.

Maximum compressive stress in concrete without partial safety factor

¿ 0.67 σ ck
The depth of the parabolic portion of the stress block can be obtained from the strain diagram,
that is
0.0020 x 4 x
X1= =
0.0035 7
Similarly, depth of the rectangular portion of the stress block is
0.0035−0.0020 3x
X2= × x=
0.0035 7

Force of compression in the parabolic stress block

2 2 4x
3 3( )
C 1= ( x 1 × 0.446 σ ck ) × b= ×
7
× 0.446 σ ck ×b=0.1699 σ ck bx .

Force of compression in the rectangular stress block

 3x
C 2=x 2 × 0.446 σ ck ×b= × 0.446 σ ck × b=0.1911 σ ck bx
7

Total force in compression in concrete

C=C 1+C 2=0.1699 σ ck bx+0.1911 σ ck bx=0.361 σ ck bx

Let a be the distance of the line of action of force of compression from the extreme top fiber,
then
3 x
( )
C × a=C 1 x 1 + x 2 +C 2 × 2
8 2

0.361 σ ck bx ×a=0.1699 σ ck bx × ( 38 × 47x + 37x )+0.1911 σ ck bx ×

3x
7 ×2

a=0.42 x
Where,
x=Depth of neutral axis¿ the compression fiber
b=Width of the section
d= Effective depthof the section

The depth of neutral axis can be obtained by considering the equilibrium of the normal forces,
that is,
Resultant force of compression=average stress ×area

¿ 0.36 σ ck bx
Resultant force of tension,
¿ 0.87 σ y At
Force of compression should be equal to force of tension,

0.36 σ ck bx=0.87 σ y At
0.87 σ y A t
¿ , x=
0.36 σ ck b
Where, At = Areaof tension steel

For equilibrium of a section ∑ H=0 ,∑ V =0∧∑ M =0.By equating the normal forces, ∑ H=0is
satisfied.∑ V =0 is satisfied by considering the shear equilibrium. The forces of compression
and tension form a couple. The distance between the lines of action of these two forces is
called the lever arm and is denoted by z. Thus, ∑ M =0 is satisfied by equating the factored
bending moment to the moment of resistance, that is

Lever arm z=d −0.42 x

 0.87 σ y A t
z=d −0.42 ( 0.36 σ ck b )
σ y At
z=d −
σ ck b

Moment of resistance with respect to concrete =compressive force × lever arm

¿ 0.36 σ ck b x z
Moment of resistance with respect to steel
¿ 0.87 σ y At z
Singly and doubly reinforced section:

Singly reinforced section:

Since flexural strength of plain concrete is only about 15% of its compressive strength. To
overcome this effect steel is placed in tension zone.
In singly reinforced simply supported beams or slabs reinforcing steel bars are placed near the
bottom of the beam or slabs where they are most effective in resisting the tensile stresses
In singly reinforced cantilever beams or slabs reinforcing bars are placed near the top as shown
in Fig. Below
Doubly reinforced beam
In beams moment of resistance of a beam can be increased by increasing the tensile steel but
increment in moment of resistance is not proportionate as increase in tension steel. To
overcome this difficulties beam is reinforced in tension as well as compression zone, which is
known as doubly reinforced concrete section.

A doubly reinforced concrete section is reinforced in both compression and tension regions.
The section of the beam or slab may be a rectangle, T and L section. The necessity of using steel
in the compression region arises when depth of the section is restricted due to functional or
aesthetic requirements. The strength available from a singly reinforced section is inadequate to
resist the factored bending moment. Therefore, additional steel is required in the compression
region.

Doubly reinforced section is provided under following conditions:

 When the breadth and depth of the beam is restricted & to resist greater bending moment
as compared to singly reinforced section.
 When the beam is continuous over several supports.
 When the member is subjected to eccentric loading.
 When the beam is subjected to reversal loading.
 When the beam is subjected to impact loading.

Balanced sections
A balanced section is that in which stress in concrete and steel reach their permissible value at
the same time. This means that stress diagram is as shown in figure. The percentage of steel
corresponding to this section is called as balanced steel and the neutral axis is called as critical
neutral axis x c

Under reinforced section

In an under reinforced section, the percentage of steel provided is less than that provided in
balanced section. So, the actual neutral axis will shift upwards i.e., x c > xas shown in Fig. In
under reinforced section, the stress in steel first reaches it permissible value, while the concrete
is under stressed.
The various features of under reinforced section are as follows:
1. Steel is fully stressed while concrete not (i.e., stress in steel is σ st (permissible) but stress in
concrete is less than σ cb.
2. The actual neutral axis lies above the critical neutral axis ( x < x c ).
3. The percentage of steel is less than the balanced section hence the section is economical.
4. Ductile failure.
5. The moment of resistance is less than balanced section.
In under reinforced section, the failure is ductile because steel fails first and sufficient warning
is given before collapse. Due to ductile failure and economy, the under-reinforced sections are
preferred by designers.

Over reinforced section

In an over reinforced section the percentage of steel provided is greater than the balanced
section. So, the actual neutral axis shifts downward i.e., x > x c.  In this section, stress in concrete
reaches its permissible value while steel is not fully stressed. Concrete is brittle and it fails by
crushing suddenly. As steel is not fully utilized, the over reinforced section is uneconomical
(steel is much costlier than concrete). The various features of over reinforced s section are:
1. Concrete is fully stressed while steel is not (i.e., the stress in concrete is at its permissible
value σ cb But stress in steel is less than σ st.
2. The actual neutral axis is below the critical neutral axis i.e., x > x c.
3. The percentage of steel is more than the balanced section, so the section is uneconomical.
4. Sudden failure.

Shear failure of RC beams; limit state design of shear reinforcement

Cl.40, p-72, IS: 456-2000

R.C. Members are normally designed for the limit state of collapse in flexure rather than in
shear. Shear failure, which in reality, occurs under the combined action of shearing forces
& bending moments is characterized by very small deflection and lack of ductility.
This failure is many times sudden and without any warning. For this reason, the shear
failure is considered very undesirable and is usually avoided. The code provisions for
shear are, therefore more conservative as compared to bending. Bending is usually
accompanied by bending shear. Shear stress thus produced is accompanied by diagonal
tension and compression. As concrete is weak in tension, large diagonal tension stresses can
produce cracking and even failure of the concrete members. Hence, beam should always be
 checked for safety against shear failure in physical terms against diagonal tension and
compression failures. If the shear stress is large, steel in the form of vertical stirrups
or bent up bars should be provided to take up the tensile stresses.

Shear Reinforcement is reinforcement which is designed to resist shear or diagonal tension

stresses. Shear reinforcement is usually provided in the form of stirrups to hold the
longitudinal reinforcement and also to take the shear to which the structure is subjected to.

Reinforcement detailing of a beam – cross section and longitudinal sections

Beam carries transverse external loads that cause bending moment, shear forces and in some
cases torsion. Concrete is strong in compression and very weak in tension. Steel reinforcement
is used to take up tensile stresses in reinforced concrete beams. Mild steel bars or Deformed or
High yield strength deformed bars (HYSD) are used. HYSD bars have ribs on the surface and this
increases the bond strength at least by 40%. Reinforcement is provided to resist tensile stresses
due to bending and shear in beams for singly reinforced sections. But when depth of section is
restricted due to reasons such as architectural reasons, or basement floors, the beam section is
designed as doubly reinforced to resist tensile as well as compressive stresses and is provided
with reinforcement in compression face. Beams when subjected to torsion are provided
additional longitudinal and shear reinforcement to resist bending and shear stresses developed
due to torsion. In practice, for singly reinforced beams, two additional bars are provided in
compression face of the beam so that stirrups can be tied with bars. This additional
reinforcement is of nominal diameter of 8mm or 10mm. When the width of beam is insufficient
for number of bars to be provided, keeping minimum clear distance bars based on maximum
size of aggregate as per standard code guidelines, the reinforcement can be provided in layers
in both tension and compression face of the beam. This reinforcement is provided as straight
bars in both zones. Usually, a beam contains the following steel reinforcements:-
 Longitudinal reinforcement at tension and compression face.
 Shear reinforcements in vertical stirrups type or bent up longitudinal bars are placed.
  Side face reinforcement in the web of the beam is arranged if the depth of the web in a
beam surpasses 750 mm. (0.1% of the web area and shall be allotted equivalently on
two faces at a gapping not surpassing 300 mm or density of web whichever is fewer.

The cover in beams should be minimum 25 mm or not under the larger diameter of bar for all
steel reinforcement along with links. Nominal cover mentioned in Table 16 and 16A of IS456-
2000 should be applied to fulfill the criteria of longevity. The specification for detailing of
reinforcement in beams is given in cl.26.5.1 of IS 456 – 2000.
Curtailment of Reinforcement in Beams:
Reinforcements are curtailed along its length in beams depending on the bending moment at
the section. Anchorage or development length required at support is provided during
curtailment of reinforcement. The anchorage length required for main reinforcement in tension
and compression is given in cl.26.2 of IS 456 – 2000.
Typical details of curtailment of reinforcement in cantilever and continuous beams are shown in
figure below:

Fig: Typical Details of Reinforcement curtailment in beams

Details of anchorage length required for main reinforcement in tension and compression is
shown below:

Fig: Typical Details of anchorage length of reinforcement in beams

LIMIT STATE OF COLLAPSE: SHEAR

Nominal Shear Stress

The nominal shear stress τ v In beams of uniform depth is determined from the following
expression
Vu
τ v=
bd
Where,
V u=Shear force due ¿ design load .
b=Width of beam
d= Effective depth
.
Design Shear Strength of Concrete
The design shear strength τ cOf concrete in beams without shear reinforcement given in table
below.
Under no circumstances, even with shear reinforcement, shall the nominal shear in beams τ v ,
exceed τ cmaxGiven in table below.

Minimum Shear reinforcement:

When τ v Is less than τ c Given in table 6.1 minimum shear reinforcement in the form of stirrups
shall be provided such that

A sv 0.4
= … … … … … … … .(i)
b s v 0.87 f y
Where
A sv=Total cross−sectional area of stirrup legs effective∈ shear .
sv =Stirrup spacing along the length of the member
b=Breadthof beam
f y =¿ Characteristic strength of the stirrup reinforcement in N /m m2 Which shall not be
Taken greater than 415 N /m m2 .

The above provision is not applicable for members of minor structural importance such as
lintels where the maximum shear stress calculated is less than half the permissible value.

The minimum shear reinforcement is provided for the following:

1. Any sudden failure of beams is prevented if concrete cover bursts and the bond to the
tension steel is lost.

2. Brittle shear failure is arrested which would have occurred without shear reinforcement.

3. Tension failure is prevented which would have occurred due to shrinkage, thermal stresses
and internal cracking in beams.

4. To hold the reinforcement in place when concrete is poured.

5. Section becomes effective with the tie effect of the compression steel.

The maximum spacing of shear reinforcement measured along the axis of the member shall not
be more than 0.75 d for vertical stirrups and d for inclined stirrups at 45 0, where d is the
effective depth of the section. However, the spacing shall not exceed 300 mm in any case.

Design of Shear Reinforcement

Whenτ v Is more than τ c Given in Table 6.1, shear reinforcement shall be provided in any of the
three following forms:

a. Vertical stirrups,
b. Bent-up bars along with stirrups, and
c. Inclined stirrups.

In the case of bent-up bars, it is to be seen that the contribution towards shear resistance of
bent-up bars should not be more than fifty per cent of that of the total shear reinforcement.
The amount of shear reinforcement to be provided is determined to carry a shear force V us
Equal to
V us =V u – τ c b d

The strengths of shear reinforcement V us For the three types of shear reinforcement are as
follows:

a. Vertical stirrups:
 0.87 f y A sv d
V su =
sv
b. For inclined stirrups
0.87 f y A sv d
V us = ¿
sv
c. For single bar or single group of parallel bars, all bent-up at the same cross-section:

V us =0.87 f y A sv sin α

Where, α =¿ Angle between the inclined stirrups or bent up bar and the axis of the member,
not less than 45 o.

Note:

1. The total shear resistance shall be computed as the sum of the resistance for the various
types separately where more than one type of shear reinforcement is used.

2. The area of stirrups shall not be less than the minimum specified in equation (i)

3. The maximum spacing of shear reinforcement measured along the axis of the member shall
not exceed 0.75 d for vertical stirrups and d for inclined stirrups at 45 o . Where d is the
effectivr depth of the section. In no case shall the spacing exceed 300 mm

Example 1: A reinforced concrete beam 250 mmwide and 400 mmeffective depth is subjected
to an ultimate design shear force of 150 KNat the critical section near supports. The tensile
reinforcement at the section near the support is 0.5 percent. Design the shear stirrups near
the supports. Also design the minimum shear reinforcement at the mid span. Assume
concrete of grade M 20 and mild steel bars of Fe 250 grade.

Solution:
Given:
mm∧A s
b=250 mm , d=400 =0.5 %=0.005
bd
V u 150 ×103 2
τ v= = =1.5 N /mm
bd 250 × 400

From table 6.1 above, τ c =0.48 N /mm 2 For M 20concrete and 100. A st /bd=0.5

Also, from table 6.2above τ cmax =2.8 N /mm 2 For M 20 concrete.

Thus, τ v Is less than τ cmax , but greater than τ c. Hence shear reinforcement is necessary.
V us =V u −τ c bd=150000−0.48× 250× 400=102000 N
The shear resistance of nominal stirrups is given by,

V us ,min=0.4 bd =0.4 ×250 × 400=40000 N <V us

Hence nominal stirrups are not sufficient at the section near supports.

From equation,
0.87 f y . A sv . d
Sv =
V us
π
Using two legged stirrups of 10 mm dia. Bars, A sv=2× ×10 2=157.08 mm 2
4

Maximum spacing = 0.75 d∨300 mm , which everis less .

Hence provide 10 mmdia. Two legged stirrups @ 130 mm c /cat the section near supports.

At the mid-span, the spacing of the minimum shear reinforcement for 10 mmdia. -2 legged
stirrups are given by.

0.87 f y A sv 0.87 × 250× 157.08

Sv = = =341.6 mm
0.4 b 0.4 × 250

However, maximum spacing is limited to 0.75 dor 300 mmwhich ever is less
Hence, Sv =300 mm .

Hence provide 8 mmdia. Two legged stirrups @ 300 mm c /c at the mid span.

Nominal cover:
Reinforcing bar must be surrounded by concrete for the following reasons:
1. To develop the desired strength of a bar by ensuring proper bond between concrete and
steel throughout its perimeter, and
2. To provide protection against corrosion and fire.

Nominal cover is the design thickness of concrete cover to all steel reinforcement including
shear stirrups or column ties.

The nominal cover is now based on durability requirements as shown in Table 9.1 and Fig. 9.1.
However, the following four points must be
kept in view

1. In slabs having main reinforcement up to 12 mm diameter bars, for mild exposure, the
nominal cover may be reduced to 20 mm instead of 25 mm.
2. For a longitudinal reinforcing bar in a column, the nominal cover must not be less than 40
mm, nor less than the diameter of such bar. Such a large cover is required so as to prevent
buckling of the main longitudinal bars under compression.
3. For footings minimum cover shall be 50 mm.
4. In case of columns of minimum dimensions of 200 mm or under, whose reinforcing bars do
not exceed 12 mm a cover of 25 mm may be used.

Spacing of reinforcement:
Minimum distance between bars
The horizontal distance as shown in Fig. 9.2 between two parallel main reinforcing bars should
not be less than the greatest of the following:
i. The diameter of the bar if the diameters are equal,
ii. The diameter of the larger bar if the diameters are unequal, and
iii. 5 mm more than nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate.
The vertical distance as shown in Fig. 9.2 between two parallel main reinforcing bars should not
be less than the greatest of the following:
i. 15 mm
ii. The diameter of the larger bar if the diameters are unequal, and
iii. Two-thirds the nominal maximum size of the coarse aggregate.

Maximum distance between bars in tension

The maximum distance between bars is restricted in order to control cracking of concrete which
depends on the stress in the reinforcing bars and the distance between bars. In normal
environments, the crack widths should not exceed 0.3 mm This value decreases for aggressive
environments.
The horizontal distance between parallel reinforcement bars, or groups, near the tension face
of a beam should not exceed the values given in Table 9.2. These values depend on the amount
of redistribution of moment carried out in the analysis and the characteristic strength of the
reinforcement

Reinforcement requirements of a beam

a. Minimum tension reinforcement:
The minimum area of tension reinforcement( A o )Should not be less than that given by Eq.
A o 0.85
=
bd σy
b. Maximum reinforcement:
The maximum reinforcement in tension or compression should not exceed 0.04 bD, where, D
overall depth of section.
c. Side face reinforcement:
If depth of the web in a beam exceeds 750 mm, side face reinforcement should be provided
along the two faces. The total area of such reinforcement should not be less than 0.1 % of the
web area. It should be equally distributed on each of the two faces. The spacing of such
reinforcement should not exceed 300 mm or web thickness whichever is less
d. Spacing of shear reinforcement:
From the truss analogy it can be seen that a spacing less than the effective depth would be
required if each failure plane is to be crossed by at least one stirrup. Therefore, for vertical
shear stirrups, maximum spacing measured along the axis of the member is restricted to 0.75 d.
For inclined shear bars, maximum spacing measured along the axis of the member

e. Minimum shear reinforcement:

Even if calculations show that a beam has sufficient shear strength and shear stirrups are not
required, a small quantity of shear stirrups is still provided. The reason is that tensile forces may
be induced into a beam through shrinkage or some restraint which will reduce the shear
strength of concrete in the compression zone. Shear failures in concrete beams without
secondary reinforcement are essentially brittle which should be avoided. The spacing of
minimum shear reinforcement is computed using Eq.

0.87 σ y A sv
Sv =
0.4 b

Numerical by Working Stress method:

A doubly reinforced concrete beam 250mm wide and 600mm deep overall has to resist an
external bending moment of 95kn-m. Find the amount of tensile and compressive steel
required, if cover to the center of steel on both sides is 50mm. Σ cbc = 5 N/mm2, σst = 140 N/mm2,
m = 18.66

Given that:

Breadth of the beam = b = 250mm

Effective depth of the beam = d = 600 – 50 = 550mm

Distance of compressive steel from the top edge of the beam to the centre of the steel = d’ =
50mm

Permissible stress in concrete = σcbc = 5 N/mm2

Permissible stress in steel = σst = 140 N/mm2

Modular ratio = m = 18.66

Bending moment = M = 95 kn-m

Step 1:

To find xc

Σcbc/ (σst/m) = xc/(d – xc)

5/(140/18.66) = xc/(550 – xc)

Xc = 219.95 =  220mm

Step 2:

Find Ast by:

C=T

B xc σcbc  /2 = σst.Ast1

250 x 220×5/2 = 140 x Ast1

Ast1 = 982mm2

Step 3:

Find the Mr of singly reinforced balanced beam

Mr = b xc σcbc  /2[d – (xc/3)]

= 250 x 200 x 5/2 x [550 – (220/3)]

= 65541667 N-mm

= 65.54 kn-m

Step 4:

Find the remaining bending moment ‘M1’

M1 = M – Mr = 95 – 65.54 = 29.46kn-m = 29.46 x 106 N-mm

Step 5:

Find Ast2 for M1

M1 = T x lever arm

= Ast2. Σst  x (d – d’)

= M1 / σst  x (d – d’)

= 420.85 = 421 mm2

Step 6:

Ast = Ast1 + Ast2

= 982 + 421 = 1403 mm2

Step 7:

Find Asc

Equating moments of equivalent area of tensile and compressive steel about Neutral axis(N.A)

Mast (d – xc) = (1.5m – 1) Asc (xc – d’)

Asc = mast (d – xc)/ (1.5m – 1)(xc – d’)

18.66 x 421 x (550 – 220) = (1.5 x 18.66 – 1)Asc (220 – 50)

Asc  = 565 mm2

Unit 9: Design of different RC structural elements using Limit State Method

Limit state design (LSD) refers to a design method used in structural engineering. A limit
state is a condition of a structure beyond which it no longer fulfills the relevant design criteria.
The method of limit state design, developed in the USSR and based on research led by
Professor N.S. Streletski, was introduced in USSR building regulations in 1955.
9.1 Design and drawing of singly and doubly reinforced simple beams
Assumptions:
The design of reinforced concrete section for limit state of collapse in bending is based on
following assumptions:

1. Plane sections normal to the axis remain plane after bending.

2. The maximum strain in concrete at the outermost compression fiber is 0.0035 in bending.
3. Tensile strength of concrete is ignored.
4. Maximum strain in the tension reinforcement in the section at failure shall not be less.
5. There is a perfect bond between steel and concrete.
6. The stresses in the reinforcement are derived from stress strain curve for the type of steel
used.

SINGLY REINFORCED BEAM:

The beam that is longitudinally reinforced only in tension zone, it is known as singly reinforced
beam. In Such beams, the ultimate bending moment and the tension due to bending are carried
by the reinforcement, while the compression is carried by the concrete.
In design of singly reinforced beam we follow two steps:

a. Analysis of a section
b. Design of section

In singly reinforced simply supported beams or slabs reinforcing steel bars are placed near the
bottom of the beam or slabs where they are most effective in resisting the tensile stresses.  
 
 

xm = Depth of Neutral axis 

b = breadth of section 
d = effective depth of section 
The depth of neutral axis can be obtained by considering the equilibrium of the normal forces ,
that is, 
Resultant force of compression(C) = average stress X area = 0.36fck× b×xm
Resultant force of tension(T) = 0.87×fy×At 
Force of compression should be equal to force of tension, C=T
or, 0.36fck× b×xm = 0.87×fy×At 

The distance between the lines of action of two forces C & T is called the lever arm and is
denoted by z. 
Lever arm z = d – 0.42 xm 
Moment of resistance with respect to concrete = compressive force x lever arm = 0.36 fck ×b x z 
Moment of resistance with respect to steel = tensile force x lever arm = 0.87 fy ×At ×z 

Maximum depth of neutral axis 

Maximum depth of neutral axis is limited to ensure that tensile steel will reach its yield stress
before concrete fails in compression, thus a brittle failure is avoided. The limiting values of the
depth of neutral axis xm for different grades of steel from strain diagram.

                             

      

Limiting value of tension steel and moment of resistance

Since, the maximum depth of neutral axis is limited, the maximum value of moment of
resistance is also limited.
Mlim with respect to concrete = 0.36 fck b x z = 0.36 fck ×b× xm ×(d – 0.42 xm)
Mlim with respect to steel = 0.87 fy At (d – 0.42 xm)
Limiting moment of resistance values, Nmm

Design of a section 
Q. Design a rectangular beam to resist a bending moment equal to 45 knm using (i) M15 mix
and mild steel. 
The beam will be designed so that under the applied moment both materials reach their
maximum stresses. Assume ratio of overall depth to breadth of the beam equal to 2. 
Breadth of the beam = b 
Overall depth of beam = D 
therefore, D/b = 2 
For a balanced design, 
Factored BM = moment of resistance with respect to concrete = moment of resistance with
respect to steel = load factor X B.M 
= 1.5 X 45 
= 67.5 knm 

For balanced section, 

Moment of resistance Mu = 0.36 fck b xm(d - 0.42 xm)  
Grade for mild steel is Fe250 (According to the table given above)
For Fe250 steel, 
xm = 0.53d 
Mu = 0.36 fck b (0.53 d) (1 – 0.42 X 0.53) d 
= 2.22bd 
Since D/b =2 or, d/b = 2 or, b=d/2 
Mu = 1.11 d 
Mu = 67.5 X 10 Nmm 

D=394 mm and b= 200mm 

Adopt D = 450 mm, b = 250 mm, d = 415mm 
  

                                        =(0.85x250x415)/250
                                       =                    353 mm
                   353 mm        <                    962 mm
In beams the diameter of main reinforced bars is usually selected between 12 mm and 25 mm.
Provide 2-20mm and 1-22mm bars giving total area
                                         =                     6.28 + 3.80
                                         =                      10.08 cm2 > 9.62 cm2 (approximately)

1. Determine the moment of resistance of the section shown in figure below

i. σ ck =20 N /m m2 , σ y =415 N /mm2
ii . σ ck =20 N /mm 2 ,σ y =500 N /mm 2
Solution

I.
Force of compression = 0.36 σ ck bx=0.36 ×20 ×250 x=1800 x N
π
At =3 × ×122=339.12
4
Force of tension = 0.87 σ y At =0.87 × 415 ×339.12=122400 N
Now
Force of compression = Force of tension
1800 x=122400
∴ x=68 mm
x m=0.48 d=0.48 ×310=14.8 mm>68 mm Ok

Depth of neutral axis = 68 mm

Lever arm(z)=310−0.42 ×68=281 mm

Since this is the under reinforced section moment of resistance is governed by steel
The moment of resistance with respect to steel is given by
M u=0.87 σ y A t z
M u=0.87 × 415 ×339.12 ×281
M u=34.40 KNm

II.
Force of compression = 0.36 σ ck bx=0.36 ×20 ×250 x=1800 x N
π
At =3 × ×122=339.12 m m2
4
Force of tension = 0.87 σ y At =0.87 × 500× 339.12=147470 N
Now
Force of compression = Force of tension
1800 x=147470
∴ x=82 mm
x m=0.46 d=0.46 ×310=142.6 mm>82 mm Ok
Depth of neutral axis = 82 mm
Lever arm(z)=310−0.42 × 82=275.6 mm

Since this is the under reinforced section moment of resistance is governed by steel
The moment of resistance with respect to steel is given by
M u=0.87 σ y A t z
M u=0.87 × 500× 339.12× 275.6
M u=40.65 KN

2. Design a rectangular beam to resist a bending moment equal to 75 knm using M25 mix
and Fe 415 grade steel, and M25 mix and Fe 550 grade steel.
The beam will be designed so that under the applied moment both materials reach their
maximum stresses. Let us assume ratio of overall depth to breadth of the beam equal to 1.5.

M25 mix and Fe 415 grade steel

For balanced design,
Factored B.M
¿ Moment of resistance w .r . t . concrete
¿ Moment of resistance w .r . t . steel .
¿ Load factor × B . M =1.5 ×75=112.5 KNm

Moment of resistance , M u=0.36 σ ck b x m (d−0.42 x m )

M u=0.36 σ ck b ×0.48 d (d −0.42× 0.48 d)

M u=3.45 b d 2

Let assume d /b=1.5 ,∨, b=d /1.5

d
M u=3.45 b d 2=3.54 × ×d 2=2.30 d3
1.5
M u=2.30 d 3

112.5 ×10 6=2.30 d 3

∴ d=365.7 m
Now, Adopt
D =400 mm
Hence b = 400/1.5 = 267 mm ≈ 300mm
Effective cover = 35 mm
d=400−35=365 mm

Factored B . M .
Areaof tensile steel is givenby , A t =
0.87 σ y (d −0.42 x m )

112.5 × 106
¿
0.87 ×415 ×(365−0.42× 0.48 ×365)

¿ 1070 mm 2=10.70 c m 2

0.85 bd 0.85× 300 ×365

Minimum Areaof steel= = =224 m m2<1070 m m 2 OK
σy 415

Provide 2-25 mm and 1-12mm bars giving total area

π ×25 2 π ×122
¿2× +
4 4
¿ 2 ×490.625+113.04
¿ 1094.30 mm2 >1070 mm2

1094.30
Actual areaof steel provided= ×100=0.919 %< 4 % OK
400 ×300
The reinforcement detail is shown in figure,
For M25 mix and Fe 550 grade steel.

For balanced design,

Factored B.M
¿ Moment of resistance w .r . t . concrete
¿ Moment of resistance w .r . t . steel .
¿ Load factor × B . M =1.5 ×75=112.5 KNm

Moment of resistance , M u=0.36 σ ck b x m (d−0.42 x m )

M u=0.36 σ ck b ×0.443 d (d −0.42× 0.443 d)

M u=3.25 b d 2

Let assume d /b=1.5 ,∨, b=d /1.5

d
M u=3.25 b d 2=3.25 × × d 2=2.167 d 3
1.5
M u=2.167 d 3

112.5 ×10 6=2.167 d 3

∴ d=373 mm

Now, Adopt
D =410 mm
Hence b = 410/1.5 = 273.5mm ≈ 275 mm
Effective cover = 35 mm
d=410−35=375 mm

Factored B . M .
Areaof tensile steel is givenby , A t =
0.87 σ y (d −0.42 x m )

112.5 ×10 6
¿
0.87 ×515 ×( 375−0.42 ×0.443 ×375)

¿ 822.625 mm 2=8.22c m 2

0.85 bd 0.85× 275 ×410

Minimum Areaof steel= = =186.09m m 2< 822.625m m 2 OK
σy 515

Provide 3-20 mm bars, giving total area

 π × 202
¿3×
4
¿ 942 mm 2 >822.625 m m2

942
Actual areaof steel provided= × 100=0.91 % <4 % OK
375 ×275
The reinforcement detail is shown in figure,

Example: A 5 m long simply supported beam carries a superimposed load of 20 KN/m. Design
the mid span section if its effective depth is kept constant at 50 cm using limit state method.
Solution:

Factored load =1.5 ×20=30 KN /m

52
Factored bending moment=30 × =93.75 KNm
8
M u=0.36 σ ck b x m (d−0.42 x m)
M u=0.36 × 25× b ×0.48 d ×(d−0.42 × 0.42d )
93.75 ×10 6=0.36 ×25 × b ×0.48 ×500 ×(500−0.42× 0.48× 500)
b=108.72 mm
Adopt a 11cm ×50 cm effective section.
The area of tension steel required is given by,
0.36 σ ck b x m
At =
0.87 σ y
0.36 ×25 ×110 × 0.48 ×500
¿
0.87 × 415
2
¿ 658 mm
Example 6: Design a rectangular beam for 4 m effective span which is subjected to a dead
load of 15 KN/m and alive load of 12 KN/m. Use M25 mix and Fe500 grade steel.

Solution:
For simply supported beam let us assume a value of L/d =10
Therefore, for L = 400cm, d = 40 cm
Let us adopt b = 25 cm, d = 40 cm and D = 45 cm

Now
density of concrete=25 KN /m3
Self weight of beam=0.25 ×0.45 ×25=2.81 KN /m
Deaad load =15 KN / m
Superimposed live load=12 KN /m
Total load =2.81+15+12=29.81 KN /m
Factored load =Load factor × Total load=1.5× 29.81=44.72 KN /m
w l2 42
Maximum factored B . M .= =44.72 × =89.5 KNm
8 2
For balanced design maximum depth of neutral axis
x m=0.46 d=0.46 × 400=184 cm
Factored Bending moment = Moment of resistance with respect to concrete
M u=0.36 σ ck b x m (d−0.42 x m)
89.5 ×106 =0.36 ×25 × 250× 0.46 ×d (d−0.42 ×0.46 d )

d=327 mm<400 mm , Assumed effective depth

DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAM:

The beam that is reinforced with steels both in tension and compression zone, it is known as
doubly reinforced beam. This type of beam is mainly provided when the depth of the beam is
restricted. If a beam with limited depth is reinforced on the tension side only it might not have
sufficient resistance to oppose the bending moment.

The moment of resistance cannot be increased by increasing the amount of steel in tension
zone. It can be increased by making the beam over reinforced but not more than 25% on the
strained side. Thus a doubly reinforced beam is provided to increase the moment of resistance
of a beam having limited dimensions.
Besides this, doubly reinforced beams can be utilized under following conditions,

1. When the outside load is alternating, that means the load is acting on the face of the
member.
2. The load is eccentric and the eccentricity of the load is changing from one side to
another side of the axis.
3. The member is subjected to a shock or impact or accidental lateral thrust.
Design steps for a doubly reinforced beam:

A doubly reinforced beam can be assumed to be made up of two beams A and B. In beam A
which is singly reinforced beam, the tension steel At1 is required to balance the force of
compression in concrete. In beam B, the tension steel At2 is required to balance the force of
compression in the concrete section.

Step 1: Determine the limiting moment of resistance M lim for the given cross-section using the
equation for a singly reinforced beam A.

Mlim= 0.87σyat1(d-0.42xm)

Or, Mlim= 0.36σckbxm(d-0.42xm)

Where, At1= area of tension steel corresponding to a balanced singly reinforced beam.

Step 2: If the factored moment M exceeds Mlim, a doubly reinforced section is required to be
designed for the additional moment (M-Mlim). This moment is resisted by an internal couple
consisting of compression force C2 in the compression steel and tension T2 in additional tension
steel in beam B, that is:

M-Mlim=(σsc - σcc)Asc(d-d’)

Or, M-Mlim= σsc Asc(d-d’) (since σcc << σsc )

Where Asc= area of compression reinforcement

Σcc= compressive stress in concrete at the level of centroid of compression steel

Step 3: The additional area of tension steel At2 is obtained by considering the equilibrium of
force of compression C2 in compression steel and force of tension T2 in the additional tension
steel that is:
Σsc Asc – σcc Acc = 0.87 σy At2

Or, σsc Asc=0.87 σy At2

Step 4: The total tension steel At is given by:

At= At1 + At2

Since the force of compression in concrete is replaced by the compression steel is very small as
compared with the force of compression in the compression steel, it is usual to neglect its
contribution.

Maximum and minimum reinforcement:

The maximum and minimum amount if tension reinforcement in a doubly reinforced beam are
the same as those in a singly reinforced beam. The minimum compression reinforcement can of
course be zero. In that case, it will be a singly reinforced beam. The maximum compression
reinforcement can’t exceed 4% of the gross cross-sectional area of the beam.

Design Tables: It is possible to generate design charts and design table for a doubly reinforced
beams by making use of above equations for a given concrete mix, type of steel and cover to
compression steel.

Table: Stress σsc in compression reinforcement

Grade of steel D´/d

Σy N/mm2
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
250 217 217 217 217
415 355 353 342 329
500 424 412 395 370

Next table gives % of reinforcement for a doubly reinforced beam for a different values of
Mu/bd2 for M20 and M25 mix, Fe 415 grade steel and σy as 415 mpa and d´/d=0.10
9.2 Design and drawing of continuous, one-way and two-way slabs.
 ONE WAY SLAB:

One way slab is a slab which is supported by beams on the two opposite sides to carry the load
along one direction. In one way slab the ratio of longer span (l) to shorter span (b) is equal or
greater than 2 i.e. Longer span (l)/Shorter span (b) ≥ 2. Verandah slab is a type of one way slab,
where the slab is spanning in the shorter direction with main reinforcement and the
distribution of reinforcement in the transverse direction.
One-Way Slab is the slab which resists the entire/major part of applied load by bending only
in one direction

Examples of One-Way Slab

 Shades in the roofing system (cantilever)

 Slab of stairs
 Cantilever retaining walls
 Footing slab

Design Procedure for One-Way Slab

The procedure for design of one way slab supported on two opposite edges or for the design of
slabs supported on all the four edges but with the ratio of larger to shorter span equal to or
more than two is given below:

1. In simply supported slab or in beams to satisfy deflection criteria span to depth ratio is
F1×F2×F3×basic value. The basic value in simply supported case is 20. Usually F 1, the factor to
account for tensile reinforcement works out to be more than 1.25. In slabs compression
steel is normally avoided and the section is to be designed as rectangular. Hence the factors
F2 and F3 are unity. Therefore to satisfy deflection criteria, span to depth ratio l/d >= 25. So
the depth of slab may be taken as 1/25 span.
2. Find the factored moment Mu in 1m width of slab.
3. Determine Mu lim for 1000 mm wide slab. If Mu < Mu lim , design the singly reinforced section. If
Mu > Mu lim , increase the depth and design singly reinforced section. In the design effective
depth may be taken as D-effective cover. Nominal cover may be reduced by 5mm (table 16
–IS 456), since the diameter of bars used is less than 12mm.
4. The required area of steel Ast is to be provided in 1000mm width. Instead of finding the
number of bars for 1000mm width, find, S the spacing of bars using following expression.
 π
φ²
S= 4 0
×100
A st
5. As per clause no 26.3.3, the spacing should not be more than 3D or 300mm whichever is
smaller. Check the value of spacing and make the final choice.
6. Check for shear in 1000mm strip. For this find τv= Vu/bd
Clause 40.2.1.1 says that for solid slabs, the design shear strength for concrete
may be taken as ks, where ks are given by:

Ds mm 300 or 275 250 225 200 175 150 or

more less

K 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.20 1.25 1.30

Also note for slabs, the nominal shear stress τc shall not exceed τc max/2, Where τc max is as given in
table 20 IS 456. Shear reinforcement in slabs should be avoided, since they work out
cumbersome and expensive. Hence if τc<τv increase the thickness of slab and redesign.

7. Check Deflection control: Since the modification factor F2 and F3 are unity so
(l/d)max= F1×basic value
= 20 F1

Determine F1 from figure 4 in IS 456. Also the (l/d) should be less than (l/d max). If this criterion is
not satisfied then redesign by increasing‘d’ or calculate deflections and get satisfied with the
value.

8. Distribution Steel: (Clause 26.5.2.1 in IS 456) a minimum of 0.15% of total cross section if
mild steel is used or 0.12% of total cross section if Fe 415 is used, as required distribution
steel. Thus if, Fe 415 is used.
0.12bd
Ast=
100
Hence spacing of distribution steel is given by
π
φ²
S= 4
×1000 mm
A st
Where, φ is the diameter of distribution steel. For the simplicity in construction
usually φ is taken same as for main bars. However smaller bars may also be used.
TWO WAY SLAB:

When a reinforced concrete slab is supported by beams on all the four sides and the loads are
carried by the supports along both directions, it is known as two way slab. In two way slab, the
ratio of longer span (l) to shorter span (b) is less than 2. I.e. Longer span (l)/Shorter span (b) < 2.
These types of slabs are mostly used in the floor of multi-storey buildings.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ONE WAY SLABS AND TWO WAY SLABS:

1. In one way slab the slabs are supported by the beams on the two opposite sides but in two
way slab the slabs are supported on all the four sides.

2. In one way slab the loads are carried along one direction but in two way slab the loads are
carried along both directions.

3. In one way slab the ratio of longer span to shorter span is equal or greater than 2. (i.e. L/b ≥
2) but in two way slab the ratio of l/b is less than 2 (i.e. L/b < 2).

Design procedures:
1. From the serviceability criteria, depth required is much less compared to one way slab,
if short span is less than 3.5 and live load is less than 3.5 KN/m 2. For such slabs allowable
Ls/d ratio is as follows:

Table: Short span to overall depth ratio

Type Of Reinforcement
Types of slab Fe 250 Fe 415 or Fe 500
For simply supported 35 28
For fixed or continuous 40 32
For two way slabs with shorter span greater than 3.5m or live load greater than 3 KN/m 2, the
allowable l/d ratio same as for one way slab.
2. Find effective lx and ly.
3. Calculate design moments using coefficients given in table 26 or 27 in (IS 456) and shear
Vux= Wu(r4/(1+r4)lx/2), where r=ly/lx
4. Design reinforcements in both directions
5. Check for deflection control
6. Provide reinforcements as per IS 456 guidance which will take care of crack width
control
7. Design torsion reinforcements at corners where two discontinuous edges meet.

9.3 Design and Drawing of axially loaded wall and column footings
Depth of footing:
Rankine’s formula is used to determine the minimum depth of foundation. The formula is as
given below:
P 1−sin φ
H= [
w 1+ sin φ ]
²

Where, h=minimum depth

P=safe bearing capacity
W=unit weight of soil
Φ= Angle of friction of soil
Cover
If plain concrete bed is provided, the minimum cover to main reinforcement shall be 50mm
If plain concrete bed is not provided, the minimum cover to main reinforcement shall be 75mm
Minimum thickness
Theoretically, the thickness required at the edges of footing is zero since at free edge the
bending moment and shear forces are zero. However to take care of accidental situations and
reinforcement of cover, IS 456 prescribes the minimum thickness:
For footings on soil-150mm
For footings on piles-300mm
Minimum reinforcement
The minimum reinforcement described for slab and beams are applicable for footings also.
Minimum diameter of bar to be used is 10mm.
Design Steps
W
The soil pressure due to axial force is uniform and is given by P= Where W is load in column
B²
+ self weight (usually taken as 10% of P). Due to moment one side is tension created and the
other side is compression created as shown in figure. Let q’ be the maximum pressure due to
bending. Then equating moment of pressure diagram we get,
1 B 2
×q ´ × × B × B=M
2 2 3
6M
Or, q´=
B³
Maximum soil pressure,
W 6M
Q1 = +
B² B³
And least pressure
W 6M
Q2 = −
B² B³
The total pressure diagram is also shown in the figure which varies linearly from q 1 to q2. The
size of footing should be selected so as to keep q1 with SBC. The right hand side portion in figure
which is subjected to higher pressure is considered for design. It may be noted that for limit
state design:
P 6M
Qu1=1.5( + )
B2 B3
P 6M
Qu2=1.5( − )
B 2 B3
The critical section is same as before. The selection of depth becomes more complicated since
the pressure diagram is varying. However with few trials one can arrive at required depth from
the considerations of bending, one-way shear and two-way shear.
Alternative solution to above, a simple procedure is possible by providing column at a suitable
eccentricity from the centroid of footing. Figure below illustrates it. In this case, column is
M
provided at an eccentricity e=
P
This is equivalent to a footing subject to an axial force P. Hence the pressure distribution is
uniform. However footing projection is more on one side and less on the next. The side with
projection is designed and the same may be accepted throughout.

9.4 Design and drawing of short columns.

A column may be classified as short or long column depending on its effective slenderness ratio.
A short column has maximum slenderness ratio of 12. Its design is based on the strength of
materials and the applied loads.
Assumptions:
 The maximum compressive strain in concrete in axial compression is taken as 0.002.
 
 The maximum compressive strain at the highly compressed extreme fibre in concrete
subjected to axial compression and bending and when there is no tension on the section
shall be 0.0035 minus 0.75 times the strain at the least compressed extreme fibre.
In addition the following assumptions of flexure are also required
 Plane sections normal to the axis remain plane after bending.
 The maximum strain in concrete at the outermost compression fibre is taken as 0.0035
in bending.
 The relationship between the compressive stress distribution in concrete and the strain
in concrete may be assumed to be rectangle, trapezoid, parabola or any other shape
which results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement with the results of test.
 An acceptable stress strain curve is given in IS: 456-200. For design purposes, the
compressive strength of concrete in the structure shall be assumed to be 0.67 times the
characteristic strength. The partial safety factor y of 1.5 shall be applied in addition to
this.
 The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored.
 The stresses in the reinforcement are derived from representative stress-strain curve
for the type of steel used. Typical curves are given in IS: 456-2000. For design purposes
the partial safety factor equal to 1.15 shall be applied.

 Minimum eccentricity
 As per IS:456-2000, all columns shall be designed for minimum eccentricity, equal to the
unsupported length of column/ 500 plus lateral dimensions/30, subject to a minimum of 20
mm. Where bi-axial bending is considered, it is sufficient to ensure that eccentricity exceeds the
minimum about one axis at a time.
 
Short Axially Loaded Members in Compression
 
The member shall be designed by considering the assumptions given in cl 39.1 of IS 456 and the
minimum eccentricity. When the minimum eccentricity as per 25.4 does not exceed 0.05 times
the lateral dimension, the members may be designed by the following equation:
Pu = 0.4 σck Ac + 0.67 σy Asc
 
Pu = axial load on the member,
Σck = characteristic compressive strength of the concrete, A c = area of concrete,
 Σy = characteristic strength of the compression reinforcement, and
Asc = area of longitudinal reinforcement for columns.

Strictly speaking the expression for Pu Should be based on the stresses in concrete and steel
corresponding to the maximum strain of 0.002
Maximum stresses in different materials corresponding to this strain are as follows:
Concrete= 0.446 σck
Mild steel=0.87 σy
Fe 415 grade steel= 0.79 σy
Fe 500 grade steel= 0.75 σy
 
Apparently an additional factor of safety on the concrete and steel has been used in above
equation, that is stress is reduced by about 10% in the given maximum stresses. So the above
equation can be rearranged as follows:
pAg pAg
Pu = 0.4 σck (Ag ) + 0.67 σy 
100 100

Pu Pu
=0.4+ (0.67σy-0.46σck)
Σ ck bD 100 σ ck

Where, Ag= gross area of cross-section= bd

P=percentage of reinforcement
It is possible to prepare design charts based on these equations to design the columns quickly.
Such design Charts are given in the SP-16 – Design Aids for Reinforced concrete to IS: 456-1978.
The same charts are applicable to IS 456:2000.
Requirement of reinforcement:

Compression Members with Helical Reinforcement

 
The strength of compression members with helical reinforcement satisfying the requirement of
IS: 456 shall be taken as 1.05 times the strength of similar member with lateral ties.
 
The ratio of the volume of helical reinforcement to the volume of the core shall not be less than
 
Vhs / Vc  >  0.36 (Ag/Ac – 1) σck/σy
 
Ag = gross area of the section,
Ac = area of the core of the helically reinforced column measured to the outside diameter of the
helix,
Σck = characteristic compressive strength of the concrete, and
Σy =  characteristic strength of the helical reinforcement but not exceeding 415 N/mm.

The reinforcement selected by the designer should satisfy the clause 26.5.3 given in the IS code
456:2000. Some of the important specifications are as follows:
 a) Longitudinal Reinforcement
 The c/s area of longitudinal reinforcement shall not be less than 0.8% and not more
than 6% of gross cross sectional area. When bars from the column below are to be
lapped with those in column under consideration, the steel shall usually not exceed
4% of the gross cross sectional area. Thus it is preferable to maintain the
reinforcement in the range of 0.8 to 4% of gross area of the column.
 In any column that has a larger cross sectional area than the required to support the
load, minimum % of steel shall be 0.8% of required area rather than 0.8 of the area
provided area.
 Minimum number of bars to be provided is 4 for rectangular section and 6 for
circular section spaced at equidistant.
 Minimum diameter of bars used is 12mm.
 Spacing of longitudinal bars measured along the periphery of the column shall not
exceed 300mm.
b) Transverse Reinforcement:
These reinforcements are required to provide lateral support. If these reinforcements
are not provided then reinforcement may buckle and column failure takes place. The
transverse reinforcement provided should satisfy the following requirements.
 The internal angle of transverse reinforcement should not exceed 135˚.
 If spacing of the bars is less than 75mm then alternate bars may be unsupported.
 Diameter of ties should not be less than:
a. ¼ th of the largest diameter of longitudinal bars
b. 5mm
 The pitch of the ties shall not be more than:
a. Least lateral diameter of column
b. 16 times the diameter of smallest longitudinal bar
c. 300mm
 The pitch of helical reinforcement should satisfy the following requirements, if its
strength is enhanced by 1.05.
a. Not more than 75mm
b. Not more than 1/6 th core diameter of helix bars
c. Not less than 25mm
d. Not less than 3 times the diameter of helix bars

9.5 Use of codes for the design

A reinforced concrete structure should conform to certain minimum specifications with regard
to design and construction. These specifications are being constantly revised and improved as
result of years of analytical and experimental research pour in. The bureau of Indian standard
issues building code requirements from time to time. The most recent is the code of practice
for plain and reinforced concrete (IS: 456:2000), hereafter referred to as a code.
In preparation of this code BIS has derived a lot of assistance from the British code of practice
for structural use of concrete (CP 110: Part 1 later revised as BS: 8110-1989) and the American
concrete institute building code requirements for reinforced concrete (ACI 318) besides a few
other codes. The member of the European union have published a series of codes known as
Eurocodes based on extensive analytical and experimental research work carried out in various
member countries during the past few decades. The BS: 8110 and other codes stand withdrawn
once eurocodes came in effect in 2010. Thus, where appropriate, relevant details are
mentioned in above cases based on American, British and European practice.
A building code specifies minimum requirements with regards to a safe structure. It should be
understood clearly that a building code is not intended to replace basic engineering principles,
knowledge, judgment and experience. It doesn’t relieve the responsibility of designer for having
a safe and economical structure.
Once the basic principles are clearly understood it should be quite easier and quicker to
understand the use of design tables and graphs which can greatly speed up the design process.
Reference may be made to “Design Aids for Reinforced Concrete to IS: 456-1978” published by
the bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi for numerous charts and design tables.