Comparison of numerical models for flood risk assessment

Analysis of the Effectiveness in the Flood Defences

2017/2018 Final Year Project
University of West London
Author: Sagar Sharma
Student id: 21300148
Supervisor: Pedro J Martin-Moreta

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ABSTRACT
It is necessity that environmental legislations such as water framework directives and floods
directives move together towards a one single integrated aim to approach a measurable
solution and management to the flooding and water to solve problem arising from global
warming, climate change, economics and population growth. Working collaboratively raises
the awareness and efficiency in managing our environment mainly by recognising immediate
issues that could affect range of sectors and mitigating by bringing catchment improvements
and multiple benefits. Working aside the nature and using its processes to manage the flood
risks and improving the biodiversity is key. The technique, referred as a flood management
helps to mitigate flood issues by bringing expansive landscape changes, while saving money
and benefit economy, environment and society.

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Table of contents
Chapter 1 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.1Introduction
1.2Natural flood management
1.3Two strategies
Chapter 2-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.1 Flood management
2.2 Flood and Water Management Act 2010
2.3 Strategies and plans
Chapter 3------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3 Types of floods:
3.1 Coastal floods
3.2 Pluvial floods
3.3 Riverine floods
Chapter 4-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4 Hard engineering Flood defences
4.1 Dams
4.2 Artificial Levees
4.3 Channel straightening
4.4 Channel dredging
Chapter 5------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5 Soft engineering flood defences
5.1 Land use zoning
5.2 Reforestation
5.3 River restoration
Conclusion
Chapter 6---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6 Methodology
6.1 Numerical Modelling (HEC-RAS)
6.2 Energy loses equations
6.3 Friction loses
6.4 Other energy loses
Chapter 7-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7 Weir (Dam)
Chapter 8-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8 Geometry
Chapter 9------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9 Results and discussions
9.1 Upstream flow
9.2 Downstream flow
9.3 3D profile of the river for plan01
9.4 3D profile of the river for plan02
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Chapter 10---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10 Conclusion
11 References-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter 1:

1.1 ​Introduction:
Looking at the 21st century, major natural disaster such as flooding has increased with the
frequency and magnitude and is in a consequent manner. With the rising level of oceans due
to global warming, major concerns throughout the world has arised regarding the current
level of defence strategies and management for the flood risk that could occur in the near
future. Due to the increasing amount of population there will be increasing amount of
pressure for developing new ideas and strategies for mitigating the flooding and traditional
strategies such as floodwalls will be riskier than proposing a new approaches and hence
needs to be changed.

1.2 Natural flood management is a widely used and accepted method that delivers measures
balancing the need for solving the flooding and environmental needs. This features the
management of the pathways and sources of flood waters and typically uses the process of
storing or slowing down the flood water. Covering a spectrum of strategies including drain
blocking of river in the upland as a smaller scale to a full scale recreation of a course of river.
SAIFF (2011)With the advantages of flourishment of wildlife, biodiversity and enhancing the
quality of water.These strategies can easily be used and contributed with the benefit against
flooding, plus there will be improve in wellbeing, jobs and recreations. By the use of existing
land and restoring of natural remedies natural flood management plays a vital role for
balancing the nature without the need of large scale land. Traditional engineering can be
manipulated using the natural flood management,for instance to increase the life expectancy
of an embankments or to retrieve the size and height of flood walls hence, both strategies
could be used together for a better and economical solution. Increasing change in the
climate today, has made us aware that the strategies and protection of today’s standard is
incapable for future. As the traditional strategies fails to define and justify the cost, if the
problem is addressed for a small number of properties that are at risk and natural flood
management could be more ideal and economical way for local authorities to handle the
flooding. Using this strategy for mitigating flood risk can contribute a collaborative work
between the landowners and communities to seek for a solutions which can be done by
themselves in a small scale. Even though it might not deliver protection from major flood
events, smaller and consecutive events are well mitigated with many benefits.SAIFF (2011)

1.3 Hard engineering strategies and techniques are very demanding with its cost for
providing an adequate defences against flooding provided the decreasement in aesthetic
and ecological value has driven attention towards an alternative solution known as soft
engineering strategies.CRESS and Halcrow (2011) Principle of impeding run-off details that
permanent wetland are created after the extreme rainfall causing river flows to that area and
delaying the flood peak at the downstream.

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There are plenty of options that are considered nowadays which includes River Restoration,
Reforestation, Water Meadows, Land Use Zoning, Warning Systems and Insurance
Guarantees.

Objective:
The aim of this research is to provide an analysis of the effect of constructing a weir(Dam) in
downstream of the simulated river channel, in relation to an urban development by the use of
HEC-RAS modelling software. The given flood defence helps with the controlling of water
level in the river so it in both side for the social and economic aspects as it is very expensive
to construct and develop but has numerous amount of benefits for people and nature in the
upper stream. Variations such as material size and properties, slope angle, geometry of
channel, various habitats, and so on deflects the idea of having ‘one size fits all’ solution.
Valuable information can be extracted from the following research that can be adapted with
different cases in the future. From the local research and understanding of flood that is
affected by the flow dynamics of river helps boost the transitioning onto a interest of national
level. Carrying out new research helps improve the policy and understanding hence,
providing benefits to local people and authorities throughout the country. Even the final aim
of the project is to analysing and finding the appropriate solution towards mitigating the
flooding but main consideration is going to be given to the aspect ratio of socio-economic
impact and benefit for the chosen flood defence.

Chapter 2:
Flood management:
2.1 One of the devastating natural/manmade disaster in modern age is flooding, that has an
impact on environment, communities and infrastructures, with losses in personal level to
national level like damage in property and even loss of life could be account for. Surface
water, rivers, streams and the sea are the main areas that causes flooding to occur. In
England alone, around a figure of 5 million properties is known to be at risk from flooding
from which, estimation of around 3 million is known for surface water flooding and figure of
around 2.4 million is estimated for the risk of flooding from rivers. National Risk Register has
prioritise coastal flooding risk as one of the highest priority of Civil Emergencies in the
England. Looking at Figure 1 gives the estimation of the properties that are at risk from
flooding as of 2014 in the England.

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 Figure 1: Properties at risk

2.2 Flood and Water Management Act 2010 has defined the various authorities mainly
‘risk-management authorities’ an important and distinct role for the flood management,
providing a responsibility for a strategy and smooth operation of various risks of flooding and
coastal erosions as a national policy by the Department for Environment. The main
responsibility of the authorities portraits on the main area of the risk for flooding which
depends with the source for instant, flooding could occur from rivers/sea or surface water.
(NAO,2014)Objectives, strategies and initial plans with detail description on how to manage
the flooding, its risk and measures to mitigate it, as main objectives with the idea and
proposal to achieve it.
The Environmental Agency is known to be responsible for such policy and measures for
flooding at a national level and regional/local flood authorities follow their proposals.

2.3 Strategies and plans:

A strategy for a Flood risk management in England is initialised, developed, monitored,
maintained and applied by the Agency. In 2011 the Agency cooperated with the Department
for Environment to publish the strategy known as “Nation Flood and Coastal Erosion Risk
Management”, which consist of many objectives and principles to manage the flooding such
as build and maintain the assets, areas in favour of flooding must be avoided for
unnecessary development, making sure plans and strategy for long term effects are thought
of and improvement of awareness has been carried out through warning or forecasting as
well as initial plan for the increasement of resilience should be done in time. Figure 2 below

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shows the regional/local authorities with the responsibility for their area with the plans and
strategies for mitigating the flood risk.(NAO,2014)

Figure 2: Risk management strategies.(NAO,2014)

Chapter 3:

Types of floods:
Floods are defined in three types riverine, coastal and pluvial floods.

3.1 Coastal floods:

Coastal floods are also known as surge floods. These occurs in the regions that lies in
coastal areas near seas and oceans. They are usually caused by the storms occurring in the
sea or ocean, which causes a surges pushing the waves of water towards the land at the
shore making a higher tides. Sometimes these tides are so humongous that, with the
amount of water that is pushed will cause most of the coastal area to be flooded. Coastal
floods are known to be really destructive and fatal, could result in high numbers of lives and
property loss.

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3.2 Pluvial floods:
For Pluvial floods to occur, it’s not necessary to have water source near the area. These
floods are usually caused by a heavy rainfall which causes the drainage system to overflow
its capacity or the level of absorption in the soil is limited in the area. The volume of water
during the flooding could change but it's normally very small to a few centimetres hence, the
fatality rate is to the minimum but they are able to cause notorious amount of property
damages. Pluvial floods may be caused by the flow of rainwater from the hill or mountain
region to a lower altitude causing a collection of water in the lower area of some specific
places. These floods can occur due to riverine or coastal floods.

3.3 Riverine floods:

Riverine floods are also referred as fluvial floods, which are caused due to the presence of
flowing water bodies such as streams, canals and rivers. These floods are usually results of
long term heavy rainfall for a continuous period of time, most likely to be occurred in rainy
seasons. Due to the global warming the temperature is increasing per century, and is a
critical factor for rapid melting of snow and ice which in terms causes overflow of water
volume in the stream or rivers, being one of the main reason for riverine floods.
These types of floods are common in many countries but particularly Nepal. Nepal has a lot
of rivers and stream and is one of the water richest country in the world. It has got many
snow capped mountain ranges, which are melting its ice and snow as times goes by. Hence,
causing humongus floods in many areas of Nepal. Overbank flooding and flash flooding both
occurs due to the overflow of water and specially some area of Nepal gets devastated due to
flash floods, as they occur suddenly without a warning or prior notice.

Figure 3: Some images of devastation caused by Riverine floods in Nepal.

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Riverine Flood Risk Management:
Most persistent with one of the most destruction and fatality causing natural disaster is
riverine flooding. Being major cause of lives lost and property destruction they occur in many
countries around the world. News with the topic of lives lost and destruction cases are
frequent relating to riverine flooding. These are especially prominent to the settlements and
villages that are beside rivers such as Nile in Africa, Amazon in South America, Ganges in
South Asia. The fatility is increasing as the population growth is exponential. PYE, K., SAYE,
S. and BLOTT, S. (2007)Below are the different strategies and techniques used to mitigate
the flood hazards, which have been used effectively in different parts of the world.
Depending on the volume and size of the water bodies around the location that is most likely
to be a flood-prone area, these strategies are used.

Chapter 4:

4 Hard engineering Flood defences:

A process of constructing of permanent engineered structures with a main aim to control the
amount of water flow entering in a specific dry areas. Below are some of the effective
strategies and techniques of hard engineering for flood defences.

4.1 Dams:
Strong barriers which are constructed so that there is a control of water flow in a river
downstream is called dams. They are constructed in all sizes depending on the strength,
volume and flow of a river and helps to control the overall flow of the river downstream. Dam
levels can be closed or opened accordingly, depending on the amount of water flow in the
river or by monitoring the rainfall.
There are many benefits of constructing a dam beside from controlling the flood, it can store
water for irrigation and is a vital source for producing hydroelectric power and can help
control the amount of debris and waste flow in the river by sedimenting them. The upstream
area with the collection of water will flourish with vegetation and habitat. It will be ideal for
fish farming and transportation of water. Figure 4 below shows the process of constructing a
Dam in a flowing river. A tunnel is digged so the water can divert creating the channel dry so
that construction could be carried out. The construction is normally done in a dry season so
that the amount of water level is at minimum. (60s guide)

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 Figure 4: Process of constructing a Dam

There are many negative impacts of constructing a Dam in a river. Downstream area will
have very small amount of water flowing causing decrease in sediments hence, reduction in
a fertile land which also means threat to the current biodiversity (such as dead vegetation
and extinction to some of the habitant). (FEMA, Benefits of Dams) Due to the changing of
water level in both sides, collapsing of riverbanks and slopes are prominent and increase
amount of landslide will be common. Dam is a very expansive project and any failure can
cause an enormous damage to people and economy. Any settlement upstream can suffer
dramatically due to increased level of water by dawning villages.Bates, P.D. and Roo,
A.P.J.D. (2000)

4.2 Artificial Levees:

Bult along the sides of river or stream in a low ridge embankment and are efficient at
preventing flooding is levees. Artificial levees are made with dirt embankment which are
strong and wide enough to hold the pressure of river flow and are resistant to eroding due to
moisture from the water. Vegetation is used to minimise the effect of erosion to the minimum.
Levees has been used for centuries to control the flooding. It is a simple solution to mitigate
the flooding and piling up the dirt and soil throughout the banks of river creates the leeves.
(60s guide)Sandbags, woods and muds are usually used for Levees. Settlement with dense
population and properties tend to use concrete levees so that it is more stronger,able to hold
back the water pressure and have long life. Maintenance and inspection of the levels must
be done frequently and properly.

Figure 5: Artificial Levee

4.3 Channel straightening:

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A river is never in a straight line, it includes of many meanders which creates flood buffer
and flood plain areas. Due to meanders and long length the rate of flow of water is low
causing a pooling to occur. A process of removing of meanders, creating a short route and
making a flow of water straight and steady in a river is called channel straightening. It tends
to increase the speed of water flow through an area hence preventing the environment that
is built in either side of the river at that specific point. If we look at the UK’s rivers, many of
them have gone through some of channel straightening for instance: the River Avon in
Salisbury. Even though the focused area will have faster flow and less flood risk,
downstream could face a major problem of flooding as straightening changes the flow and
level of water in the river.(60s guide) it is a natural process of river trying to revert back to
meanders in a flooded plain area hence, it is very important that the banks are made strong
and permanent.

Figure 6: Straightened Derwent project at East Yorkshire (EYRT,2017)

4.4 Channel dredging:

A process of removing sediment which were in the bottom and sides of stream or rivers,
shaping it by digging and scooping the bottom part or making the channel straight by
removing the meanders is a channel dredging. Over a long period of time sediments and
slits are accumulated in some areas of a river bed, resulting in a reduced capacity of river
hence, maintenance is required for a long term. (60s guide)The negative impact of dredging
is that there is decrease amount of nutrients that passes to the floodplain and during a dry
season farmland will suffer tremendous amount of low fertile land. Some evidence shows
that undergoing a channel dredging helps to increase the build up of mud and silt in other
areas of a river, causing the technique to be very ineffective.

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 Figure 7: Somerset dredging

Chapter 5:

5 Soft engineering flood defences:

Strategies and techniques used to describe the measures taken, that doesn’t include
artificially constructed structures and are used to prevent the flooding. These techniques
might not show instant effects but are really ecologically sensitive. It is a solution that helps
minimize the casualties and damages caused by flooding but takes time for a result and is
very sustainable and environmental friendly. Below are some of the soft engineering defence
techniques against flooding:

5.1 Land use zoning:

Areas with potential flood risks are officially mapped and placing of public amenities are
restricted and making it very difficult to gain permission for a construction project on the flood
prone areas. Land use zoning is also a prevention method for any damage done. This
technique can be very productive for a new project or development that is to be conducted
along the river but historic settlement or towns that has been developing for centuries will be
very challenging to replace.(60s guide) It consist of two categorize zones known as flood
fringe zones and floodway zones as seen in the figure below:

Figure 8: Land use zoning

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As from the Figure 8, we can tell that flood fringe consist of zone that has less depth flood
water and is confined where as, floodway is the area of moving water.

5.2 Reforestation:
Reforestation is a process of growing and planting the vegetation or trees alongside the
bank of rivers. Because of the excellent ability of absorbing water and slowing down the rate
of flow of water in a river or reducing surface runoff, trees are of an important role.
Preventing from water reaching the rivers, which interms has the lower chances of
overflowing the volume hence, low risk of flooding. There might be a very small impact
unless the frequency and volume of plantation of tree is humongous on flood waters. Trees
can’t grow on the hard surfaces hence big rocks and concrete must be removed around the
vicinity. Benefits such as fertile land, flourishment of vegetation and habitat improving the
overall biodiversity of the area and resistant to erosion over the time.

5.3 River restoration:

River restoration is defined as reverting and returning the modified river to its original and
historical status by re-meandering , introducing habitats and vegetation using the ecological
and physical methods. Restoration are carried out for biodiversity, flood management,
tourism and flood management.

Conclusion:
From the research, reading the reports and data, this literature provides the evidences and
indication of the necessity for implementing and developing of new range of measures
techniques that are of vital yet effective against all the different types of floods and
destruction it causes all over the world. With the increasing amount of flooding disaster and
fatality it has caused must encourage for the development of more efficient yet sustainable
with eco friendly solutions in near future. Even if there are many techniques that are
developed, the nature of geological and diversity of flood areas tend to push the challenges
for the application of these techniques. Among all the hard engineering defences, levees and
dams are seen to be more effective in controlling the flood.
With multiple advantages and benefits such as hydropower, irrigation, agriculture, fish
farming, transport, biodiversity and tourism, hard engineering strategies are seen more
effective at mitigating the floods while blooming the economical aspects. But with the new
studies and research done it has been seen that hard engineering solutions are not an
environmentally sustainable even though with all the economical benefits. Because of the
negative impact shown by the hard engineering techniques, with sustainable aim, low cost
development and eco friendly strategy soft engineering techniques are widely spread and
used around the world. With the slow pace results and low economic and social advantages,
it can stand out in a long term. Although, soft engineering is not used widely as hard
engineering, it must be made aware and used frequently and widely so that we can start
seeing the benefits in long term.
With the demand of new ever growing population, new area are being used for cultivating,
development of infrastructures and settling. For a minimum damage from a flooding, land
use zoning could be used to eliminate such areas hence, its permanently safe from natural
flooding whereas, already developed cities has to go through the hard engineering for the

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defence. One of the main reason for the flooding such as coastal and riverine flooding is
exponential melting of ice and snows, caused by the global warming and which is directly
affected by the human activities and pollution. Hence, destructive method of flood defence is
actually creating a negative impact in a natural and environmental cycle and the evidence
are noticeable all around the world. Pollution, deforestation, over cultivation, farming and
depleting resources and so on have been the main cause of climate change and global
warming. A very big steps to solve this unacceptable and uncontrolled activities must be
undertake otherwise, extension of humankind is definite.

Chapter 6:

6 Methodology

A unstable high stage of a river that tend to accompany a huge losses and damages and is
considered as one of the catastrophic event caused by natural or man made event is called
flood. It is a river with overflow causing imbalance from its original course or a stream that
has came off of its confines while submerging its surrounding areas. But the flood that
comes from sea is caused due to a tsunami, a high tide, storm or the combination of either.
Hence, flood has become one of the most threatened natural calamities throughout the
century all around the world HOOKE, J.M. (2003). If we look closely to the history, most of
the civilization that emerged were founded near rivers or coast areas. For instance ancient
Egyptians near the great Nile river and the Mesopotamians near the Euphrates and Tigris
rivers, these civilisation suffered the consequences of early annual cycle of flooding but
eventually were able to adapt it to farming using different techniques and we can see this as
early act of mitigating the flood, Regulwar D.G. (2016).
Developed country now-a-days are well ahead for mitigating most of the flooding problems
but developing country such as Nepal, Bhutan, Thailand and so on are still struggling to
cope with the devastating effects such as huge number of human casualties and the
tremendous economic destruction that brings with it. Such tragedious event is caused mainly
due to lack of regulations such as absence of zoning, no warning system integrated, having
density of population very high in a small area, no strong emergency response
infrastructures and finally lack of flood defence or mitigating strategies, KNITTLER, H.
(2005). Nepal as we know, has suffered from high number of flooding in the recent decade
especially after the recent Earthquake that has shaken the high mountains and hills while
making them unstable in most cases and the melting of snow in the high snow cap mountain
is inhibit. Hence, its no doubt that Nepal is one of the most susceptible country if it comes to
flooding followed by landslide and earthquakes.

With uprising flood issues as ever, adding up with uncertain forecasting of weather
conditions and unreliable damage mitigation with stringent budgeting has made it a global
hub of concern and will continue to do so, Regulwar D.G. (2016). Even applying a variety of
different methods of mitigation and analysis of existing literature and research, it gives a
clear understanding of needing to further gear the research and study towards the
engineering solutions ensuring more effective and stable outcome to the unpredictable and
changing climate. During the flood defences development, the research must prioritise and
reflect the process of mitigating the damage whilst remaining viable and approaching the

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cost-effective route throughout the extended time periods that it takes HOOKE, J.M. (2003).
With the use of scientific approaches and floodplain management, the damages caused by
the floods could be greatly reduced. Determining the boundaries and preventing the flood
risk in the rivers is the vital tool to better optimizing the surrounding area. Before starting any
operational development it is absolute vital to use the river zoning mapping to analysis the
river and is fundamental tool in civil engineering providing valuable information relating to
geographical layout and helps understand the nature of river more clearly. There are two
categorised measures to mitigate the flood damages they are: hard engineering solution and
soft engineering solution, Tate,D. J. (2002). Hard engineering also known by structural
management measure includes construction and applying physical structures to mitigate
flooding damages such as diversion of river, damming and use of trenches. Soft engineering
which is non structural measures helps mitigate floods without the need of construction of
physical structures. Soft engineering solutions with a general sense, tells us it is much more
environmentally friendly then the current hard engineering approach and it is crucial that
implementing these measures shows the successful achievement and effectiveness towards
the purpose.

Regarding the controlling and mitigating the damages and effects of flooding, through this
research it is now possible to guide, recommend and suggest for the future research. For the
given research that is going to be started with a creation of river reach adapting variety of
additional plant to mitigate and defence the flood such as introducing the dams (weir),
leeves, degrading of area and flood plains to the current river reach. Urban development
simulation will be carried out using the HEC-RAS model with adapting the either of the
different defences (for this research we will be using the weir/dam) in the area of river. After
the computation of the model for each plan to create a base for effective conclusion and
discussion, simultaneous comparison of results will take place.

6.1 Numerical Modelling. HEC-RAS

Through research it is clear that mathematics is the foundation to numerical models that
connects with the physical parameters and is the reason, why it is very important to correct
use and understanding of these parameters. A program that carries out the hydraulic
analysis, containing an integrated package that is operated through the use of GUI
(Graphical user interface) is known as HEC-RAS (Hydrologic Engineering Centres- River
Analysis System). HEC-RAS helps simulate the evolution of flood using one-dimension or
two-dimensions interface. Being able to calculate the profile of steady flow for the surface of
water as well as unsteady flow rate, change of the river bed, transport of the sediments and
analysis of the quality of water through calculations of hydraulic designs are the four
possibilities of analysis of main river (U.S. Corps of Engineers, 2003, Tate et al. 1999). But
there are furthermore dimensional approaches such as dam break, ice-covered river,
blocking bridges and the scour phenomenon which we will not be discussing in this report.
The outcome results from analysis of these models can be implemented in studies of flood
insurance and management of flood plain. There are plenty of weakness just using one
model of the HEC-RAS analysis hence, weakness can be resolved using both
one-dimensional (1D) and two-dimensional (2D) while comparing their results.

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During the project; design phase and the hydraulic calculation built phase having the
knowledge of river dynamics while inputting the design parameters of the levees, river
dredging and floodplain zones will be of vital importance. The nature of using HEC-RAS
provides the researcher or the user with plenty of benefits as an interface ,Zerihun, Y. T.
(2004). First of all, varied flow rates can be obtained through the use of one dimensional and
two dimensional steady flow and unsteady flow rates of the water surface profiles that this
software is compatible with. It consist of variety of graphical representation that uses data
like charts, numbers and images to simplify and visualise the user hence, enabling for the
appropriate and simple comparisons. The recent wider uses of this software and increasing
popularity amongst the hydraulic researchers provides with the strong hold for the future
generation to be founded upon with plenty of ongoing research and upcoming future
research holding the support with current literature where it will be vital tool to be easily
compared with,Singh, V.P., Frevert, D.K (2006),.

Using different equations such as energy, momentum and continuity equations, HEC-RAS
analysis the open channel simulation in a real life scenario which are invaluable information
for the urban development, river dynamics development and terrain development. This
software provides the analysis(results) of a flow by carrying out the calculations and
computing both unsteady and steady flow. Within the analysis of unsteady flow, provides the
opportunity to model the area such as flood storage known as flood plains. With ability to
solve complex networks of channels and to simulate mixed flow, supercritical and sub-critical
profiles for both types of flow by using various input parameters is undoubtedly fascinating,
KNITTLER, H. (2005). By using channel flow, stream channel and geometry data which
helps it divide the system in sections of main channel, left floodway and right floodway. Due
to the hydraulic variance in the parameter the cross section then is introduced in the river
reach by the HEC-RAS.

6.2 Energy losses equations:

To understand the final accurate results given by the HEC-RAS it is important to understand
the equations that are used by it to perform the process. A channel in which the velocity and
the depth of water/liquid doesn't change over time is a steady flow. Cross-section to
cross-sections are introduced when there is small change in water depth and the velocity
gradually. The first step that is computed by the HEC-RAS uses assumption of a steady and
slowly changing flow scenario in a water surface profile and is known as the direct step
method. Below is the simple energy equation that states, that the total energy (H) is the sum
of kinetic energy (v^2 /2g) potential energy (Z + Y) at given location, the energy difference in
those cross-section is known as head loss (hL) as seen in the figure 1:

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 Figure 1: Open channel flow

Flow regime determines the Froude number (Fr) weather the flow computed was from
downstream to upstream or vice versa, which characterize the flow as per below:
Fr < 1 = Subcritical flow, Fr > 1 = Supercritical flow and finally Fr = 1 denotes Critical flow
when the scenario is a subcritical flow being a common aspect in man-made channels or
natural channels. Computing progresses from the downstream toward the upstream through
the adjacent cross-sections. It is vice versa for the supercritical flow as it starts from
upstreams and progress to downstream.
One cross section to the other, computing the water profiles by solving the energy equation
by the standard method procedure for both steady and unsteady flow uses the equation
represented in the figure below:

Figure 2: Energy equation (1)

(USACE), 2010

6.3 Friction losses:

Energy losses due to friction are represented with the letters ho and hf which are described
in the the equation 2 below. In terms of geometric form of energy loss the expansion and
contraction losses are the only ones that are considered.
he= hf+ ho (2)
Strips are introduced to distribute the flow of the river with those of similar hydraulic
properties that helps to approximate the transverse distribution in the flow direction.
Subsections are inserted to define the each cross section in to portions. The process of
calculating the friction loss is as below:

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 Fig 3: Energy loss equation (3) (USACE),
2010

6.4 Other energy losses:

Contraction energy loss and expansion energy loss combining makes the total energy losses
which is calculate by the formula below:

Figure 4: Energy loss equation (4) (USACE), 2010

Where,
CL is the lost coefficient for contraction and expansion. CL becomes the coefficient of
expansion when the value in the absolute value notation is positive or the coefficient of
contraction if the value is negative.

Continuity equation:

Figure 5: Continuity equations (a) (b) (c)

(USACE), 2010

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Where, depth-integrated velocity components = u & v in x and y directions,
g = acceleration due to gravity,
Z = elevation of water surface,
ρ = water,
h = depth of local water
f cor = Coriolis parameter
τ yx, τ xy, τxx, and τ yy = depth-integrated Reynolds stresses
τbx and τby = shear stresses

Manning's equation gives the roughness coefficient for each types of land that has been
used which is based on Chow (1959).
n=(n0 + n1 + n2 + n3 + n4 ) m5

where n0 = n value for a straight, uniform, smooth channel in the natural materials involved
n1 = value added to n0 to correct for the effect of surface irregularities
n2 = value for variations in shape and size of the channel cross section
n3 = value for obstructions
n4 = value for vegetation and flow conditions
m5 = correction factor for meandering of channel.

Chapter 7:

7 Weir:

For measuring the discharge of a flow and for controlling the upstream water level in an
open channel flow a structure called weir is used. They are very common throughout the
world because of its simplicity for monitoring the water flow and its level in the river or any
other source. It is a disturbance that helps promote a specific energy condition that is
minimum in a sub critical flow. Due to the effects of variation of flow in the upstream depth
and the differing viscosity of flow geometry, the weirs must go through calibration if to be
used in for latter purposes as the predictions of discharge that is rendered would be
different and inadequate. Weir are of several types such falt-vee, ogee, broad-crested, and
crump, Abkowitz, D. (2011). With the research and analysis of previous case studies, it seem
broad crested weirs are more favourable in operating more effectively and remain reliable
then other counterparts such as sharp crested under the high level of downstream water
level. Weirs play a major role in water flow as the principle states that the overflow of water
must go through the critical depth. The flow is determined as critical only by the height of the
weir. Because of this the concept of specific energy helps us to develop a formula to
determine the discharge for the occurring of the special conditions at the critical point. As the
water flow upstream on the weir it is in a subcritical form and the height of the weir under this
flow of water causes the critical flow. The transition of flow to supercritical happens due to
the acceleration of the liquid after crossing the weir into the downstream. Because of the
nature of critical flow, it’s exact height location is hard to determine and it tend to vary with
the varying flow rate, Minea I (2014). Hence, weirs come in handy to measure the discharge
of flow of rivers by the use of principle of energy and critical depth relationship by precisely
analysing the parallel flow caused by the weir.

19
A example of free flow and drowned flow over a weir are shown in the figure below:

Figure: Free flow of water

Figure above shows the broad-crested weir where there is free flow of water from subcritical
to supercritical over the weir and the upstream water level is not affected by the change in
downstream. Hence, only the upstream could be assed in this scenario. By measuring the
h1 couple of meters upstream helps with the drawdown that is close to the weir or it can be
measured in the side channel near a stilling chamber.

(USACE), 2010
The equation above helps to connect the water depth upstream (h) with the channel
discharge (Q) and the depth is measured just above the crest of, weirZerihun, Y. T. (2004).
Even though in practical h is used as the measurement of height from the weir crest to the
water surface but to be strict in theory, the h represent the measurement of height of velocity
head line and weir crest as the energy includes the kinetic energy. Because of such a small
error that is involved we can introduce the weir coefficient C to take it in account in the form
of a value. In theory the value of weir or more specially the broad-crested weir is coefficient
is 1.705 which can be used as 1.70. The theoretical value of C only applies when h include
the velocity head hence in practice the value is always greater, Abkowitz, D. (2011).
Because using the formula above requires the use of critical depth meaning the shape of the
weir is independent hence, it can be used in any weir critical depth calculations. To mitigate
such uncertainty and taking all the shapes of different weir, value of C can be used and
changed as per the forms of weir Minea I (2014). For short-crested weir a higher value of C
could be used to compensate the uncertainty like the crump weir, whereas for the flat-vee
weir the standard value is also changed to 1.5.

20
 Figure: Drowned flow of water
The figure above shows the the drowned water flow over the weir and tell us that increasing
the water level in the downstream eliminates the free flow condition hence, there is no longer
occurance of supercritical flow over the weir and is known as drowned situation. The
estimation of the flow rate can only be done if the downstream and upstream level both are
available.

Chapter 8

8 Geometry:

For this report we will be using the roughness coefficient value of the channel (n) being 0.02
and the 0.04 for the surrounding terrain while weir has coefficient of 0.04. Through the
analysis of the river channel the roughness remains same. Under the the conditions of
various flows, HEC-RAS helps to simulate the different types of flood defences. In this
research we will be inputting the data for the levees, floodplains and a dam (weir) which are
subjected to the same rate of flow, G.J. Arcement, Jr. and V.R. Schneider. Comparing
accurately between different results can be obtained by creating various number of plans by
using just one set of geometric data. Given river includes an urban development situated in
the side-section of the reach which will simulate a city. This allows for the construction of
dam(weir) in a particular floodplains to be positioned in relative to the city. Between the up
stream cross section of 46 - 42 lies the urban development and the profile consist of 50
cross section in total.
After analysing the effect of introducing the Dam (weir) in the lower stream cross section
between 5.2 - 5.7 (in cross section 5.5), the results will help us demonstrate the comparison
between the flow in the city before and after the construction of Dam and how it affects the
river dynamics.

For this research purpose, the channel length L is 10m, with the friction coefficient of 0.04,
with a downstream boundary of a = 0.1m high of broad-crested weir having an open
boundary upstream. The initial boundary conditions are, normal depth and velocity is the
same for upstream as well as downstream. The bed slope s = 0.0007 of the main channel in
the downstream cross section. The weir is located in the cross section 5.5 which is at
downstream. It lies in the elevation of 20m, has distance of 10m and width of 5m.

21
Looking at the figure below, shows general dynamic conditions,there is a hydrodynamic
pressure that is induced on the weir(dam) i.e face of weir A-B. The properties of the dam and
the foundation, with the frequency and magnitude of the load imposed on the dam
determines the hydrodynamic pressures induced.

Figure : Geometry for the dam-reservoir-foundation system, (1) is dam, (2) river( reservoir)
(3) Foundation soil.

Shows the water level at downstream without the weir. The water level is at 19.53m
elevation. The flow rate is at 10000 m^3/s.

22
Shows the water level at city without the construction of weir. The water level is at elevation
of 22.91m and the flow rate is of 10000 m^3/s. Because of the blockage by weir, overall
height of water level throughout the river upto the city has increased.

The numerical model was designed in such a way that there were two plans as “Plan01” and
“Plan02” where plan01 was the river system with the city in the upper stream cross section
and plan02 was where weir was introduced in the plan01 to analysis the effect of
hydrodynamic. In between the plans there were five profiles known as “PF 1, PF 2, PF 3, PF
4, and PF” these profiles were only differentiated by the flow rate and all the other boundary
conditions were same. Below is the table showing the profiles;

Figure : Flow
rate for different profiles.
This table shows the boundary condition for the flow rate of water in the river with different
profiles, this applies with and without the introduction of weir.

23
 Table:
Stations and the length of left and right embankments.

Table: Reach
lengths of the each cross-sections.

24
This table shows the results from the analysis of water level in the upper stream of the river
for Plan01 and you could see all the values such as flow rate of different platforms with their
elevation of water table, energy gradient and critical water surface.

25
This table shows the results from the analysis of water level in the upper stream of the river
for Plan02

Chapter 9

9 Results and discussion:

HEC-RAS does the analysis of the model by doing the simulation of steady flow using
energy equation and the expansion and contraction coefficient whereas, Manning’s equation
is applied for calculating the head loss.
Cross sections are introduced as the line are drawn in the river to represent the transverse
sections as seen in the figure() below. This helps to extract the elevation values from the
terrain layout of the model, creating the terrain profile. For the precision of the outcome data,
it is necessary to make the distance between the cross sections short and putting the
required number of sections. The flow direction of river and the drawn lines has to be
perpendicular as it is strictly defined in the drawing method, as well as all the region of
slopes has to be covered while the lines must be digitised from let for the right so that a
correct model for the flood is achieved. Attribute values for HEC-RAS is achieved by
introducing the cross sections like the limit of banks that points out the transit from drainage
channel to the floodplain, Wurbs, R.A. (1998). Total of 50 cross sections are implemented in
this model, the water critical level of the total cross section is given when simulated for the
whole reach with the all cross sections. Some of the important cross section among all the
other are shown in the figure below:

Figure: Streamlines, Flow paths, Bank lines and the cross section lines

26
9.1 Upstream flow:

The flow boundary condition is defined in this cross section 45.7. Values of the water
surface(WS), energy (EG) and the critical depth are defined for different flow rates.
This result shows the effect of change in flow rate in plan01 initially from 10000 m^3/s to max
of 20000 m^3/s upstream in the city. As from the table above (P1,P2,P3,P4 and P5 indicates
the profile of water flow) because the flow rate is faster the water level rises, flooding the
banks of river .The blue lines indicate the water level. And if we look at the profile 1 the water
surface is at 22.9m and and profile 2 the water surface level is at 24.3m in this case both
profile with different flow rates stays below the city. Where as in profile 3 with 14000m^3/s
flow rate,the surface water level has risen to 26.7m and flooded city in both sides. Similarly,
profile 4 at 17000 m^3/s flow rate and profile 5 at 20000 m^3/s has flooded the whole city.
Reminding that this is plan01 which doesn’t have the weir introduced.

27
Now that we have introduced the weir in the plan02, we can see that profile 1 is still below
the city at elevation of 24.19m but if we compare this with elevation of plan01,profile 1 at
22.9m, we can say that the weir gradually increases the water surface level of the upstream.
Looking at profile 2, it has elevation of 24.8m but the ground level is at 24.5m hence the
water surface is above the ground surface flooding the city in both sides. Same happens
with the water surface in profile 3 at 26.7m, profile 4 at 28.7m and profile 5 at 30.19m.
Proving that weir gradually increase the water level with increasing flow rates. From the
cross section we can also see the critical depth for profile 2 at 21.2m and profile 3 at 22.4m.

9.2 Downstream flow:

28
If we look at the section 7 of plan01 without the weir, we can see that profile 1 has surface
water level at elevation of 19.6m whereas, profile2 and profile 3 are almost at the same
elevation of 21m, the profile 4 is at 23.4m and the profile 5 is at 24.19m. But if we look at the
ground surface it is at 20.5m hence profile 2,3,4 and 5 are above and flooded the
downstream. The critical depth for profile 2,3,4 and 5 could be seen in the figure above.

Now with the introduction of weir at section 7 of plan 02, we can see that all the profiles
have increase the water surface level. To compare with plan 02 let's look at profile 1 wate
surface which is at 23.2m but without the weir the level was at 19.6m and the ground level
for reference is at 20.5m.

The water surface profile is shown in the figure below for plan01:

29
The above figure of plan01, profile 1 represents the uniform flow of the river as we can see
there is steady flow of water. The energy line, depth and discharge are constant along the
length of the channel. There is no sudden change in velocity or flow of water in the river and
consistent. Because the depth and velocity do not very thought out the length of the channel
meaning the total energy slope and the water surface line remains parallel to the bed.

Figure above shows the plan01 with the comparison of profile 1 and 2. We can see that the
water flow is still uniform in both flow rates. Although the profile 2 in the downstream has got
higher critical slope it is still below the water level.

30
The figure above is the water surface profile for plan01 with platform 3 as we can see
downstream has steady flow even though the water level has risen then that of profile 1 and
2. But if we look at where the city is located the water level has risen exponentially and
flooded the city and there is flow transition to rapidly varied flow as the energy line changes
with the depth and there is change in velocity. Which is known as a hydraulic jump in the
upstream.

Figure above is the analysis of plan01 with the profile 4 and 5. There is unsteady uniform
flow throughout the river.We can see the change in the flow depth throughout the river.
Looking at upstream we can see the rapidly varied flow as a hydraulic jump. It has affected

31
the city, upstream and downstream as the critical depth gets higher than the water level the
area gets flooded.
The water surface profile is shown in the figure below for plan02 (with weir):

The above figure is of plan02 with the weir at profile 1 flow rate, shows us the flow as a
steady gradually-varied flow which is a non-uniform flow. As we can see that the energy
slope is changing gradually throughout the river as we move upstream. The downstream
gets flooded but the city remain safe as the water surface is still below the ground surface.
Just after the weir there is a huge dip in the water level and energy level that indicates the
rapidly varied flow hence, there is a hydraulic jump. The situation is where the water flows
over the weir into a stilling basin where the shallow flow has changed into a deep flow.

32
The figure shows the profile 3 of the plan02 and the flow follows the same pattern as the
profile 1 and 2 where the upstream and downstream both goes through the hydraulic jumps.
In the middle cross sections the water level gradually starts to balance with upstream but the
energy slope keeps rising gradually until the city. This is a gradual non-uniform flow in the
middle whereas there is rapidly varied flow in the both streams. The city gets flooded as the
water surface level is higher than that of ground level. If we look closely at the drop energy at
downstream it has reduced in profile 3 then that of profile 1 and 2 and the water level in
downstream has increased slightly.

This figure shows us the profile 4 and 5 in compared with profile 1 in the plan02. Profile 4
and 5 both have the similar flow pattern. Both have hydraulic jumps in both up and down
stream. But there is slightly difference in the energy slope and water level at both up and
down stream. Upstream has slightly higher energy than that of profile 1-3 similarly the
energy slope is greater than profile 1-3, it is almost a straight gradient to the bed slope until
the upper stream where there is a hydraulic jump. Although there is increased water level in
both stream we can see the critical depth in the downstream is greater than the level of
water there.

9.3 3D profile of the river for plan01:

33
Figure: XYZ profile view of plan 02, profile 1
As from the 3D aerial view of the river cross section relative to the urban development, we
can see there uniform steady flow throughout the river.

Fig: XYZ profile view of the profile 2

Figure above tell us that increasing the flow rate from 10000 m^3 to 12000 m^3 has the
effect of drowning the downstream of the river and the flow is still steady and uniform.

34
Fig: XYZ profile view of the profile 3-5.
Due to high flow rate of profile 3-5 we can see the effects on the area around the channel.
Most of the area is flooded under the unsteady flow of the river.

9.4 3D profile of the river for plan02 (with weir):

Figure: XYZ profile view of the paln02 for profile 1

As seen, in the figure above introducing of weir gradually increases the water level of the
river. In comparing this with the figure (plan0, profile 1) most of the middle section and
downstream has been flooded but the city is safe from the overflow of water.

35
Figure: XYZ profile of the profile (2-5)
Finally the figure above gives the impression of the weir construction in the river, obstructing
the flow makes the gradual increase in overall height of water level for several kilometers of
the river. Whole section were flooded because of higher flow rate of water with the weir.

Chapter 10:

10 Conclusion:

Manning’s roughness coefficients was used to model an one-dimensional flow by the help of
HEC-RAS software. It is the most important parameter in the hydraulic that is used to
calibrate the model. Vegetation, length of the river, species, riverbed’s and its slope,
distribution, material and its sizes and the distribution of cross section are all factors that
affect the roughness coefficient, Wurbs, R.A. (1998). The use of best roughness coefficient
by a fellow engineer totally depends on his experience in the field and the use of material
table defining the roughness of riverbed’s which plays a vital role in determining the
accuracy of final result, Minea I (2014). Another factor that affects the accuracy of result is
the use of boundary conditions that determines and characterises the intervals on a flow of
water in a channel and adapting such aspects helps with given upstream intervals by
determining the output and input of streams. For this the suggestion is that using the exact
specification throughout and using more intervals helps tremendously with the accuracy,
Zerihun, Y. T. (2004).
The analysis of the flood occurrences using the information from the research helps in
evaluating the risk of flooding during the extreme hydrological events. High degree of
precision is achieve with this model using a very small amount of data that is inputted to
obtain results that predicts the damage of flooding and the water level during the
catastrophic hydrological events. The research proves that the HEC-RAS model is a very
vital tool for the safety and management in such event to be predicted.

36
Water dynamics for the overflow of river around the contiguous areas can be understood by
such research by repeating the return periods and analyzing the results. But to be strict we
can say that the model created was not accurately simulated of the flood extent if compared
with the similar model in real life scenario,Singh, V.P., Frevert, D.K (2006),. Only the
hypothesis could be applied to explain this which some of the critical phenomena were
missed while running and analysing the simulation.
Some of the parts of river were highly likely to be affected by flooding in the low recurrence
periods which was observed through the flood mapping among which are aspects such as
buildings surrounding the river, tributary confluence region and traffics. May be because the
built-up location is very close to the bank of river there was high chances of affected by
flooding. Under Developing countries like Nepal this sort of planning is explained by the non
existing planning of urban area relating to the rivers and streams of the are of natural
floodings.

One of the latest technology such as topography maps can be used to define the man-made
and natural features along the river channel and representing them in a graphical form
showing the features of river in detail because for calculating the hydraulics and studying the
riverbeds are very important for outlining the geometry of river, G.J. Arcement, Jr. and V.R.
Schneider. Therefore, the modeling and sampling of the river along with the surrounding
featuring the main parts such as the banks and floodplains, Abkowitz, D. (2011). Surface
runoffs and the volume rainfall of the upstream are the most important factors which can
affect the re-occurrence flood patterns and can affect any are of the river along with the
surface morphology hence, it forces us as another factor in using of flood plain zoning and to
adequately return and carry out the detail data sampling for the proposed design.

Further research in the field with professional studies, use of latest technology for software
simulations, frequent visits with detail data sampling, understanding and paying utmost
attention towards the several interaction in the river channel and finally the experience of
engineering in the field are best ways to improve upon the limitations of the results obtained
in the intervals of river.

The recommendation for the future research would be to study and analyze how the dams
influences the flooding by the further study and use of hydrological rainfall-runoff modelling.
As discussed above using GPS technology to determine the accurate topography of the
region and frequent visit to the flooded area to collect detail sample in the survey for the
future prediction and research,Singh, V.P., Frevert, D.K (2006),. To calibrate the model,
adjusting the Manning’s roughness coefficients plays a vital role for the prediction and
accurate results of flooding happening in the future. The flooding could occur in the city due
to the drainage of rainwater collected in the river so checking the possible occurrence of
flooding is important.

37
11 References:

- U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), 2010:

HEC-RAS River Analysis System: Hydraulic Reference Manual, version 4.0. Hydrologic
Engineering Center, Davis, US.

-A one-dimensional Boussinesq-type momentum model ,Zerihun, Yebegaeshet Tsegaye,

2004-11
Zerihun, Y. T. (2004)

-Blue Marble Geographics 2009. Global Mapper Version 10, Blue Marble Geographics,
Hallowell, Maine, USA BRIERLEY, Landscape connectivity: the geographic basis of
geomorphic applications.
G., FRYIRS, K., VIKRANT, J. 2006.

-COULTHARD, T.J., HICKS, D.M., VAN DE WIEL, M.J. 2007

Cellular modelling of river catchments and reaches: advantages, limitations and prospects.

-HOOKE, J.M. (2003).

Coarse sediment connectivity in river channel systems: a conceptual framework and
methodology.

-KNITTLER, H. (2005).
Teiche als Konjunkturbarometer? Das Beispiel Niederösterreich. In: Water management in
medieval rural economy.

-POEPPL, R.E., KEILER, M., ELVERFELDT, K.V., ZWEIMUELLER, I., GLADE, T. 2012.
The influence of riparian vegetation cover on diffuse lateral connectivity and biogeomorphic
processes in a medium-sized agricultural catchment, Austria.

-Agrawal R.P. and Regulwar D.G. (2016)

“Flood Analysis Of Dhudhana River In Upper Godavari Basin Using HEC-RAS”, International
Journal of Engineering Research (IJER), Vol.5 (1), 2016, pp. 188-191

-Manoochehr Fathi-Moghadam1, Khosro Drikvandi (2012)

“Manning’s Roughness Coefficient for Rivers and Flood Plains with Non-Submerged
Vegetation”, International Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 2012, 1(1): 1-4

-G.J. Arcement, Jr. and V.R. Schneider,

USGS “Guide for Selecting Manning's Roughness Coefficients for Natural Channels and
Flood Plains” United States Geological Survey Water-supply Paper 2339

-European Exchange Circle on Flood Mapping (EXCIMAP), 2007:

Handbook on Good Practices for Flood Mapping in Europe.

38
-Japan, 2005:
Flood Hazard Mapping Manual in Japan. Flood Control Division, River Bureau, Ministry of
Land, Infrastructure and Transport (MLIT), JP.

-Tate, E. C.; Maidment, D. R.; Oliveira, F.; Anderson, D. J., 2002:

“Creating Terrain Model for Floodplain Mapping”. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering 7,
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-STREAM CHANNEL ANAYLSIS, Luke Pen, Bill Till, Steve Janicke, Peter Muirden, 2000
Luke Pen, Bill Till, Steve Janicke, Peter Muirden.,
The recommended reference for this publication is: Water and Rivers Commission 2000,
Stream Channel Analysis Water and Rivers Commission River Restoration Report No. RR 9.

- Edsel, B., Janey, V., Camp, E., LeBoeuf, J., Penrod, J., P., Dobbins, M., Abkowitz, D.
(2011), Watershed Modeling and its Applications: A State-of-the-Art Review, The Open
Hydrology Journal, vol. 5, p. 26-50.

-Iosub, M., Enea, A., Hapciuc, O. E., Romanescu, G., Minea I. (2014),
Flood risk assessment for the Ozana river sector corresponding to Leghin village, Romania,
14th SGEM GeoConference on Water Resources. Forest, Marine And Ocean Ecosystems,
SGEM2014 Conference Proceedings, ISBN 978-619-7105-13- 1/ISSN 1314-2704, June
19-25, Vol. 1, p. 315-322.

-Singh, V.P., Frevert, D.K (2006),

Watershed models, Ed. Taylor&Francis, New York, ISBN 0-8493-3609-0, p. 629.

- Wurbs, R.A. (1998), Dissemination of Generalized Water Resources Models in the United
States, Water International, 23(3): p.190–198.

-SAIFF (2011). What is meant by restoration, enhancement, and alteration under the Flood
Risk Management (Scotland) Act 2009. Edinburgh: Scottish Advisory and Implementation
Forum for Flooding.

-CRESS and Halcrow (2011). Allan Water Natural Flood Management: Scoping Study.
Report by Nutt, N. and Perfect, C. to the Scottish Environment Protection Agency. Stirling:
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-PYE, K., SAYE, S. and BLOTT, S. (2007). Sand dune processes and management for flood
and coastal defence, Part 1: Project overview and recommendations, R&D Technical Report
FD1302/TR. London: Defra.

-Bates, P.D. and Roo, A.P.J.D. (2000) A Simple Raster-Based Model for Flood Inundation
Simulation. J. Hydrol., 236, 54–77.

39
-FAQ, 2013, Food and Agricultural Organization, Fisheries and agriculture department,
Impacts of Dams on Rivers (Online Available at:
http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y3994e/y3994e0i.htm​)

-FEMA, Benefits of Dams (Available online at ​https://www.fema.gov/benefitsdams​)

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available at: http://albertawater.com/what-are-the-consequences-of-flooding/environmental)
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and Coastal Erosion Risk Management in England: A Consultation Exercise. Defra, London.

-60s guide to Managing Flood Events (Soft Engineering) online avilable at:
https://www.rgs.org/NR/rdonlyres/494BDE91-51C9-444D-A68B-B336E4632184/0/60sManag
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-60s guide to Managing Flood Events (Hard Engineering) online available at:
https://www.rgs.org/NR/rdonlyres/368EA8FA-E036-482F-A186-C2BE32A01DD1/0/60sMana
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-(NAO,2014),5 NOVEMBER 2014 Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs and
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May

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