Jasmine Becerril

Chapters 2 & 3

Chapter 2

1.
a. Population: collection of people who share a common observable characteristics
i. Ex. all inhabitants of a country
b. Sample: a subgroup that has been selected,by using one of several methods from
the population
i. Ex. ​some​ people who live in country
c. Parameter: measurable attribute of a population
i. Ex. the average age of the population
Symbol: ​μ
d. Statistics: numbers that describe sample
i. Ex. percentage of some people who live in a country
e. Representativeness: means that the characteristics of the sample correspond to the
characteristics of the population from which the sample was chosen
i. The sample is representative of the population
2.
Random sampling: the use of random sampling to select a sample
Advantage: unbiased
Disadvantage: time consuming
Nonrandom sampling: ​researcher selects samples based on the subjective judgment of the
researcher rather than random selection.
Advantage: cost efficient
Disadvantage: sampling bias

5.

A. Stratified Random Sample: uses oversampling of strata, subgroup of a population, in

order to ensure that a sufficient number of individuals from a particular stratum are
included in a final sample.
a. Can be stratified by ethnic group, age or socioeconomic status
B. Systematic sample: uses a systematic procedure to select a sample of a fixed sized from a
sampling frame.
a. Choosing the 10th name from a list of 2,000 until the 100 sample size quota is
reached
C. Convenience sample: uses available groups selected by an arbitrary and easily performed
method.
a. Group of patients who receive medical service from a physician who is treating
them for a chronic disease. (biased)
 D. Cluster sampling: refers to a method of sampling in which the element selected is a group
(as distinguished from an individual) called a cluster.
a. A selected element can be a specific city block
6. Random sampling is unbiased as the methods prevents researchers from using any prior
information from the sample. The average of the sample estimates over all possible samples of a
fixed size is equal to the population parameter.

8. For a skewed distribution the most appropriate measure of tendency is the median because the
median divides the distribution into halves. This would eliminate the larger and smaller outliers.
Using the mean would include these outliers and skew the data.

11. A scatter plot is a method for graphically displaying relationships between variables. A
scatter diagram plots two variables one on the x axis and another one on the y axis. The diagram
will display relationships whether they be direct linear relationship or an inverse relationship. A
contingency table shows the distribution of one variable in rows and another in columns which
allows one to study the association between two variables.

Number of Automobile Crashes

Teenage Drinking ≥1 <1 Total

YES 32 41 73

NO 21 6 27

Total 53 47 100

Chapter 3

1.
a. Maternal mortality rate: the number of maternal deaths ascribed to childbirth
divided by the number of live births times 100,000 live births during a year.
i. Reflects health disparities such as healthcare access
b. Infant mortality: defined as the number of infant deaths among infants age 0 to
365 days during a year divided by the number of live births during the same year.
i. For international comparisons to identify countries with high rates
c. Fetal mortality: defined as the death of the fetus when it is in the uterus and
before it has been delivered.
i. Measure risk of death of the fetus
d. Crude birth rate: refers to the number of live births during a specified period such
as a year per the resident population at the midpoint of the year.
i. To project population changes
 e. General fertility rate: refers to the number of live births reported in an area during
a given time interval divided by the number of women age 15 to 44 years in the
area.
i. Compare populations and subgroups regarding their fertility.
f. Perinatal mortality rate: defined as the number of late fetal deaths plus infant
deaths within 7 days of birth divided by the number of live births plus the number
of late fetal deaths during a year.
i. Assesses events that occur during late pregnancy soon after birth
2. The case fatality rate would be affected as an immunization targets a specific highly fatal
disease. This would affect case fatality rate as the amount of deaths of a specific highly
fatal disease would decrease due to the newly developed immunization.

4. To determine the sample size taken from the population as a whole an epidemiologist
must identify the population size of the county. Therefore, if the population size of the
County is large enough to make a comparison with the rest of the United States - it
would be a valid comparison. Board members should only be critical if the population
size is not representative of the entire United States population

5. A prevalence proportion is a proportion of the population while incidence rate measures

the rate at which new cases of disease develop in a population; in regards of how
exposures affect health outcomes.
The formula rate is:
Incidence rate​ = # of new cases over a time period divided by the average population
during the same time period times a multiplier.
Prevalence proportion​ is the number of existing cases of a disease or health condition, or
deaths in a population at some designated time divided by the number of people in the
population. It becomes a percentage instead of a rate when multiplied by 100.
8. ​Adjusted rate:​ rate of mortality in the population in which statistical procedures have been
applied to permit fair comparisons across populations by removing the effect of
differences in the composition of various populations.
Advantages:
Adjusted rates: used to make comparisons among populations
Crude rates: factors are not modified which could affect the observed rate.
Summary rates based on actual number of events in a population over a time
period.
Disadvantages:
Adjusted rates: differences in mortality for diseases could diminish
Crude rates: reduce the standard comparison to a common denominator, the unit
size of population.
Age-adjusted rates uses detailed information about the age structure of the population for which
the rates are age adjusted. Thus, multiplying the age-specific rates for each subgroup of a
population to be standardized by the number in a comparable subgroup of a standard population
is necessary. This permit a more realistic comparison between two states than crude rates.
14. Calculate the incidence rate (per 100,000 population) of primary and secondary syphilis
(combined) in 2013 from the following data:
Number of reported cases in 2013: 17,357
Estimated population of the United States as of
July 1, 2013: 316,128,839

Incidence rate = (17,357/316,128,839) 100,000 = 5.49 ~ 5.5

Incidence rate ~ 5.5

15.
Table 3-6 provides hypothetical data regarding the prevalence of diabetes in two counties in the
United States. Based on 2020 prevalence (percentage), which of the two counties had a higher
burden of disease from Diabetes?
Point prevalence = (Number of persons ill/ total number in the group) x at a point in time
County A:
Prevalence Percent = (356,289/ 11,020,000) x 100 = 3.23%
County B:
Prevalence Percent = (253,612/ 3,900,000) x 100 = 6.50%
Country B has a higher burden of disease from Diabetes

16.
Refer to Exhibit 3-1. Calculate the crude death rate (per 100,000) from the following data:
Number of deaths in the United States during 1990 = 2,148,463
Population of the United States as of July 1, 1990 = 248,709,873
How did the crude death rate in 2013 compared with the crude death rate in 1990?

Crude death rate in 2013 = (2,596,993/316,1128,839) x 100 = 821.5

Crude death rate in 1990 = (2,148,463/248,709,873) x 100,000 = 863.84
The crude death rate in 1990 was much higher than in 2013 though differences in population
composition (age differences) would affect the mortality experience.
21.
Crude mortality rate = (17/ 5,837) x 100,000 = 291.246
22.
a. Total population: 2856+2981 = 5837
Total fatalities: 3+2 = 5
5/5837 * 100,000 = 8.566 * 100,000

Case-specific mortality: 85.7 per 100,000 people

b. Total deaths due to injuries: 3+2 = 5
Total count of injuries: 73+41 = 114
5/114*100 = 0.0438 *100
Case fatality rate of injuries: 4.38% ~ 4.4%