Chemistry project report

On
“Soap formation”

Submitted by

Jiwesh singh

12 th - B

A.S.N SR. SEC. SCHOOL

MAYUR VIHAR, PHASE-I
DELHI-110091
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled

SOAP FORMATION
Contains the original work done by ANALYSIS

Jiwesh Singh

Roll no:

Class: XII-A

Has been submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements

for practical examination of class XII

(CBSE EXAMINATION- 2011)

In chemistry

No part of this project has been submitted to any other

organization/school/institute for award of any

certificate/degree

Project guide

Mr. Sandeep Rathi

(Head of Dept Chemistry)

I shall be failing in my duty if I do not express my

 sincere gratitude to Mr. Sandeep Rathi, my
chemistry teacher, who very kindly helped in
selection of the project, guided me throughout and
rendered valuable help and assistance in
preparation of this project.

I would also like to express my gratitude to

Mr. Dinesh of chemistry department & school
management for providing necessary facilities,
for the successful completion of this project.

Jiwesh singh
X11- A

contents

 Aim
 introduction

 Theory

 Experiment

 bibliography
  To prepare soap in lab

INTRODUCTION
In chemistry, soap is a salt of fatty acids. Soap is mainly used for washing
and cleaning, but soap is also important component of lubricants. Soaps for
cleansing are obtained by treating vegetable or animal oils and fats with a
strong alkaline solution. The alkaline solution, often lye, promotes what is
known as saponification. In saponification, fats are broken down (hydrolyzed)
yielding crude soap, i.e. impure salts of fatty acid and glycerol.

Two equivalent images of the chemical

structure of sodium stearate, a typical soap.
                                                                                                                                O

                                                                                                                              

  CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2-C-O-Na+

                            nonpolar                                                                                     polar

                    (dissolves in oils)                                                                     (dissolves in water)

Theory
Soap for lubrication greases

Soap are key component of most lubrication greases, which are usually and
lithium soap in mineral oil. Lithium-based greases are particularly important.
Many other metal ions are used, including aluminium, sodium and mixture of
various metal ions. In ancient times, lubricating greases were prepared by the
addition of lime to olive oil.

Mechanism of cleansing soaps

When used for cleaning, soap serves as a surfactant in conjunction with water.
The cleaning action of this mixture is attributed to the action of micelles, tiny
spheres coated on the outside with polar carboxylate groups, encasing a
hydrophobic (lipophilic) pocket that can surround the grease particles, allowing
them to dissolve in water. The hydrophobic portion is made up of the long
hydrocarbon chain from the fatty acid. In other words, whereas normally oil
and water do not mix, the addition of soap allows oils to dissolve in water,
allowing them to be rinsed away. Synthetic detergents operate by similar
mechanisms to soap.
Structure of a micelle, a cell-like structure formed by the aggregation of soap
subunits (such as sodium stearate). The exterior of the micelle is hydrophilic
(attracted to water) and the interior is hydrophobic (dissolves grease).

History of cleansing soaps

Early history

The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates

back to around 2800 BC in Ancient Babylon.[3] In the reign of Nabonidus (556-
539 BCE) a recipe for soap consisted of uḥulu [ashes], cypress [oil] and
sesame [seed oil] "for washing the stones for the servant girls". [4] A formula
for soap consisting of water, alkali and cassia oil was written on a Babylonian
clay tablet around 2200 BC.

The Ebers papyrus (Egypt, 1550 BC) indicates that ancient Egyptians bathed
regularly and combined animal and vegetable oils with alkaline salts to create a
soap-like substance. Egyptian documents mention that a soap-like substance
was used in the preparation of wool for weaving.

Roman history

The word sapo, Latin for soap, firs t appears in Pliny the Elder's Historia
Naturalis, which discusses the manufacture of soap from tallow and ashes, but
the only use he mentions for it is as a pomade for hair; he mentions rather
disapprovingly that among the Gauls and Germans men are likelier to use it
than women.[5]

A popular belief encountered in some places claims that soap takes its name
from a supposed "Mount Sapo" (q.v.); but there is no such place, and no
evidence for the apocryphal story. In fact, the Latin word sapo simply means
"soap"; it was likely borrowed from an early Germanic language, and is cognate
with Latin sebum, "tallow", which appears in Pliny the Elder's account. [6] Roman
animal sacrifices usually burned only the bones and inedible entrails of the
sacrificed animals; edible meat and fat from the sacrifices were taken by the
humans rather than the gods. Animal sacrifices in the ancient world would not
have included enough fat to make much soap.

Traditional soap making

The most popular soapmaking process today is the cold process method, where
fats such as olive oil react with lye, while some soapers use the historical hot
process.

Handmade soap differs from industrial soap in that, usually, an excess of fat
is used to consume the alkali ( superfatting), and in that the glycerin is not
removed, leaving a naturally moisturizing soap and not pure soap. Additional
processing of this glycerin containing soap produces glycerin soap. Superfatted
soap, soap which contains excess fat, is more skin-friendly than industrial
soap, though if too much fat is added, it can leave users with a "greasy" feel
to their skin. Sometimes an emollient such as jojoba oil or shea butter is
added "at trace" (the point at which the saponification process is sufficiently
advanced that the soap has begun to thicken) in the belief that it will escape
the saponification and remain intact, or in the case of hot process soap -
after most of the oils have saponified so that they remain unreacted in the
finished soap. Superfatting can also be accomplished through a process called
a lye discount, where, instead of putting in extra fats, the soap maker puts in
less lye.
Process

Manufacturing
process of soaps

In both cold-process and

hot-process soapmaking,
heat may be required for
saponification.

Cold-process soapmaking
takes place at a
sufficient temperature to
ensure the liquefication
of the fat being used.
The lye and fat may be kept warm after mixing to ensure that the soap is
completely saponified.

Unlike cold-processed soap, hot-processed soap can be used right away

because lye and fat saponify more quickly at the higher temperatures used in
hot-process soapmaking.

Hot-process soapmaking was used when the purity of lye was unreliable, and
this process can use natural lye solutions, such as potash. The main benefit of
hot processing is that the exact concentration of the lye solution does not
need to be known to perform the process with adequate success.

Cold-process soapmaking requires exact measurements of lye and fat amounts

and computing their ratio, using saponification charts to ensure that the
finished product is mild and skin-friendly. Saponification charts can also be
used in hot-process soapmaking, but are not as necessary as in cold-process
soapmaking.

Hot process

In the hot-process method, lye and fat are boiled together at 80–100 °C
until saponification occurs, which before modern thermometers, the soapmaker
determined by taste (the bright, distinctive taste of lye disappears once all
the lye is saponified) or by eye; the experienced eye can tell when gel stage
and full saponification have occurred. Beginners can find this information
through research, and classes. It is highly recommended to not "taste" your
soap for lye for readiness. Lye, when not saponified is a highly caustic
material. Rather, research proper Hot Process techniques and use a digital or
analog sugar thermometer to make sure you are at the right temperature.

After saponification has occurred, the soap is sometimes precipitated from

the solution by adding salt, and the excess liquid drained off. The hot, soft
soap is then spooned into a mold.

Cold process

A cold-process soapmaker first looks up the saponification value of the fats

being used on a saponification chart, which is then used to calculate the
appropriate amount of lye. Excess unreacted lye in the soap will result in a
very high pH and can burn or irritate skin. Not enough lye, and the soap is
greasy. Most soap makers formulate their recipes with a 4-10% deficit of lye
so that all of the lye is reacted and that excess fat is left for skin
conditioning benefits.

The lye is dissolved in water. Then oils are heated, or melted if they are solid
at room temperature. Once both substances have cooled to approximately
100-110 °F (37-43 °C), and are no more than 10°F (~5.5°C) apart, they
may be combined. This lye-fat mixture is stirred until "trace" (modern-day
amateur soapmakers often use a stick blender to speed this process). There
are varying levels of trace. Depending on how additives will affect trace, they
may be added at light trace, medium trace or heavy trace. After much
stirring, the mixture turns to the consistency of a thin pudding. "Trace"
corresponds roughly to viscosity. Essential oils, fragrance oils, botanicals,
herbs, oatmeal or other additives are added at light trace, just as the
mixture starts to thicken.
 Experiment
Overview :
Make soap from lard.

Equipment: Lard or some sort of fat.

1. 6N Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)

2. NaCl / table salt
3. Ethanol - alcohol
4. Glass beaker and stirring rod.
5. Bunsen burner or other means of heating solution.
6. Mold for making soap bars.

Safety:
Gloves, lab coat and appropriate eyeware should be worn when handling the 6N
NaOH. It should be used in a well-ventilated area, preferably in a fume hood.
DO NOT BREATHE THE FUMES. Wash with vinegar should you get some on
your skin (have some vinegar handy before starting the experiment) - DO NOT
wash with water..

How to do experiment :
1. Place 10 grams of lard (or any other fat, such as oil or butter) in a beaker
SLOWLY AND CAREFULLY (have an adult do this...this stuff is dangerous)
add 15mL of 6N sodium hydroxide.

3. Add 50mL of ethyl alcohol.

4. Gently heat this mixture under low heat, stirring with a glass stirring rod
until the base has completely reacted with the lard (about 20 to 30 minutes)

5. After all of the base has reacted, add 20mL of water and stir

6. Cool the mixture. Add 12g of sodium chloride (table salt) to 50mL of
water. Pour the cooled mixture of base and lard into the NaCl mixture (not
the other way around)
7. Let this new mixture cool completely. The solid cake that forms is the
soap (whats left, if you do it out chemically, is glycerol)

Bibliography

 Google.com

 Laboratory manual

 Wikipedia.com

 Enkarata.com