Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Refrigeration: cooling an object/ space below the temperature of its environment/ surroundings. Heat pump:
works on the same cycle as refrigeration, but heat is the desired output here instead of cooling effect.
Applications: ice making, preservation and transportation of foods, special industrial processes, and AC.
Air conditioning: simultaneous control of temperature (cooling/ heating), humidity (moisture), cleanliness
(dust and odor removal) and distribution (circulation) of air; includes noise level too. It primarily means cooling
of air. Applications: human comfort, and industrial processes.
Classification: based on major function – comfort (create atmospheric conditions conducive to health, comfort
and efficiency), industrial (control atmospheric conditions for manufacturing operations and research); based on
equipment arrangement – unitary (completely factory assembled), central (various components are selected,
procured from manufacturers and erected on the plant room); based on season – winter (heating sometimes
humidifying too), summer (cooling and dehumidifying for hot and humid weather, evaporative cooling for hot
and arid weather), round the year (provision for both heating and cooling depending on the temperature).
Present status and future trends: vapor compression systems mostly used (better performance), vapor
absorption systems are favored where waste heat or abundant supply of natural gas is available. Solar
absorption systems are yet to be viable economically. Evaporative cooling is suitable in hot and dry climates.
Some systems are limited to special applications where energy and economic considerations are secondary
issues. Air expansion cycle – air craft (weight and safety are the primary concerns), thermo-electric cooling
devices – submarines (quietness needed to avoid detection), vortex tubes – mining (safety features), desiccant
(removes moisture) cooling – humid tropics, steam jet – chemical/ food processing. Thermal storage is used to
meet peak hour demand where plant is run at full capacity in off-peak hours to produce and store ice or chilled
water. Use of low temperature air (5-60 C) is favored because smaller fans, ducts, pumps and piping can be used.
Due to harmful ozone depletion and global warming effects of CFCs (chlorofluorocarbon), are being phased out
and replaced by environmentally affable refrigerants.
Vapor compression refrigeration system: consist of four major components – compressor, condenser, expansion
device and evaporator. It works on the principle that boiling/ condensing temperature is dependent on pressure.
In evaporator, where pressure is low, the refrigerant (working
fluid) evaporates (boils) at much lower temperature by taking
latent heat from its surrounding at constant pressure. Thus the
surrounding space/ objects around get cooled. Compressor
compresses low temperature and low pressure vapor coming out
from the evaporator to high pressure and high temperature vapor.
This vapor is cooled by environmental air/ water and condensed to
high pressure liquid in condenser at constant pressure. Refrigerant
pressure is reduced subsequently in the expansion device (capillary
tube/ expansion or throttle valve). The pressure drop also reduces
the temperature of the refrigerant which then enters the evaporator.
However, total heat content remains constant during the expansion
process. The process is irreversible. The cycle (the series of
operations) is then repeated.

In an ideal vapor compression system, saturated vapor from evaporator enters into compressor and saturated
liquid refrigerant comes out of condenser. In practice, refrigerant gets little superheat in evaporator to avoid
liquid compression. Some sub-cooling is done in condenser to increase the cooling effect of evaporator.
Compression can be done in multistage, with inter-cooling between different stages to reduce the work of
compression, and in cascade system were the high pressure evaporator provides the cooling of low pressure
condenser. This produces much lower temperature. COP: stands for coefficient of performance; defined as the
ratio of cooling i.e., refrigerating effect and work (energy) required to produce it. For compression cycles COP
is usually more than 3. 1 Ton of refrigeration (TR) ≡ 3.516 kW of useful hat removal.
Vapor absorption cycle: economical where waste heat (steam, hot exhaust gases) or inexpensive heat energy
sources such as geothermal energy, solar heat and cheap natural gas are available in abundance. Here a pump,
an absorber, and a generator replace the compressor of a compression system. In addition to the refrigerant
another fluid known as absorbent is used which a greater affinity for the refrigerant and have a low volatility.
Two common combinations of refrigerant- absorbent are: (a) a solution of LiBr in water and (b) aqua-ammonia,
where NH3 is the refrigerant and water is the absorbent. Aqua-ammonia system is explained below:
Figure shows the schematic diagram of a vapor absorption
system. High pressure NH3 vapor is produced in the
generator from the strong solution of NH3 by an external
heating source. The water vapor carried with NH3 is
removed in the rectifier. Only the dehydrated NH3 gas
enters into the condenser where the high pressure NH3
vapor is condensed into liquid NH3 which is passed
through a throttle valve. The pressure and temperature of
NH3 are reduced below the temperature to be maintained
in the evaporator. The low temperature NH3 enters the
evaporator and absorbs the heat from the evaporator and
leaves the evaporator as saturated vapor.

The solution in the generator becomes weak as NH3 vapor comes out of it. Slightly superheated, low pressure
NH3 vapor is absorbed by the weak solution of NH3 which is sprayed in the absorber as shown. Weak NH3
solution entering the absorber becomes strong solution after absorbing NH3 vapor. It is then it is pumped to the
generator through the heat exchanger. The pump increases the pressure of the strong solution to generator
pressure. The strong NH3 solution coming from the absorber absorbs heat form high temperature weak NH3
solution in the heat exchanger. At the same time the weak solution returning from the generator to the absorber
gets cool. Thus heat exchanger economizes on the amount of cooling needed for the absorber and the amount of
heat needed for the generator. The weak high temperature ammonia solution from the generator is passed to the
heat exchanger through the throttle valve which reduces the pressure of the liquid to the absorber pressure.
Comparison:
Absorption system Compression System
Uses low grade energy like heat. May be worked on Uses high-grade energy like mechanical
exhaust systems from I.C engines. work
Moving parts are only in the pump, a small element Moving parts are in the compressor: more
of the system. Smooth operation. wear, tear and noise.
The system can work on lower evaporator pressures The COP decreases considerably with
without affecting the COP. decrease in evaporator pressure.
Performance is adversely affected at
No effect of reducing the load on performance.
partial loads.
Liquid traces of refrigerant present in piping at the Liquid traces in suction line may damage
exit of evaporator constitute no danger. the compressor.
Automatic operation for capacity control is easy. It is difficult.
Units take more space. However, the equipment can Less space, indoor units only. Usually not
be located outdoors, and assembled as vertically. vertical.
Refrigerants: working fluid or cooling agent that absorbs heat at evaporator and discharges heat at condenser.
Theoretically any volatile substance which is liquid at the temperature desired at evaporator can be used as a
refrigerant, but in reality the choice is limited by factors like toxicity, cost, flammability, chemical stability, etc.
A primary refrigerant is used in circulating cycle and accompanied by change in state. It undergoes
compression, condensation, expansion, and evaporation. A secondary refrigerant is one, which is used as a heat
transfer medium without a change of state. Chilled water is used as a secondary refrigerant in conventional air-
conditioning plants and circulated through the air cooling coils. Some of the earlier refrigerants have become
obsolete (e.g., CH3CL, SO2), and some (CFCs) are being replaced.
Classification: halocarbon, inorganic, hydrocarbon, azeotropes.
Halocarbon refrigerants contain one or more of the three halogens – chlorine, fluorine, and bromine (R11-
CCl3F, R12- CCl2F2, R22- CHClF2, R134a- CF3CH2F, and R40- CCH3Cl). These are non-flammable, non-toxic,
suitable for almost any application, and have better performance than inorganic refrigerants (NH3, H2O, CO2,
and SO2). But because of their negative effect on environment, CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) are being phased
out. They deplete ozone layer on the upper atmosphere and contribute to global warming in the lower
atmosphere. Hydrochlorofluoro-carbons (HCFCs) have less damaging effect on ozone are considered
acceptable. Hydrocarbon refrigerants (methane, ethane, and propane) are used for liquefaction of gases.
Azeotropes (R500, R501, and R502) are mixtures of more than one substance; behave as if they were
compounds – components cannot be separated by distillation. An azeotrope evaporates and condenses as a
single substance with properties different from those of its constituents.
Desirable properties of refrigerants: no single one satisfies all desirable attributes in all operating conditions.
Evaporator and condenser pressures: both of them are desired positive, yet not too high. Critical temperature:
should be high. Boiling and freezing temperature: should be low. Density: low density is preferable. Latent heat
of vaporization: should be high (at evaporator temperature). Stability and inertness: refrigerants should not
decompose at temperatures normally encountered. Corrosive properties: refrigerants should not react with any
of the materials used in system. Specific volume: should be low. Viscosity: should be low for both vapor and
liquid refrigerants. Thermal conductivity: should be high for efficient use of evaporator and condenser surfaces.
Oil effect and miscibility: refrigerants should not react chemically but miscible with oil. Toxicity and
explosiveness: refrigerants should be non-poisonous, non-irritating and non-explosive. Effects on perishables:
should have no effect on perishable materials. Leak detection: should be susceptible to detection by mechanical
or chemical means. Dielectric strength: high electric resistance. Cost: should be low for large plants.
Some common refrigerants: NH3, CO2, water, R134a etc.
NH3: mostly used in large plants; e.g. ice plants, breweries, and industrial plants. It yields high refrigeration
effect per unit volume of compressor displacement, lower compressor cost. Very cheap (except water and CO2),
low density – smaller pressure drop for a given size line: economical for large sized reciprocating compressor.
Freezing point is at - 600C, low enough for ordinary refrigeration. Easy leak detection: its odor gives instant
leak warning; a small amount of SO2 causes dense white smoke. But it is highly toxic and irritating, flammable
(16-25% mixture with air). Because of its high affinity to water, it is difficult to keep dry. Wet NH3 is corrosive
to copper and its alloys (bronze, brass etc.). At high discharge temperature, it can carbonize or damage
lubricating oil. At high temperature it may dissociate into its constituents, N2 and H2. These gases unless
disposed of, get collected in the condenser. This increases the total pressure and power of compressor. On the
whole, it is a good refrigerant for large compression when systems are under the supervision of competent
operating personnel.
CO2: is odorless, cheap, non-toxic, non-flammable, non-explosive, and non-corrosive. But system requires high
operating pressures: for -150C and 300C are 22.2 bar and 71 bar respectively. This means extra heavy equipment
for piping. Normal condensing temperatures are near to the critical temperature (310C). This leads to excessive
power costs, almost three times those of other refrigerants. It is non-miscible with oil, doesn’t dilute the oil in
the crankcase of the compressor. Leak detection is difficult, results in higher replacement cost. Because of these
disadvantages, its use is limited to the production of dry ice, i.e. solid CO2.
Water: high availability at virtually no cost, non-toxic, non-flammable, high latent heat of vaporization. But,
its freezing point is high, and system requires high vacuum. Very large volume of water vapor at such low
operating pressures makes the use of ordinary compression equipment impossible. Presently absorption system
with LiBr uses water as the refrigerant; extensively used in AC applications.
R134a: It is taking the place of phasing out R12, the mostly used refrigerant until recent years for higher
temperature applications. Its net refrigerating effect (based on -150C evaporator and 300C condenser) is 150.71
kJ/kg compared to 116.58 kJ/kg for R12. But, its COP is little less than R12. The condenser pressure is also
comparable to that of R12. But, evaporator pressure is somewhat lower than that of R12.
Many manufacturers offer “alternate” refrigerants like R-407C, R-438A and R-422, claiming they can be used
in existing R-22 air-conditioning systems.
A chiller is a machine that removes heat from a liquid via a
vapor-compression or absorption refrigeration cycle. This
liquid can then be circulated through a heat exchanger to
cool equipment, or another process stream (such as air or
process water). Chilled water is used to cool and
dehumidify air in mid- to large-size commercial, industrial,
and institutional facilities. Water chillers can be water-
cooled, air-cooled, or evaporative cooled. Water-cooled
systems can provide efficiency and environmental impact
advantages over air-cooled systems. Chillers for industrial
applications can be centralized, where a single chiller
serves multiple cooling needs, or decentralized where each
application or machine has its own chiller. Each approach
has its advantages. It is also possible to have a combination
of both centralized and decentralized chillers, especially if
the cooling requirements are the same for some
applications or points of use, but not all.
Human Comfort
The physical basis of comfort lies in the thermal balance of body. The heat produced by the body must be
dissipated to the environment. Human comfort especially thermal comfort is the condition of mind that
expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment and is assessed by subjective evaluation.
Factors affecting thermal comfort: air temperature, relative humidity, mean radiant temperature, operative
temperature, metabolic rate, clothing, air speed etc. Metabolic rate: energy release per unit of skin surface as a
result of oxidative process in the living cell; depends on the intensity of physical activities. 1 met = 58.24 W/m2.
Activity met
Sleeping 0.7
Office work/ Reading/ 1.0
writing sitting
Domestic work/ 1.6 –
cooking 2.0
Walking at 2 mph 2.0
Walking at 4 mph 3.7
Heavy machine work 4.0
Dry bulb temp.: normally referred temp. of air.
Wet bulb temp.: temp. read by the thermometer
when its bulb is covered with wet cloth.
Dew point: temp. at which water vapor gets
saturated in the air; starts to condense out of air.
Relative humidity: the amount of water vapor
present in air expressed as a percentage of the
amount needed for saturation at the same temp.
or the ratio of partial pressure of water vapor to
the equilibrium vapor pressure at the same temp.
Psychometric chart and comfort zone

Air conditioning units: Window type, split type, package type, central AC etc.
Window type air conditioner: all the components, namely the
compressor, condenser, expansion valve or coil, evaporator
and cooling coil are enclosed in a single box. This unit is
fitted in a slot made in the wall of the room, or more
commonly a window sill. This unit has a double shaft fan
motor with fans mounted on both sides of the motor. The
evaporator side is located facing the room for cooling of the
space and the condenser side outdoor for heat rejection.
 Split type air conditioner: comprises of two parts: the
outdoor unit and the indoor unit. The outdoor unit,
fitted outside the room, houses components like the
compressor, condenser and expansion valve. The
indoor unit comprises the evaporator or cooling coil
and the cooling fan (air handling unit – AHU);
doesn’t need to be weatherproof. A split air
conditioner can be used to cool more than one room.
Noise of the compressor is outside (less).

Central air conditioning system: has a primary appliance

such as an air handler or furnace located in an out -of-
the-way place such as a basement or attic. This appliance
pumps chilled air throughout the house through a system
of air ducts. As the air-handling unit kicks on, drawing
room air in from various parts of the house through
return-air ducts. This air is then pulled through a filter,
where airborne particles such as dust and lint are
removed in fact, sophisticated filters may remove
microscopic pollutants as well. This air is then cooled
and supplied back to the conditioned space. In central air
conditioning evaporative cooling is mostly used where a
pump circulates water from the reservoir or chiller on to
a cooling pad, which in turn becomes very wet. A fan
drives the air through the moistened pad. As it passes
through the pad the air is cooled by evaporation. This
cold mist air is then supplied to the space.
There are three systems: (1) All-air system – (a) Constant air volume (CAV), (b) Variable air volume (VAV)
(2) All water system -- Need a typical Fan Coil Unit (FCU), temperature control is required but not humidity
(3) Air- water System.
Package type AC system: is a bigger version of
window type; all components are arranged in a
‘box’, can be located outside; 3-15 ton capacity and
space efficient. It can be air cooled (less than 5 ton)
or water cooled. For the same size compressor water
cooled type has more cooling capacity. Quick
installation and low initial investment.