Lesson 17.

Logarithmic function

The natural logarithm ln z is defined, as in calculus, as

the inverse function of ez . However, ex is one-to-one on
−∞ < x < ∞, so its inverse ln x is single valued. Since
ez is not one-to-one (every non-zero point is covered
infinitely many times) its inverse ln z is multi-valued.

w = ln z ⇔ ew = z ̸= 0, so that eln z = z.
Writing z = reiθ = eln r eiθ we see that

w = ln z = ln r + iθ = ln |z| + i arg z.
As arg z is multi-valued, so is ln z. The principal value
of ln z is defined as

Ln z = ln r + iArg z.
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 √ π
Example. Ln(1 + i) = ln 2 + i ,
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√ π
ln(1 + i) = ln 2 + i( + 2kπ), k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
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Since ln(ew ) = w + 2kπi and ew1 ew2 = ew1+w2 , we have

ln(ew1 ew2 ) = w1 + w2 + 2kπi = ln(ew1 ) + ln(ew2 ),

i.e.,

ln(ab) = ln a + ln b for a ̸= 0 and b ̸= 0,

meaning that both sides represent the same infinite set
of numbers. Similarly,
( )
a
ln = ln a − ln b for a ̸= 0 and b ̸= 0.
b

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If a domain D in C \ {0} does not contain a loop around
0, we can choose a branch of ln z in D, i.e., a single-
valued continuous function f (z) in D such that ef (z) = z
1
for all z ∈ D. Then f (z) is analytic in D, and f ′(z) = ,
( )′ z
since ef (z) = ef (z)f ′(z) = zf ′(z) = z ′ = 1. Thus we
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can write (ln z)′ = as in calculus. Note that (ln z)′ is
z
a single-valued function, although ln z is multi-valued.

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Powers: For complex numbers c and z ̸= 0, we define
z c = ec ln z . In general, this is multi-valued.

i i ln i i( π2 i+2kπi) − π2 −2kπ
Example. i = e =e =e
for k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .. Note that all values are real.

A confusing convention: xc for real x > 0 usually

means, as in calculus, ec ln x where ln x = Ln x is a real
number (the principal value of ln x).

Warning: (z a)b = z ab fails for complex numbers.

a b b ln(z a) b ln(e a ln z )
(z ) = e =e = eab ln z+2kbπi = z abe2kbπi
for k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
Thus (z a)b ̸= z ab (even as (two)a sets!) when b is not an
integer. Similarly, (z a)b ̸= z b .
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Complex functions as mappings. Take w = f (z).
What kind of a mapping of the complex plane to itself
is this?

We’ve already discussed it for f (z) = ez . It maps verti-

cal lines to circles and horizontal lines to rays.

Example. For f (z) = eiαz, the mapping is rotation by

α about the origin.

Example. Let f (z) = z n where n > 0 is an integer. For

z = r(cos θ + i sin θ), r maps to rn and θ is multiplied
by n, thus the whole complex plane is covered n times.
Circles centered at 0 map to circles, and rays with one
end at 0 to rays.
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 1
Example. Let f (z) = for z ̸= 0. For z = r(cos θ +
z
1
i sin θ), r maps to and θ to −θ. The mapping is
r
combination of an inversion in the unit circle and a
reflection about the x-axis.

Example. Let f (z) = z a where a ̸= 0 is real (and

z ̸= 0 for a < 0). If a is not an integer, this is multi-
valued (infinitely-valued if a is irrational). To define
a single-valued branch, we take the principal value of
arg z (making a “cut” along the negative x-axis). Then
r maps to ra and θ to aθ. For 0 < a < 1, the unit disk
maps to the sector 0 < θ < 2πa of the unit disk.

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 z−i
Example. Let f (z) = . Then,
z+i
 
z − i
  = 1 ⇒ |z − i|2 = |z + i|2 ⇒
 
z+i

x2+(y−1)2 = x2+(y+1)2 ⇒ y 2−2y+1 = y 2+2y+1 ⇒ y = 0.

Thus f maps the real axis to the unit circle (and the
upper half-plane to the unit disk).

z + 1z
Example. Let f = (Zhukovsky’s function).
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If z = eiα then w = f (z) = cos α is real, −1 ≤ w ≤ 1,
thus f maps the unit circle to the segment [−1, 1] of the
real axis (covering each point of (−1, 1) twice). The
complement to the unit disk maps to the complement
of the segment [−1, 1] one-to-one.
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