Masalah Pendidikan 2006, Universiti Malaya 91

THECURRENTSTATUSOFTEACHINGCARDIOVASCULAR
ENDURANCEAMONGMALAYSIANSCHOOLCHILDREN:
THEORYANDPRACTICE

Shabeshan Rengasamy
Department of Mathematics and Science Education
Faculty of Education
University of Malaya

Salah satu tujuan pendidikan jasmani adalah untuk meningkatkan daya tahan
kardiovaskular dalam kalangan pelajar sekolah menengah. Namun demikian,
ada data yang menunjukkan
bahwa tingkat daya tahan kardiovaskular dalam kalangan pelajar sekolah menengah
tidak memuaskan. Artikel ini bertujuan untuk menjelaskan apa yang dimaksud
dengan daya tahan kardiovaskular, prinsip-prinsip latihan, tren dan status pengajaran
subjek pendidikan jasmani masa sekarang dan program intervensi untuk mengatasi
masalah tersebut dalam pengajaran pendidikan jasmani.

Physical education is denned sebagai "learning process that focuses on increasing knowledge and affecting
attitudes of the students" (Pangrazi & Darst, 1991, p. 5). One of the aims of structured physical education
classes in schools is enhancing aerobic fitness among school children (Corbin, 1987; Corbin & Pangrazi,
1998). Reports abroad indicate that state of health related fitness among school going children is not very
satisfactory (Corbin, 1987; Gutin et al., 1990; Hartano et al., 1997; Tomkinson, Olds, & Gublin, 2003; US
Department of Health & Human Services [USDHHS], 1996). Many physical educators are of the opinion that
being physically inactive is one of the reasons for being overweight, thus Attributing to risk factors for
cardiovascular diseases in adults and even among children (Gutin et al., 1990; USDHHS, 1996;

In Malaysia, cardiovascular mortality which was the third cause of death in the 1950s, became the number
one killer in the country since the 1970s (Ministry of Health, Malaysia, 2002). Tersedia data indicates that there is
a rising tren for risk factors among Malaysians in cardiovascular disease s seperti total cholesterol, blood
glucose, hypertension and obesity, and the trend is rising with advancing age (Kasmini et al., 1997; Khoo, Tan, &
Khoo, 1991; Lim et al., 2000). At the school level, data collected from selected schools in Banting, at a district in
Kuala Langat, Selangor, among 17-year-old boys and girls show that their mean distance in the Cooper s Test
was below average, indicating low aerobic fitness (Shabeshan , 2006). Malathi (2003) melaporkan bahwa the
mean distance in the Cooper ' s Test among their subjects was about 1270 meter. Shabeshan (2003) juga
melaporkan a mean of 1340 meter among college students in the Cooper s Test.

Related studies conducted abroad in the school environment have indicated that regular physical education
classes have insufficient intensity and have failed to enhance health
92 Masalah Pendidikan 2006, Universiti Malaya

related fitness among students (Baquet, Berthoin, & Praagh, 2002; Derri, Aggeloussis, & Petraki, 2004;
Fairclough, 2003; Ignico & Mahon, 1995; McKenzie 1999; Simons- Morton, Parcel, O'Hara, Blair, & Pate ,
1988; Stratton, 1997; Volpe, Rife, Melanson & Smith, 2002). It is suggested that to overcome the
abovementioned problems, a sound and effective physical education program, emphasizing the teaching of
health related fitness concepts, translating training principles into practice, educating the students on the
importance regular exercise should start in schools (Council for Physical Education for Children [COPEC],
1998; Ratliff & Ratliff, 1994; USDHHS, 1996), With that in mind, the purpose of this article is to explain what
cardiovascular endurance is and its importance, training principles and their application,

cardiovascular Endurance

Cardiovascular endurance refers to the ability of the Circulatory system to deliver oxygen and nutrients to all
the vital organs so as to sustain prolonged exercise (Bowers & Fox,
1992). Improved cardiovascular endurance is one of the most important benefits of aerobic training programs
(Plowman & Smith, 1997). Cardiovascular endurance involves the Circulatory system that includes the heart,
lungs, blood vessels and the blood. Related directly to cardiovascular endurance is V 02max or maximal oxygen
consumption. V 02max is defined as the highest oxygen consumption by the individual during a physical workout or
it is a point at which the oxygen consumption plateaus dan menunjukkan no further increase with an additional
workload (MacArdle, Katch, & Katch, 1996).

The measurement of V 02nm is recognized as the best measure for cardiovascular endurance (Lamb,
1978; MacArdle et al., 1996; Sharkey, 1990). V 02mm indicates the ability of the cardiorespiratory chain,
seperti, jantung, lungs, blood vessels and blood to supply oxygen to the cells. The importance of V 02max is
that, the higher the level of V 02max, the greater the cardiovascular endurance or aerobic fitness (Bowers &
Fox, 1992; Sharkey, 1990). This is due to the fact that there is greater oxygen intake and utilization of
oxygen and capability to produce energy through the aerobic energy metabolism to sustain activity
(MacArdle et al., 1996). If training programs or physical education classes are directed to elicit
cardiovascular endurance among students or individuals, then minimum training principles of continuous or
intermittent activity at 20-30 minutes at a frequency of two to three times a week at the required intensity at
the target heart rate need to be carried out (American College of Sports Medicine [ACSM], 1998). When
physical education classes comply to these training principles, the benefits are as follows: (a) it increases
the students '
 Masalah Pendidikan 2006, Universiti Malaya 93

related Theory

Stress, menurut Selye (1956), is the state manifested by a specific syndrome that consists of all the
nonspecifically induced changes within a biological system. This is based on the General Adaptation Syndrome
(GAS) theory proposed by Selye in 1956. The biological system referred to is the human body. Plowman and
Smith (1997) didefinisikan stress as "disruption in the body homeostasis and all attempt is madeby the body to
regain homeostasis" (p. 13). In view of this, whenever an overload is placed upon the body systems, the
systems undergo tiga tahap, yaitu: the alarm stage, the resistance stage and the exhaustion stage. Menurut
Selye (1956), normally if one undergoes the 1 st and the 2 nd stage, it is seen as sufficient for adaptation to occur
within a system. At the 1 st stage, there is resistance to the stress or the load placed upon the system and if it is
successful, then, the 2 nd stage takes place, that is, the adaptation to the stress given upon the system.

Menurut Lamb (1978), "adaptation is a more a less persistent change in structure or function
mengikuti any training or any physical activity that apparently enables the body to respond more easily to
subsequent exercise bout" (p. 8). He further explained that during an exercise bout or any physical activity,
chemical compounds in the cell are modified. The receptors in the cell are thus activated which results in the
release of reserve energy sources that are stored in the specific muscle to replenish the energy compounds
depleted by exercise. This response tends to compensate for the energy reduction caused by the muscle
contraction during exercise. If this response of releasing energy is made faster over a period of time,

Applying the GAS theory in physical education classes, students undergoing physical education
classes, or any activity related classes in schools, could stress or overload their cardio-respiratory systems.
By doing so, the cardio-respiratory system which includes the heart, lungs, the Circulatory system and the
muscular system will undergo increased cellular metabolism so as to provide the ability to sustain the
movement over a period of time (MacArdle et al., 1996 ). Thus by engaging in these types of physical
activities, several times a week, each of the systems undergoes specific adaptation that increases the
systems 'efficiency and capacity (Plowman & Smith, 1997). The magnitude of these changes depends
largely on the application of training principles seperti intensity, frequency and duration of the activity and
the body '

1968). Drills and learning activities in physical education classes should then provide activities that use proper
intensity, duration and frequency so that the cardio-respiratory system can undergo adaptation which would
translate into better fitness among students.

Training Principles

Exercise is defined as "a single acute bout of bodily exertion or muscular activity that requires an
expenditure of energy above the resting level and generally results in voluntary movement" (Plowman &
Smith, 1997, p. 5). Exercise is planned, structured and repetitive bodily movements that are performed to
improve or maintain health fitness. Physical activity which is at times used interchangeably with exercise is
defined as bodily
94 Masalah Pendidikan 2006, Universiti Malaya

movements produced by contractions of skeletal muscles that substantially increase energy expenditure.

The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM, 1998) with scientific evidence recommended that, to
elicit any measurable training effect on the physiological system, or to maintain the cardio-respiratory fitness,
intensity of the exercise bout or activities should be at least 50% - 60% maximum heart rate (HRMax), with a
duration of 20-60 menit continuous activity or intermittent (10-minute bouts accumulated throughout the day),
with a frequency of at least three times a week. Intensity is the stress or the load that stresses the individual s
cardio-respiratory system in an exercise bout, frequency is the number of sessions per day, per week or
month, and duration is the number of minutes the activity or exercise is carried out (Plowman & Smith, 1997).
Studies have indicated that if the system is stressed, adaptation does occur and the body s functional
capacity increases (Gilders, Voner, & Dudley, 1989; Paffenbarger, Hyde, Wing, & Hsieh, 1986; Wenger &
Bell, 1986). It is recommended that teachers of physical education in schools should translate the training
principles into practice so that measurable training effect is enhanced. The abovementioned studies indicated
that higher intensities with sufficient duration resulted in greater adaptation.

Application of Training Principles

Physical education classes are essential in promoting cardiovascular endurance among students. Sallis dkk. (1997) stressed that school

physical education has a primary role in promoting cardiovascular endurance and other health related fitness among youth. Studies have

indicated that if proper training principles were followed, and with supplementary programs apart from regular physical education, health fitness

levels improved (Derri et al., 2004; Dwyer, Coonan, Leitch, Hetzel, & Baghurst, 1983; Hamlin, Ross, & Sang, 2002; Ignico & Mahon, 1995;

Werner & Durham, 1988). A study by Werner and Durham (1988) investigated the effects of a 9 week supplementary physical education

program among keempat, kelima dan keenam grade students. The experimental groups received extra physical education three days per week

for twenty minutes each day. The results of the study showed that the experimental group improved significantly in the mile run compared to the

control groups. Hamlin et al. (2002) investigated the effects of a short duration of fifteen minutes exercise program apart from regular physical

education class towards cardiovascular endurance. One hundred and forty students aged between 5-12 years underwent fifteen minutes of an

exercise program three days per week for sixteen weeks. Results indicate that the experimental group improved by 6% in their cardiovascular

endurance and that the increase was significant. (2002) investigated the effects of a short duration of fifteen minutes exercise program apart

from regular physical education class towards cardiovascular endurance. One hundred and forty students aged between 5-12 years underwent

fifteen minutes of an exercise program three days per week for sixteen weeks. Results indicate that the experimental group improved by 6% in

their cardiovascular endurance and that the increase was significant. (2002) investigated the effects of a short duration of fifteen minutes

exercise program apart from regular physical education class towards cardiovascular endurance. One hundred and forty students aged between

5-12 years underwent fifteen minutes of an exercise program three days per week for sixteen weeks. Results indicate that the experimental

group improved by 6% in their cardiovascular endurance and that the increase was significant.

On the contrary, others have reported that regular physical education classes have insufficient
intensity and have failed to enhance cardiovascular endurance among students (Baquet et al., 2002;
Dragicevick, Hill, Hopkins, & Walker, 1987; Fairclough, 2003; Ingico & Mahon , 1995; Malathi, 2003;
McKenzie, 1999; Stratton, 1997; Shabeshan,
2003, 2006). In a related study, Ignico and Mahon (1995) melaporkan bahwa the subjects in the regular physical
education, after ten days, only improved by 0.5% in their mile run. Baquet et al. (2002) melaporkan a mean heart
rate of about 134 among subjects undergoing regular physical education. Faucette, McKenzie, and Patterson
(1990) found that only
 Masalah Pendidikan 2006, Universiti Malaya 95

5% of the class time batas fitness activities as the major focus and this did not comply with minimum training
principles set forth by ACSM (1998). Shabeshan (2003) investigated the impact of regular physical education
classes towards cardiovascular endurance among college students. The regular physical education class
underwent physical education for one hour thirty minutes, once a week, for ten weeks. The result indicated that
the subjects in regular physical education class improved slightly although the result was not significant, A
recent study by Shabeshan (2006) investigated the effect of regular physical education classes in enhancing
cardiovascular endurance among school going children. The result also indicated that there were no significant
differences among the groups, indicating that regular physical education classes were not effective in
enhancing cardiovascular endurance. In conclusion, it is clear that applying proper training principles during the
physical education classes does enhance cardiovascular endurance. The results of studies reviewed above are
in line with the current evidence that cardiovascular endurance increases or improves with meapplication of
appropriate training principles.

Current Trends in Teaching Physical Education

At the school level, physical education has been regarded as a significant contributor to achieve their
volume of physical activity during their physical education classes to enhance cardiovascular endurance
among children (Biddle, Sallis, & Cavill, 1998; Corbin & Pangrazi, 1998). In line with this, one of the
objectives of the Malaysian Secondary physical education program is to enhance cardiovascular endurance
among students through the teaching of game skills (Ministry of Education, 1989). To achieve the above
mentioned objective, structured physical education classes should translate the training principles into
practice and should be reflected during the teaching of physical education. Apart from the abovementioned
reasons,

Physical education is denned sebagai "learning process that focuses on increasing knowledge and
affecting attitudes of the students" (Pangrazi & Darst, 1991, p. 5). The teaching is dibagi dalam sections and
each section plays an important role in achieving the daily lesson objective. The lesson starts with a warm-up
session. Disini some calisthenics exercises would be carried out and followed by some stretching exercises.
This is followed by the activity section. Disini the actual learning of a skill takes place. The teacher
demonstrates the skill for the day. Drills are introduced to enhance the skill. This is followed by the group
activity. Disini, the students dibagi ke groups. One group of students practise the skills taught in the previous
week. The other group of students would practise the skill taught for the day. This is followed by the
application or minor game session. Disini the students would play and apply the day s skill in a game. The final
step is the cool down session. Disini some tapering exercises are done to bring down the heart rate and to
remove lactic acid and waste products from the muscles (MacArdle et al., 1996).

In Malaysia, the total time allocated for physical education is 80 minutes a week and it is dibagi ke
dalam dua 40 minutes sessions carried out on alternate day (Ministry
96 Masalah Pendidikan 2006, Universiti Malaya

of Education, 1989). In practice, most schools in the country carry out their physical education classes once a
week for 80 minutes due to the introduction of the flexi timetable in 1996 (Shabeshan, 2002). If physical
education classes are to promote cardiovascular endurance among students, then classes should comply
with minimum training principles. As Cooper suggested, any activity carried out by the individual must be
strenuous enough (intensity), long enough (duration), to produce the training effect and it should be carried
out least two or three time a week (frequency). This is also in line with the minimum standards recommended
by ACSM (1998) that activities of an aerobic nature must be followed at least 2 to 3 times a week with each
session lasting for a minimum of 20 minutes to 60 minutes at a continuous pace or in intermittent bouts at an
intensity of 50% to 60% HRMax. Since most schools in the country carry out their physical education classes
once a week, this is a direct contrast to the minimum training principles of 2 or 3 times a week by ACSM
(1998).

Studies abroad using different frequencies have melaporkan bahwa training less than 2 days a week
does not generally result in a meaningful increase in cardiovascular endurance (Gettman et al., 1976; Hickson &
Rosenkoetter, 1981; Pollock, 1973). Studies conducted locally in the school environment implementing once a
week of physical education schedule, have also reported similar findings (Malathi, 2003; Rajendran, 2006;
Shabeshan
2003, 2006). Others have also reported that sessions with reduced intensity three times a week have
indicated no improvement in cardiovascular endurance (Derri et al ,, 2004; Dwyer et al., 1983; Hamlin et al.,
2002; Ignico & Mahon, 1995; Ong, 1990; Werner & Durham, 1988). Evidence supports the notion that to
improve cardiovascular endurance, minimal training principles seperti intensity, frequency and duration need
to be fulfilled. It is apparent that Malaysian physical education does not comply with the ASCM (1998) training
guidelines to elicit minimum training effect as most of the schools in the country maintain physical education
only once a week.

Further, one of the variables in the learning process is the role played by the teacher (Pangrazi & Darst,
1991). Although many specialists and those who have diperoleh a degree in physical education teach the
subject, the majority of the schools in the country do allow teachers who do not posses any training in the field
to teach the subject (Wee,
2003). These teachers would not have the depth in translating the Kurikulum Terpadu Sekolah Menengah ( KBSM)
physical educational goals in an operational manner using effective instruction methodologies in attaining the
above mentioned goals especially the cardiovascular endurance among the school going children.

The current state of the subject and the status of cardiovascular endurance among the Malaysian
school going children is not satisfactory (Malathi, 2003; Rajendren, 2006; Shabeshan, 2003, 2006). This
reduced fitness level of cardiovascular endurance can be attributed to lack of opportunities to participate in
more frequent physical education classes. Hence, modifications in the structure and implementation
strategies are needed to improve the situation. One avenue to be considered is the frequency of the subject
itself and intervention programs. Research has indicated that increasing the frequencies and introducing
intervention programs have improved cardiovascular endurance among school children (Derri et al., 2004;
Dwyer et al., 1983; Hamlin et al., 2002; Ignico & Mahon, 1995; Werner & Durham, 1988).
 Masalah Pendidikan 2006, Universiti Malaya 97

intervention Programs

In most of the schools in Malaysia, due to the flexi timetable, physical education is conducted once a week
for 80 minutes. Although it is a compulsory subject in the curriculum as directed by the Ministry of Education,
its implementation in schools does not comply with the minimum training principles suggested by ACSM
(1998). It is then suggested that a minimum of twice a week of physical education be introduced to enhance
cardiovascular endurance (Ratliff & Ratliff, 1994). By doing so, students would receive more physical
education activities in a calendar year. Teachers can also organize more aerobic activities tailored to
enhance cardiovascular endurance among students which is in compliance with training principles. The
number of times students undergo physical education is an important factor in enhancing cardiovascular
endurance.

Further, the limited data that is available indicate that there is a decline in cardiovascular endurance among
Malaysian students (Malathi, 2003; Rajendran, 2006; Shabeshan, 2003,
2006). It is apparent that the activities carried out in school physical education may not comply with current
training principles. Modifications in the structure of teaching physical education should be introduced in schools
to ensure the continued teaching of the skill and also the development of cardiovascular endurance among the
students. Activities introduced should be more aerobic in nature as this would increase the heart rate and comply
with training principles (Baquet et al., 2002). Further, research has indicated that intervention programs inducing
additional exercises conducted have enhanced cardiovascular endurance among school going students (Baquet
et al., 2002; Derri et al., 2004; Dwyer et al., 1983; Ignico & Mahon, 1995; Ong, 1990 ; Volpe et al., 2002).

The main reason for advocating supplementary exercises in the Malaysian physical education classes
is to increase the heart rate during the practical session of physical education. The notion is that, if the target
heart rate is in the training zone for at least 15
- 20 minutes with a minimum frequency of twice a week, this is sufficient to enhance functional changes in aerobic capacity (ACSM, 1998;

Ignico & Mahon, 1995; Plowman & Smith, 1997). Incorporating a well designed intervention program into the teaching of physical education

would certainly benefit the school children. This is based on the belief that developing and maintaining desirable levels of health related fitness

has a prominent impact on general fitness and well-being of individuals (Ignico & Mahon, 1995). Children undergoing intervention programs

would enhance cardiovascular functions and this has several implications. Firstly, it would increase the functional ability of the individuals and

would motivate them to be involved in more strenuous physical activities. secondly, the enhanced functional ability would get students involved

in physical activities in their daily lives in the absence of physical education (Ignico & Mahon, 1995; Sallis & McKenzie, 1991). Finally, the

development of positive attitudes towards physical fitness activities during childhood may have a positive impact on attitudes towards physical

fitness activities during adult life (Dennison et al., 1988). If changes in the structure and teaching of physical education are implemented, then

the aims set forth by the KBSM in promoting cardiovascular endurance by integrating principles of training through physical education would

materialize. the development of positive attitudes towards physical fitness activities during childhood may have a positive impact on attitudes

towards physical fitness activities during adult life (Dennison et al., 1988). If changes in the structure and teaching of physical education are

implemented, then the aims set forth by the KBSM in promoting cardiovascular endurance by integrating principles of training through physical

education would materialize. the development of positive attitudes towards physical fitness activities during childhood may have a positive

impact on attitudes towards physical fitness activities during adult life (Dennison et al., 1988). If changes in the structure and teaching of

physical education are implemented, then the aims set forth by the KBSM in promoting cardiovascular endurance by integrating principles of

training through physical education would materialize.

98 Masalah Pendidikan 2006, Universiti Malaya

conclusion

Cardiovascular endurance is the ability of the Circulatory system to deliver oxygen and nutrients to all the
vital organs so as to sustain prolonged exercise (Fox et al., 1999). If proper training principles are followed
then cardiovascular endurance is attained. Tersedia data indicates that cardiovascular endurance among
Malaysian school going children is low. Hence, it is suggested that physical education be carried out twice a
week with sufficient intensity. This would enhance the cardiovascular endurance among school children and
may Evoke positive attitudes towards physical fitness activities later in life. As a developing nation, Malaysia
is determined to uphold the health status of its population. This is to provide the nation with healthy
manpower it needs to become a developed nation.

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