DAMS WITH IMPERVIOUS MEMBRANE OF ASPHALT CONCRETE

Kusari Laura 1, Ahmedi Figene 2

1. Msc. of Civil Engineering, University of Prishtina, Technical Faculty, p.n.,

+381 38 554 899/103, Kosovo,
Email: laurakusari@yahoo.com

2. Msc. of Civil Engineering, University of Prishtina, Technical Faculty, p.n.,

+381 38 554 899/103, Kosovo,
Email: figene_ahmedi@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT

Even though the earth dams have been constructed since the earliest times, it is the increase of our ability
to build safer and economical structures, which makes those dams even more acceptable. The earth
dams can be constructed with impervious membranes of manufactured materials such as concrete, steel
and asphalt concrete. These dams are safer against shear failure than any other type of earth or rock fill
dam. Consequently, for a given safety factor, the embankment slopes can be made steeper and the
embankment volume smaller. Also they tend to be less costly and more easily and rapidly build up than
the dams with earth core.

In this paper, the focus is given on construction of impervious asphalt concrete membrane as well as
some of its general advantages and disadvantages. Also, the circumstances favoring the use of upstream
asphalt concrete membranes are given, in order to make easier the decision whether it can be used or
not. Special attention is paid to the critical connection details, at the interfaces of membrane-plinth-cutoff.

So, it can be concluded that dams with impervious membrane of asphalt concrete are concurrent to other
types of dams, because of their easy and fast construction, and their lower costs. If the design and
construction of those dams is based on favoring circumstances, than the dams with impervious
membranes are acceptable and sustainable.

KEY WORDS
Bituminous concrete membranes, layers, plinth, dams.

INTRODUCTION

A bituminous concrete membrane as a water barrier for a dam is a competitive and cost-wise solution
then the other conventional designs, like an earth core or other alternatives. According to the 32nd bulletin
of International Committee on Large Dams (ICOLD), there are about 332 dams constructed with
bituminous concrete upstream membrane all over the world. Only in Italy, starting from the early 1959
there are 38 dams constructed with bituminous membrane. According to the same sources, the recent
dams with bituminous concrete membrane completed in Italy are: Menta Dam (1997), 90 m high and
Chiauci Dam (1997), 78 m high. If compared the time of construction of these kinds of world’s dams with
their height, we can see that there are great achievements as the height of dams is increasing every year.

Bituminous concrete membranes are frequently used as water barriers on the upstream face of dams,
thanks to some of their advantages. As early as 1300 BC, in Mesopotamia, according to Baron Van
Asbeck, the oldest known dam Assur, was constructed with a kind of primitive bituminous concrete
membrane. It is of a great importance, because it gives testimony of the antiquity of the design concept.

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As for the modern times, the construction using bituminous membranes starts in 1910 with Central Dam
built in the United States. As time went by, since 1960, improvements have been mainly in the areas of
construction equipment and construction practice, as well as improvements in some construction details,
particularly connections to the plinth. In order to have a quite clear view on the asphalt concrete
membranes used in dam construction, some general advantages and disadvantages will be listed first.

GENERAL ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF IMPERVIOUS MEMBRANES

OF ASPHALT CONCRETE

The main advantage of a dam with upstream impervious membranes of asphalt concrete, is that it has a
greater margin of safety against shear failure than any other type of earth or rock fill dam. With a suitable
drain behind it, the impervious membrane of asphalt concrete prevents seepage from entering the
embankment and so eliminates the reduction in the stability, which is associated with the development of
seepage pore pressures. This way, the embankment strength is higher and the margin of safety against
shear failure is increased for the upstream and the downstream slopes. Other advantages are that the
membranes:

• Cost less than either concrete or steel membranes,

• Are more flexible, and thus are able to follow differential settlement without cracking,
• Can be constructed simply and rapidly,
• Under certain circumstances, the leaks which develop are self-sealing,
• The parts above water level are easier to repair, than either concrete or steel,
• Can serve a secondary function as wave protection,
• Are not subject to progressive erosion under the action of water flowing through concentrated
leaks.

As for the disadvantages of impervious membranes of asphalt concrete, they are:

• The maximum height of a dam build with asphalt-concrete membrane is limited,

• The asphalt concrete changes its properties due to the temperature change.
• If the asphalt concrete is exposed to the light and ultra-violet radiation, it is becoming older, which
mean it starts loosing its properties as time goes by.

However the two last properties can be changed (lowered), with the right choice of ingredients
participating in asphalt concrete composition.

CIRCUMSTANCES FAVORING THE USE OF UPSTREAM ASPHALT CONCRETE

MEMBRANES

At sites with the foundation of hard rock or other strong material, these dams can have a large cost
advantage because the embankment can be designed with minimum volume. At such locations the dam
with impervious membrane should always be considered.

Where no impervious soil for an earth core exists within an economical distance, then a manufactured
impervious membrane should be considered. This situation is common in high mountain country, where
the little soil available often has a basically pervious nature.

Where severe wave action is expected in the reservoir, and where rock for a rip rap blanket involves an
exceptionally long distance, the cost of any type of suitable wave protection may approximate the cost of
an impervious upstream membrane which could also serve as a wave protection.

During wet weather it is not possible to accomplish much work with fine-grained soils. In circumstances
where long rainy seasons exist or where the construction period is limited, a dam with an upstream
membrane may be the most economical and satisfactory solution.

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Where the appurtenant structures are imbedded within or abutted against the embankment, their length
and cost often are directly related to the width of the dam at the base. The most economical design for the
whole structure may be obtained with an upstream impervious membrane which allows minimum base
width.

CONSTRUCTION OF IMPERVIOUS ASPHALT CONCRETE MEMBRANE

When projecting and constructing the impervious membrane of asphalt concrete, except its impervious,
basic conditions that need to be fulfilled are:

• To be stable enough, not to flow through the slopes, due to high temperatures during construction
and latter during exploitation,
• To be elastic enough and resistant to cracks, due to low temperatures,
• Even though the deformations may occur, not to change its basic function-impervious,
• To be resistant on the mechanical damages of the dam, as well as on the freezing conditions.

In order to reach the desired properties, it should be designed and constructed in a proper way. There are
basically two types of design:

• The double lining membrane, type A

• The single lining membrane, type B.

When constructing the double lining membrane, a drainage layer is between two impervious layers. Each
layer can be built with different materials and different thickness, and laid in single or multiple courses. A
binder layer (BN) is laid down and compacted. The next layer is well compacted impervious bituminous
concrete layer (I). Than the drainage layer comes, made of a bituminous open graded aggregate mix
(DR). And above the drainage layer, a second impervious bituminous concrete layer is laid and
compacted (I).The finished surface is sealed usually with a bituminous mastic (S).

During the construction of single lining membrane, the binder layer (BN) may be designed to act as a
drainage layer (DR), as well as a foundation for the membrane. Sometimes, the binder layer is referred to
as the base layer.

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 Figure I.1. Types of impervious asphalt concrete membrane
a) The double lining membrane b) The single lining membrane,

Binder Layer (BN)

Serves as a binding and leveling layer and foundation for the membrane. It is usually (4-10) cm thick and
should be placed only after a bituminous emulsion or hot bitumen is sprayed on the dam’s surface as a
tack coat. The functions of this layer are:

• Fixing the impervious layer by a good link of a aggregate,

• Transition between the bituminous concrete and the dam, in terms of deformability and
permeability,
• Leveling the irregularities of the dam’s surface,
• Bearing the capacity for the proper placing and compaction of the impervious layer.

Impervious Layer (I)

The next layer is well compacted impervious bituminous concrete layer (6-8) cm thick, which must be
watertight, stable and protected against stripping and aging.

The water-tightness results from the aggregate gradation, the percentage of asphalt-cement used and the
compaction of the mix. When the mix is compacted to a void content of 3 %, it is virtually impervious. The
compaction much beyond this point will cause the instability of the mix.

The stability is associated with the type and percentage of asphalt-cement binder and the voids content as
affected by compaction. The hot mix must be sufficiently stable to be placed and compacted on the slope
and then remain stable against creep at the service temperatures.

Stripping is an important consideration due to the constant contact between the membrane and the
reservoir. To prevent stripping, the asphalt cement content must be sufficiently high to coat all of the
aggregate particles.

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The protection against aging is provided by the protective layer, in order to reflect the ultraviolet rays, to
serve as a “sacrificial” layer.

Drainage Layer (DR)

The drainage layer (5 - 15) cm thick, is a porous bituminous mix, consisting of uniformly graded aggregate
and about 3 % asphalt cement. The minimum aggregate size is normally selected in the range (5-8) mm.
The bitumen content must be adjusted to the mix, but it is in a range (2-5) % by aggregate weight. This
layer is placed in a single coarse, with low compaction effort.

The drainage layer is often the seat of undesirable creep (due to the higher percentage of voids and the
low compaction), that is transferred to the impervious layer.

Seal Coat (S)

This layer consists of a cold- applied bitumen-emulsion or hot applied bitumen mastic, which contents
about 30 % bitumen, 70 % filler and fine sand, and sometimes fibers. It is essential because it delays
ageing process. Ageing is a result of evaporation of the volatiles of the bitumen from the surface of the
bituminous concrete, a process which hardens bitumen, makes it fragile and subject to cracking.

If coats are placed too thick, usually develops slumping. This is the reason why hot mastic seal coats
should not be thicker than about 2 mm, and it is preferred to be spread in two courses. To avoid the
slumping of thicker seal coats, the most advanced technique spreader boxes are provided with “rise and
fall” adjustment.

An example of a dam with an upstream membrane of asphalt concrete is Cesima Dam. It is a rock-fill dam
constructed during a time period (1981-1987), with a purpose of water storage for power generation.

Figure I.4. The main section of Cesima Dam

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The body of a dam, as shown in the figure, consists of quarry run limestone, placed in layers and
compacted by vibrating rollers. It is divided into two zones, the grading and permeability of which
increases from upstream to downstream.

As for the watertight membrane on the upstream face, it extends to the walls and the bottom of the whole
reservoir. The membrane consists of a single layer (I) of dense-graded bituminous mix, 8 cm thick, which
is spread over a binding layer (BN) of semi-open graded bituminous mix, 10 cm thick. The binding layer
rests on a drainage layer (DR) of crushed stone. The system of pipes and drainage galleries makes it
possible to check and measure any seepage throughout the membrane.

The downstream face of the dam is lined with a layer of top soil, placed inside appropriate prefabricated
works.

As we can see from this example, opposite from the two types of the design that we mentioned earlier,
there are many other possibilities to arrange the layers. The Cesima Dam is just a case and not the only
one when layers are spread in a different way.

SPECIAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

In order to improve the asphalt concrete dam’s safety, the following advices are:

• To control time after time the differential response to load along the membrane.
• To improve the ability of the system to yield or deform without cracking.
• To minimize the consequences of failures.
• Regular inspection of the system.
• To have an access for repairs and rehabilitation.
• To increase the durability of the outer impervious layer of the membrane.

Special attention must be paid to the critical connection details, at the interfaces of membrane-plinth-
cutoff, in order to prevent or minimize seepage.

CONCLUSION
Earlier, as an disadvantage of a dam with impervious membrane of asphalt-concrete was mentioned their
height, nowadays this is no longer a problem. Since the height of those types of dams has started to rise,
we can suggest their use, especially in the cases as followed:

• Where the foundation for a dam consists of strong rock and where is an ample supply of strong
granular embankment construction material.

• Where no impervious soil for an earth core exists within an economical distance.

• Where severe wave action is expected in the reservoir and where rock for a rip rap blanket
involves an exceptionally long distance.

• If the cost of appurtenant structures is considerable, the most economical design for the whole
structure may be achieved with an upstream impervious membrane.

• In circumstances where long rainy seasons exist or where the construction period is limited.

Therefore, it can be concluded that earth and rock fill dams with asphalt concrete membrane are
concurrent with other types of dams, because they are easily and faster build and are more economical. If
the design and construction of those dams is based on the favorising circumstances, than dams with
impervious membrane of asphalt concrete are sustainable.

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REFERENCES

1. Patrick J. Creegan & Carl L. Monismith, “Asphalt-Concrete Water Barriers for Embankment Dams”,
Published by American Society of Civil Engineers.

2. Bulletin 32a. ”Bituminous Concrete Membranes for Earth and Rock fill Dams”. International
Commission on Large Dams, ICOLD, 1982.

3. Bulletin 84. “Bituminous Cores for Fill Dams”. International Commission on Large Dams, ICOLD,
1992.

4. James L. Sherard, Richard J. Woodword, Stanley F. Giziensky, William A. Clevenger, “Earth and
Earth-Rock Dams, Engineering Problems and Design, 1963.

5. “Embankment Dams with Bituminous Facing”, Review and Recommendations. International

Commission on Large Dams, ICOLD, 1998.

6. The Italian Commission on Large Dams, “Dams in Italy”, Firenze 1997.

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