TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF THE PHILIPPINES

MANILA CAMPUS

CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS AND TESTING
CE 206
CE22FA3

“Wood”
GROUP 3
WRITTEN REPORT

SUBMITTED BY:

Leader: COLLERA, Jose ___________________

Members:
ALCANTARA, Girlie B. ___________________
NACAR, Villarozze Mae O. ___________________
SALIBIO, Roel S. ___________________
ZOILO, Samuela Mae R. ___________________

SUBMITTED TO:

ENGR. ARIEL B. MORALES, M. ENG-CE

DATE SUBMITTED:
FEBRUARY 14, 2020
CHAPTER III: WOOD
 I. Introduction about Wood

DEFINITIONS OF WOOD:
 Hard fibrous material that forms the main substance of the trunk or branches of a tree or shrub,
used for fuel or timber.
 Wood is a natural, sustainable, and recyclable construction material, with many uses.
 It is a versatile raw material and the only renewable construction material.

STRUCTURE OF WOOD:
 Bark – the outer “skin”
 Sapwood – closest to the edge that is moist, light and living layer which packed with tubes called
xylem that help a tree pipe water and nutrients up from its roots to its leaves.
 Heartwood – inside the sapwood which is much darker, harder and dead where the xylem tubes
have blocked up with resins or gums and stopped working.
 Cambium – a thin layer around the outer edge of the sapwood (and the trunk) where the tree is
actually growing outward by a little bit each year, forming those famous annual rings that tell us
how old a tree is.
 Grain – inner structure of the wood which are the lines inside running parallel to the trunk formed
by xylem tubes.
 Knots – wonky ovals interrupting the grain which are the places where the branches grew out from
the trunk of a tree. *Knots can make wood attractive, but they can also weaken its structure.

II. Physical and Mechanical Properties

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD

1. HYGROSCOPIC - refers to the property of wood that permits it to absorb and retain moisture.
And affect all the properties of wood.
2. CELLULOSE - Provides strength in tension, toughness and elasticity because of high
Polymerization.
3. DENSITY - The amount of wood substance for a given volume determines density.
4. GROWTH RATE - Growth rate affects the density of softwood differently for different species. In
general, density values for off more severely with very rapid growth than with very slow growth.
5. MOISTURE CONTENT - Water exists in wood either free water or bound water.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD

The mechanical properties of wood are its fitness and ability to resist applied or external
forces. By external force is meant any force outside of a given piece of material which tends to
deform it in any manner. It is largely such properties that determine the use of wood for structural
 and building purposes and innumerable other uses of which furniture, vehicles, implements, and
tool handles are a few common examples:
1. COMPRESSION PARALLEL TO GRAIN - In many parts of a structure, members transfer loads
from end to end compressing the fibers. Examples include studs, posts, columns and struts.
Applied stresses from this type of loading are generally considered consistent across the entire
cross-section of the member, and the fibers are uniformly stressed parallel to the grain along the
full length of the member.
2. TENSION PARALLEL TO GRAIN - Tensile stresses are similar to compression parallel to
grain in that they act across the full cross-section and tend to stretch the member.
3. BENDING - When loads are applied, structural members bend, producing tension in the fibers
along the face farthest from the applied load, and compression in the fibers along the face nearest
to the applied load.
4. MODULUS OF ELASTICITY - (also known as Young’s Modulus) measures the ratio of the
amount a wood member will deflect in proportion to an applied load. E is a measurement of
stiffness and not a strength property. E represents average properties, and Emin is the fifth
percentile property. Emin is the modulus of elasticity for beam and column stability calculations.
5. SHEAR PARALLEL TO GRAIN - Shear parallel to grain, or horizontal shear stresses, tend to
slide wood fibers over each other horizontally. High applied shear stresses most often limit design
in short, heavily-loaded, deep beams. Increasing a beam’s cross-section decreases its applied
shear stresses.
6. COMPRESSION PERPENDICULAR TO GRAIN - Where a joist, beam or similar wood member
bears on supports, the load tends to compress the fibers. The bearing area must be sufficient in
size to prevent crushing perpendicular to the grain (e.g., a sill plate with studs bearing down on it).

III. Manufacturing of Wood

1. HEAD RIG - the primary saw, cuts the tree into sawn pieces or boards.
2. EDGING - removes irregular edges that affects from sawn pieces or boards.
3. TRIMMING - the trimmer squares off ends of lumber into uniform pieces.
4. ROUGH LUMBER SORTING - pieces are separated based on dimensions and final product
production, whether the finished pieces will be unseasoned or dry.
5. PLANING - smoothest the wood surfaces and ensure that each piece has a uniform width and
thickness.
6. GRADING - assigns a grade to each piece of lumber that indicates its quality level, based on a
variety of characteristics, including its mc.
7. STICKERING - lumber destined for kiln drying production is stacked with spacers that allow air
to circulate within stack.
 8. DRYING - kiln drying speeds up the natural evaporation of the wood mc in the controlled
environment.

IV. Kinds of Wood

1) Lumber/Timber
 Lumber is a generic term that applies to various lengths of wood used as construction materials.
 Lumber is used for structural purposes primarily.
 Lumber also produces furniture, pulp, paper and other composites like plywood and particleboard.
It is also used as fuel while cooking and heating.

Two Classififcations of Lumber:

1. SOFTWOOD
-Softwood, comprises pine fir, spruce, cedar, hemlock, cypress, redwood and other conifer trees.
-Softwood is easy to saw and nail, which is why it is ideally suited to make buildings, furniture and
paper.
-Softwood used for residential home construction and remodeling of homes.
2. HARDWOOD
-Hardwood, consists of trees like oak and maple wood. These trees are mostly deciduous and
broad-leaved.
-Hardwood has many colors and patterns and is used traditionally for producing commercial
products, pallets, high-end furniture, cabinets, flooring, tables, etc.
-Hardwood used for massive construction in the field.

2) Kamagong
 Iron wood is an exotic wood known for its beauty and durability.
 This wooden materials color ranges from a deep black color to dark brown
 Its natural hardness blunts most steel cutting tools for wood working and its impact strength is so
high
 It is used for making furniture, cabinets, laying canes, tool handles, finger boards and violins,
drawing instruments, and shuttle and bobbins.
*Ideal for: Small, decorative pieces and combat tools like arnis sticks and eskrima.
3) Molave
 Molave is well known for its strong, rough and durable wood.
 One of the hardest local woods, molave has a fine texture that makes it smooth to the touch.
 Known in the Philippines for its extremely hard wood with a density of 940 kg/m3 at 15% moisture,
resistant to fungal and termite
  Ideal for: window frames, shipbuilding, structural posts, railroad tracks, and other outdoor
applications

4) Narra
 Narra has good weathering characteristics and is typically very durable regarding decay resistance.
 Easy to work with both hand and machine tools, one of Narra’s only downsides is that it has a
moderate blunting effect on cutters.
 Narra is classified as endangered and vulnerable here, and in Malaysia.
*Ideal for: furnishings, floor planks, wall panels

5) Tanguile
 Tangile is fungi and termite resistance and also depends on the end-user. However the more
mature the wood is, the more it is durable.
 Tanguile is just like Narra.
 It's relatively soft and easy to work on, but resilient enough for outdoor construction.
*Ideal for: interior finishes, cabinets, boat building

6) Yakal
 It is commonly used for important frameworks of buildings other than posts. If molave and ipil are
not available, yakal is used as posts.
 Its density is about 700kg/m3
 A high-grade timber, yakal can tolerate harsh hot and cold weathers.
*Ideal for: furniture, surface finishes, small weapons, and outdoor constructions

V. Seasoning of Lumber
Seasoning of Timber or also known Wood drying reduces the moisture content of wood before its
use. It is the process of removing the moisture content from wood to minimize structural problems
when used in construction or to provide less smoke and more uniform combustion when used as
firewood.

1. AIR-DRIED LUMBER / NATURAL SEASONING - The traditional method of seasoning timber

was to stack it in air and let the heat of the atmosphere and the natural air movement around the
stocked timber removes the moisture. It’s also the most economical method for removing water
from wood.

Advantages of Natural Seasoning of Wood

• To increase dimensional stability. Wood shrinks across the grain (not along the grain) when
it dries. If wood is cut to size before it is seasoned, it will shrink during drying and thus be
undersized in its final form.
• To reduce or eliminate attack by decay or stain. Wood that is dried below 20 percent
moisture content is not susceptible to decay or sap staining.
• To reduce the weight. The weight of lumber will be reduced by 35 percent or more by
removing most of the water in the wood or, as we say, by "seasoning."
• To increase the strength. As wood dries, the stiffness, hardness and strength of the wood
increases. Most species of wood increase their strength characteristics by 50 percent or more
during the process of drying to 15 percent moisture content.

2. KILN-DRIED LUMBER - Kiln-dried wood is wood that has been dried in an oven (kiln). With a
kiln, you can control the environment such as temperature, humidity, and steam levels for a set
period of time. Allow to dry wood to the desired moisture content faster than air-drying.

3. UNSEASONED WOOD - Unseasoned or green wood is wood that has been freshly sawn from a
log. It has a very high moisture content compared to seasoned wood. While this moisture will
eventually evaporate by itself, a dry kiln is usually used to speed up the process.

4. DEHUMIDIFICATION AND SOLAR KILNS -This method uses electricity to dry the lumber. Solar
kilns use the suns energy to produce needed heat and are the most economical. Those current
uses can handle only small amount of wood.

5. CHEMICAL SEASONING AND PRESERVATIVES OF WOOD

There are 3 main classes of preservatives:
- Oily substances insoluble in water
- Water-soluble salts
- Salts carried in volatile solvent other than water

1) Oily Preservatives
Coal-tar is the best known most widely used preservative that is obtained from bituminous coal.
• Available in many grades which gives satisfactory results
• Insoluble in water hence permanent preservative
• Highly toxic to fungi
• High degree of penetration

Disadvantages of using Oily Preservatives:

• Timber became inflammable for a time after treatment
• Disagreeable odor
 • Difficult to be covered with paints

2) Water Soluble Preservatives

Zinc chloride most extensively used water preservative it is readily available, clean and odorless.

3) Salts
Another recent product is AsCu which is a copper and arsenic compound is used as a preservative
available in the form of powder.
• Odorless and leave on strains on timber
• Good fire resistant

*Painting
Acts not only as a preservative but it also enhances the appearance of the treated surface
Only well-seasoned timber should be painted which entrapped moisture by closing of timber pores.

VI. Testing of Wood

1. MOISTURE METER - It is used to measure the percentage of water in a given substance.
2. TENSILE TEST - It is commonly used to determine the maximum load tensile strength that a
material or a product can withstand. Tensile testing may be based on the load value or elongation
value.
3. FLEXURAL TESTING - It is used to determine the flex or bending properties of a material.
4. COMPRESSION TEST - It is used to observe the anisotropic behaviour of the wood and to
determine the modulus of elasticity, modulus of stiffness and comprehensive strength of the wood.
Compression Test

VII. Advantages and Disadvantages of Wood

ADVANTAGES:
1) Thermal Properties
- Wood does not practically expand against heat. On the contrary, by the effect of heat, it dries out
and gains strength.
2) Acoustic Properties
- Wood, as a light material, is not very perfect for sound isolation; But it is ideal for sound
absorption. Wood prevents echo and noise by absorbing sound. For this reason, it is extensively
used in concert halls.
3) Electrical Properties
- Resistance to electrical current of a completely dry wood is equal to that of phenol formaldehyde.
Static electricity that is dangerous for human health is not observed in wood unlike metal, plastic
and other materials. For this reason, wood is preferred as a healthy material.
4) Mechanical Properties
- Although wood is a light material, its strength is quite high. For this kind of properties, wood and
laminated wood is used in wide-gap constructions like health centers and sport halls.
5) Mechanical Properties
- Although wood is a light material, its strength is quite high. For this kind of properties, wood and
laminated wood is used in wide-gap constructions like health centers and sport halls.
6) Oxidation Properties
- Although wood has oxidation characteristics in some way, it is not the kind of oxidation seen in
metals. Metals get rust, wood doesn’t. For such characteristics, use of wood is preferred to avoid
rust when necessary.
7) Working Properties
- It is easy to repair and maintain wood. While old woods can be renewed by special touches other
materials are highly difficult and costly to maintain and to repair.
8) Variation
- There are more than 5000 kinds of woods in the world. Their specific gravity, macroscopic and
microscopic structures are different. Accordingly, their physical, thermal, acoustic, electrical and
mechanical properties are also different. Because of this variety, it is possible to find wood suitable
for needs.

DISADVANTAGES:

1) Shrinkage and Swelling of Wood

- Wood is a hygroscopic material. This means that it will adsorb surrounding condensable vapors
and loses moisture to air below the fiber saturation point.
2) Deterioration of Wood
- The agents causing the deterioration and destruction of wood.
Two categories: Biotic (biological) and abiotic (non-biological)

BIOTIC AGENTS include decay and mold fungi, bacteria and insects.

 Fungi
Oxygen is essential for the growth of fungi. In the absence of oxygen, no fungi will grow. It is
well known that storage of wood under water will protect them against attacks by fungi.

 Moisture
Generally, wood will not be attacked by the common fungi at moisture contents below the
fiber saturation point.

 Insects
 Insects are only second to decay fungi in the economic loss they cause to lumber and wood
in service. Insects can be separated into four categories: Termites, powder post beetles,
carpenter ants and marine borers.

ABIOTIC AGENTS include sunlight, wind, water, certain chemicals and fire.

 Sunlight
The type of damage, such as loss of gloss, chalking, elasticity, adhesion, and color change,
varies depending on the material sensitivity and the spectrum of sunlight.

 Fire
Wood easily catches fire. Wood consists of organic compounds which are composed mainly
of carbon and hydrogen. They can combine with oxygen and burns. Because of these
properties, wood is classified as a combustible material.

 Fire Retardants
It is impossible to make wood noncombustible like inorganic materials. In order to prevent
potential dangers, wood can be processed in some fire retardants.
Two categories: Coating and Chemicals-Water Soluble Salts
 Coating - are used to reduce the formation of volatile, flammable gases by promoting
rapid decomposition of the wood surface to charcoal and water.
 Chemicals- Water Soluble Salts– water soluble salts e.g. diammonium phosphate,
ammonium tetraborate, sodium acetate, alkali silicates, borax are used against fire
hazards in wood. Wood can be impregnated by these chemicals. This type of
process can contribute to the increase of the burning point and retard spread and
penetration of flame.