Transformer Basics

Transformers are electrical devices consisting of two or more coils of wire used to
transfer electrical energy by means of a changing magnetic field

One of the main reasons that we use alternating AC voltages and currents in our homes
and workplace’s is that AC supplies can be easily generated at a convenient voltage,
transformed (hence the name transformer) into much higher voltages and then
distributed around the country using a national grid of pylons and cables over very long
distances.

The reason for transforming the voltage to a much higher level is that higher distribution
voltages implies lower currents for the same power and therefore lower I 2*R losses
along the networked grid of cables. These higher AC transmission voltages and
currents can then be reduced to a much lower, safer and usable voltage level where it
can be used to supply electrical equipment in our homes and workplaces, and all this is
possible thanks to the basic Voltage Transformer.

A Typical Voltage Transformer

The Voltage Transformer can be thought of as an electrical component rather than an
electronic component. A transformer basically is very simple static (or stationary)
electro-magnetic passive electrical device that works on the principle of Faraday’s law
of induction by converting electrical energy from one value to another.

The transformer does this by linking together two or more electrical circuits using a
common oscillating magnetic circuit which is produced by the transformer itself. A
transformer operates on the principals of “electromagnetic induction”, in the form
of Mutual Induction.

Mutual induction is the process by which a coil of wire magnetically induces a voltage
into another coil located in close proximity to it. Then we can say that transformers work
in the “magnetic domain”, and transformers get their name from the fact that they
“transform” one voltage or current level into another.

Transformers are capable of either increasing or decreasing the voltage and current
levels of their supply, without modifying its frequency, or the amount of electrical power
being transferred from one winding to another via the magnetic circuit.

A single phase voltage transformer basically consists of two electrical coils of wire, one
called the “Primary Winding” and another called the “Secondary Winding”. For this
tutorial we will define the “primary” side of the transformer as the side that usually takes
power, and the “secondary” as the side that usually delivers power. In a single-phase
voltage transformer, the primary is usually the side with the higher voltage.

These two coils are not in electrical contact with each other but are instead wrapped
together around a common closed magnetic iron circuit called the “core”. This soft iron
core is not solid but made up of individual laminations connected together to help
reduce the core’s losses.

The two coil windings are electrically isolated from each other but are magnetically
linked through the common core allowing electrical power to be transferred from one
coil to the other. When an electric current passed through the primary winding, a
magnetic field is developed which induces a voltage into the secondary winding as
shown.

Single Phase Voltage Transformer

In other words, for a transformer there is no direct electrical connection between the two
coil windings, thereby giving it the name also of an Isolation Transformer. Generally,
the primary winding of a transformer is connected to the input voltage supply and
converts or transforms the electrical power into a magnetic field. While the job of the
secondary winding is to convert this alternating magnetic field into electrical power
producing the required output voltage as shown.

Transformer Construction (single-phase)

 Where:
   VP  –  is the Primary Voltage
   VS  –  is the Secondary Voltage
   NP  –  is the Number of Primary Windings
   NS  –  is the Number of Secondary Windings
   Φ (phi)  –  is the Flux Linkage

Notice that the two coil windings are not electrically connected but are only linked
magnetically. A single-phase transformer can operate to either increase or decrease the
voltage applied to the primary winding. When a transformer is used to “increase” the
voltage on its secondary winding with respect to the primary, it is called a Step-up
transformer. When it is used to “decrease” the voltage on the secondary winding with
respect to the primary it is called a Step-down transformer.
However, a third condition exists in which a transformer produces the same voltage on
its secondary as is applied to its primary winding. In other words, its output is identical
with respect to voltage, current and power transferred. This type of transformer is called
an “Impedance Transformer” and is mainly used for impedance matching or the
isolation of adjoining electrical circuits.

The difference in voltage between the primary and the secondary windings is achieved
by changing the number of coil turns in the primary winding ( NP ) compared to the
number of coil turns on the secondary winding ( NS ).

As the transformer is basically a linear device, a ratio now exists between the number of
turns of the primary coil divided by the number of turns of the secondary coil. This ratio,
called the ratio of transformation, more commonly known as a transformer “turns ratio”,
(TR). This turns ratio value dictates the operation of the transformer and the
corresponding voltage available on the secondary winding.

It is necessary to know the ratio of the number of turns of wire on the primary winding
compared to the secondary winding. The turns ratio, which has no units, compares the
two windings in order and is written with a colon, such as 3:1 (3-to-1). This means in this
example, that if there are 3 volts on the primary winding there will be 1 volt on the
secondary winding, 3 volts-to-1 volt. Then we can see that if the ratio between the
number of turns changes the resulting voltages must also change by the same ratio,
and this is true.

Transformers are all about “ratios”. The ratio of the primary to the secondary, the ratio of
the input to the output, and the turns ratio of any given transformer will be the same as
its voltage ratio. In other words for a transformer: “turns ratio = voltage ratio”. The actual
number of turns of wire on any winding is generally not important, just the turns ratio
and this relationship is given as:

A Transformers Turns Ratio

Assuming an ideal transformer and the phase angles:  ΦP ≡ ΦS

Note that the order of the numbers when expressing a transformer turns ratio value is
very important as the turns ratio 3:1 expresses a very different transformer relationship
and output voltage than one in which the turns ratio is given as: 1:3.

Transformer Basics Example No1

A voltage transformer has 1500 turns of wire on its primary coil and 500 turns of wire for
its secondary coil. What will be the turns ratio (TR) of the transformer.

This ratio of 3:1 (3-to-1) simply means that there are three primary windings for every
one secondary winding. As the ratio moves from a larger number on the left to a smaller
number on the right, the primary voltage is therefore stepped down in value as shown.

Transformer Basics Example No2

If 240 volts rms is applied to the primary winding of the same transformer above, what
will be the resulting secondary no load voltage.

Again confirming that the transformer is a “step-down” transformer as the primary

voltage is 240 volts and the corresponding secondary voltage is lower at 80 volts.

Then the main purpose of a transformer is to transform voltages at preset ratios and we
can see that the primary winding has a set amount or number of windings (coils of wire)
on it to suit the input voltage. If the secondary output voltage is to be the same value as
the input voltage on the primary winding, then the same number of coil turns must be
wound onto the secondary core as there are on the primary core giving an even turns
ratio of 1:1 (1-to-1). In other words, one coil turns on the secondary to one coil turn on
the primary.

If the output secondary voltage is to be greater or higher than the input voltage, (step-up
transformer) then there must be more turns on the secondary giving a turns ratio of 1: N
(1-to-N), where N represents the turns ratio number. Likewise, if it is required that the
secondary voltage is to be lower or less than the primary, (step-down transformer) then
the number of secondary windings must be less giving a turns ratio of N:1 (N-to-1).
Transformer Action
We have seen that the number of coil turns on the secondary winding compared to the
primary winding, the turns ratio, affects the amount of voltage available from the
secondary coil. But if the two windings are electrically isolated from each other, how is
this secondary voltage produced?

We have said previously that a transformer basically consists of two coils wound around
a common soft iron core. When an alternating voltage ( VP ) is applied to the primary
coil, current flows through the coil which in turn sets up a magnetic field around itself,
called mutual inductance, by this current flow according to Faraday’s Law of
electromagnetic induction. The strength of the magnetic field builds up as the current
flow rises from zero to its maximum value which is given as dΦ/dt.

As the magnetic lines of force setup by this electromagnet expand outward from the coil
the soft iron core forms a path for and concentrates the magnetic flux. This magnetic
flux links the turns of both windings as it increases and decreases in opposite directions
under the influence of the AC supply.

However, the strength of the magnetic field induced into the soft iron core depends
upon the amount of current and the number of turns in the winding. When current is
reduced, the magnetic field strength reduces.

When the magnetic lines of flux flow around the core, they pass through the turns of the
secondary winding, causing a voltage to be induced into the secondary coil. The
amount of voltage induced will be determined by: N*dΦ/dt (Faraday’s Law), where N is
the number of coil turns. Also this induced voltage has the same frequency as the
primary winding voltage.

Then we can see that the same voltage is induced in each coil turn of both windings
because the same magnetic flux links the turns of both the windings together. As a
result, the total induced voltage in each winding is directly proportional to the number of
turns in that winding. However, the peak amplitude of the output voltage available on
the secondary winding will be reduced if the magnetic losses of the core are high.

If we want the primary coil to produce a stronger magnetic field to overcome the cores
magnetic losses, we can either send a larger current through the coil, or keep the same
current flowing, and instead increase the number of coil turns ( NP ) of the winding. The
product of amperes times turns is called the “ampere-turns”, which determines the
magnetizing force of the coil.

So assuming we have a transformer with a single turn in the primary, and only one turn
in the secondary. If one volt is applied to the one turn of the primary coil, assuming no
losses, enough current must flow and enough magnetic flux generated to induce one
volt in the single turn of the secondary. That is, each winding supports the same number
of volts per turn.

As the magnetic flux varies sinusoidally, Φ = Φmax sinωt, then the basic relationship
between induced emf, ( E ) in a coil winding of N turns is given by:

emf = turns x rate of change

 Where:
   ƒ   –  is the flux frequency in Hertz,  =  ω/2π
   Ν   –  is the number of coil windings.
   Φ   –  is the amount of flux in webers

This is known as the Transformer EMF Equation. For the primary winding emf, N will
be the number of primary turns, ( NP ) and for the secondary winding emf, N will be the
number of secondary turns, ( NS ).

Also please note that as transformers require an alternating magnetic flux to operate
correctly, transformers cannot therefore be used to transform or supply DC voltages or
currents, since the magnetic field must be changing to induce a voltage in the
secondary winding. In other words, transformers DO NOT operate on steady state
DC voltages, only alternating or pulsating voltages.
If a transformers primary winding was connected to a DC supply, the inductive
reactance of the winding would be zero as DC has no frequency, so the effective
impedance of the winding will therefore be very low and equal only to the resistance of
the copper used. Thus the winding will draw a very high current from the DC supply
causing it to overheat and eventually burn out, because as we know I = V/R.

Transformer Basics Example No3

A single phase transformer has 480 turns on the primary winding and 90 turns on the
secondary winding. The maximum value of the magnetic flux density is 1.1T when 2200
volts, 50Hz is applied to the transformer primary winding. Calculate:

a). The maximum flux in the core.

b). The cross-sectional area of the core.

c). The secondary induced emf.

Electrical Power in a Transformer
Another one of the transformer basics parameters is its power rating. The power rating
of a transformer is obtained by simply multiplying the current by the voltage to obtain a
rating in Volt-amperes, ( VA ). Small single phase transformers may be rated in volt-
amperes only, but much larger power transformers are rated in units of Kilo volt-
amperes, ( kVA ) where 1 kilo volt-ampere is equal to 1,000 volt-amperes, and units of
Mega volt-amperes, ( MVA ) where 1 mega volt-ampere is equal to 1 million volt-
amperes.

In an ideal transformer (ignoring any losses), the power available in the secondary
winding will be the same as the power in the primary winding, they are constant wattage
devices and do not change the power only the voltage to current ratio. Thus, in an ideal
transformer the Power Ratio is equal to one (unity) as the voltage, V multiplied by the
current, I will remain constant.

That is the electric power at one voltage/current level on the primary is “transformed”
into electric power, at the same frequency, to the same voltage/current level on the
secondary side. Although the transformer can step-up (or step-down) voltage, it cannot
step-up power. Thus, when a transformer steps-up a voltage, it steps-down the current
and vice-versa, so that the output power is always at the same value as the input
power. Then we can say that primary power equals secondary power, ( PP = PS ).

Power in a Transformer

Where: ΦP is the primary phase angle and ΦS is the secondary phase angle.
Note that since power loss is proportional to the square of the current being transmitted,
that is: I2R, increasing the voltage, let’s say doubling ( ×2 ) the voltage would decrease
the current by the same amount, ( ÷2 ) while delivering the same amount of power to
the load and therefore reducing losses by factor of 4. If the voltage was increased by a
factor of 10, the current would decrease by the same factor reducing overall losses by
factor of 100.

Transformer Basics – Efficiency

A transformer does not require any moving parts to transfer energy. This means that
there is no friction or windage losses associated with other electrical machines.
However, transformers do suffer from other types of losses called “copper losses” and
“iron losses” but generally these are quite small.

Copper losses, also known as I 2R loss is the electrical power which is lost in heat as a
result of circulating the currents around the transformers copper windings, hence the
name. Copper losses represents the greatest loss in the operation of a transformer. The
actual watts of power lost can be determined (in each winding) by squaring the amperes
and multiplying by the resistance in ohms of the winding (I 2R).

Iron losses, also known as hysteresis is the lagging of the magnetic molecules within
the core, in response to the alternating magnetic flux. This lagging (or out-of-phase)
condition is due to the fact that it requires power to reverse magnetic molecules; they do
not reverse until the flux has attained sufficient force to reverse them.

Their reversal results in friction, and friction produces heat in the core which is a form of
power loss. Hysteresis within the transformer can be reduced by making the core from
special steel alloys.

The intensity of power loss in a transformer determines its efficiency. The efficiency of a
transformer is reflected in power (wattage) loss between the primary (input) and
secondary (output) windings. Then the resulting efficiency of a transformer is equal to
the ratio of the power output of the secondary winding, P S to the power input of the
primary winding, PP and is therefore high.

An ideal transformer is 100% efficient because it delivers all the energy it receives. Real
transformers on the other hand are not 100% efficient and at full load, the efficiency of a
transformer is between 94% to 96% which is quiet good. For a transformer operating
with a constant voltage and frequency with a very high capacity, the efficiency may be
as high as 98%. The efficiency, η of a transformer is given as:

Transformer Efficiency
Where: Input, Output and Losses are all expressed in units of power.

Generally when dealing with transformers, the primary watts are called “volt-amps”, VA
to differentiate them from the secondary watts. Then the efficiency equation above can
be modified to:

It is sometimes easier to remember the relationship between the transformers input,

output and efficiency by using pictures. Here the three quantities of VA, W and η have
been superimposed into a triangle giving power in watts at the top with volt-amps and
efficiency at the bottom. This arrangement represents the actual position of each
quantity in the efficiency formulas.

Transformer Efficiency Triangle

 
and transposing the above triangle quantities gives us the following combinations of the
same equation:

Then, to find Watts (output) = VA x eff., or to find VA (input) = W/eff., or to find

Efficiency, eff. = W/VA, etc.

Transformer Basics Summary

Then to summarize this transformer basic tutorial. A Transformer changes the voltage
level (or current level) on its input winding to another value on its output winding using a
magnetic field. A transformer consists of two electrically isolated coils and operates on
Faraday’s principal of “mutual induction”, in which an EMF is induced in the
transformers secondary coil by the magnetic flux generated by the voltages and
currents flowing in the primary coil winding.

Both the primary and secondary coil windings are wrapped around a common soft iron
core made of individual laminations to reduce eddy current and power losses. The
primary winding of the transformer is connected to the AC power source which must be
sinusoidal in nature, while the secondary winding supplies electrical power to the load.
Having said that, a transformer could be used in reverse with the supply connected to
the secondary winding provided the voltage and current ratings are observed.

We can represent the transformer in block diagram form as follows:

Basic Representation of the Transformer

 

The ratio of the transformers primary and secondary windings with respect to each other
produces either a step-up voltage transformer or a step-down voltage transformer with
the ratio between the number of primary turns to the number of secondary turns being
called the “turns ratio” or “transformer ratio”.

If this ratio is less than unity, n < 1 then NS is greater than NP and the transformer is
classed as a step-up transformer. If this ratio is greater than unity, n > 1, that is NP is
greater than NS, the transformer is classed as a step-down transformer. Note that single
phase step-down transformer can also be used as a step-up transformer simply by
reversing its connections and making the low voltage winding its primary, and vice versa
as long as the transformer is operated within its original VA design rating.

If the turns ratio is equal to unity, that is n = 1, then both the primary and secondary
have the same number of coil turns so therefore the voltages and currents will be the
same for both the primary and secondary windings.

This type of 1:1 transformer is classed as an isolation transformer as both the primary
and secondary windings of the transformer have the same number of volts per turn. The
efficiency of a transformer is the ratio of the power it delivers to the load to the power it
absorbs from the supply. In an ideal transformer there are no losses so no loss of power
then PIN = POUT.

In the next tutorial to do with Transformer Basics, we will look at the physical
Construction of a Transformer and see the different magnetic core types and
laminations used to support the primary and secondary windings.

Transformer Construction
A simple two-winding transformer construction consists of each winding being wound on
a separate soft iron limb or core which provides the necessary magnetic circuit

This magnetic circuit, know more commonly as the “transformer core” is designed to
provide a path for the magnetic field to flow around, which is necessary for induction of
the voltage between the two windings.

However, this type of transformer construction where the two windings are wound on
separate limbs is not very efficient since the primary and secondary windings are well
separated from each other. This results in a low magnetic coupling between the two
windings as well as large amounts of magnetic flux leakage from the transformer itself.
But as well as this “O” shapes construction, there are different types of “transformer
construction” and designs available which are used to overcome these inefficiencies
producing a smaller more compact transformer.

The efficiency of a simple transformer construction can be improved by bringing the two
windings within close contact with each other thereby improving the magnetic coupling.
Increasing and concentrating the magnetic circuit around the coils may improve the
magnetic coupling between the two windings, but it also has the effect of increasing the
magnetic losses of the transformer core.

As well as providing a low reluctance path for the magnetic field, the core is designed to
prevent circulating electric currents within the iron core itself. Circulating currents, called
“eddy currents”, cause heating and energy losses within the core decreasing the
transformers efficiency.

These losses are due mainly to voltages induced in the iron circuit, which is constantly
being subjected to the alternating magnetic fields setup by the external sinusoidal
supply voltage. One way to reduce these unwanted power losses is to construct the
transformer core from thin steel laminations.
In all types of transformer construction, the central iron core is constructed from of a
highly permeable material made from thin silicon steel laminations. These thin
laminations are assembled together to provide the required magnetic path with the
minimum of magnetic losses. The resistivity of the steel sheet itself is high, thus
reducing any eddy current loss by making the laminations very thin.

These steel transformer laminations vary in thickness’s from between 0.25mm to 0.5mm
and as steel is a conductor, the laminations and any fixing studs, rivets or bolts are
electrically insulated from each other by a very thin coating of insulating varnish or by
the use of an oxide layer on the surface.

Transformer Construction of the Core

Generally, the name associated with the construction of a transformer is dependent
upon how the primary and secondary windings are wound around the central laminated
steel core. The two most common and basic designs of transformer construction are the
Closed-core Transformer and the Shell-core Transformer.

In the “closed-core” type (core form) transformer, the primary and secondary windings
are wound outside and surround the core ring. In the “shell type” (shell form)
transformer, the primary and secondary windings pass inside the steel magnetic circuit
(core) which forms a shell around the windings as shown below.

Transformer Core Construction

 

In both types of transformer core design, the magnetic flux linking the primary and
secondary windings travels entirely within the core with no loss of magnetic flux through
air. In the core type transformer construction, one half of each winding is wrapped
around each leg (or limb) of the transformers magnetic circuit as shown above.

The coils are not arranged with the primary winding on one leg and the secondary on
the other but instead half of the primary winding and half of the secondary winding are
placed one over the other concentrically on each leg in order to increase magnetic
coupling allowing practically all of the magnetic lines of force go through both the
primary and secondary windings at the same time. However, with this type of
transformer construction, a small percentage of the magnetic lines of force flow outside
of the core, and this is called “leakage flux”.

Shell type transformer cores overcome this leakage flux as both the primary and
secondary windings are wound on the same centre leg or limb which has twice the
cross-sectional area of the two outer limbs. The advantage here is that the magnetic
flux has two closed magnetic paths to flow around external to the coils on both left and
right hand sides before returning back to the central coils.

This means that the magnetic flux circulating around the outer limbs of this type of
transformer construction is equal to Φ/2. As the magnetic flux has a closed path around
the coils, this has the advantage of decreasing core losses and increasing overall
efficiency.

Transformer Laminations
But you may be wondering as to how the primary and secondary windings are wound
around these laminated iron or steel cores for this types of transformer constructions.
The coils are firstly wound on a former which has a cylindrical, rectangular or oval type
cross section to suit the construction of the laminated core. In both the shell and core
type transformer constructions, in order to mount the coil windings, the individual
laminations are stamped or punched out from larger steel sheets and formed into strips
of thin steel resembling the letters “E”s, “L”s, “U”s and “I”s as shown below.

Transformer Core Types

 

These lamination stampings when connected together form the required core shape.
For example, two “E” stampings plus two end closing “I” stampings to give an E-I core
forming one element of a standard shell-type transformer core. These individual
laminations are tightly butted together during the transformers construction to reduce
the reluctance of the air gap at the joints producing a highly saturated magnetic flux
density.

Transformer core laminations are usually stacked alternately to each other to produce
an overlapping joint with more lamination pairs being added to make up the correct core
thickness. This alternate stacking of the laminations also gives the transformer the
advantage of reduced flux leakage and iron losses. E-I core laminated transformer
construction is mostly used in isolation transformers, step-up and step-down
transformers as well as auto transformers.

Transformer Winding Arrangements

Transformer windings form another important part of a transformer construction,
because they are the main current-carrying conductors wound around the laminated
sections of the core. In a single-phase two winding transformer, two windings would be
present as shown. The one which is connected to the voltage source and creates the
magnetic flux called the primary winding, and the second winding called the secondary
in which a voltage is induced as a result of mutual induction.

If the secondary output voltage is less than that of the primary input voltage the
transformer is known as a “Step-down Transformer”. If the secondary output voltage is
greater then the primary input voltage it is called a “Step-up Transformer”.
Core-type Construction

The type of wire used as the main current carrying conductor in a transformer winding is
either copper or aluminum. While aluminum wire is lighter and generally less expensive
than copper wire, a larger cross sectional area of conductor must be used to carry the
same amount of current as with copper so it is used mainly in larger power transformer
applications.

Small kVA power and voltage transformers used in low voltage electrical and electronic
circuits tend to use copper conductors as these have a higher mechanical strength and
smaller conductor size than equivalent aluminium types. The downside is that when
complete with their core, these transformers are much heavier.

Transformer windings and coils can be broadly classified in to concentric coils and
sandwiched coils. In core-type transformer construction, the windings are usually
arranged concentrically around the core limb as shown above with the higher voltage
primary winding being wound over the lower voltage secondary winding.

Sandwiched or “pancake” coils consist of flat conductors wound in a spiral form and are
so named due to the arrangement of conductors into discs. Alternate discs are made to
spiral from outside towards the centre in an interleaved arrangement with individual
coils being stacked together and separated by insulating materials such as paper of
plastic sheet. Sandwich coils and windings are more common with shell type core
construction.

Helical Windings also known as screw windings are another very common cylindrical
coil arrangement used in low voltage high current transformer applications. The
windings are made up of large cross sectional rectangular conductors wound on its side
with the insulated strands wound in parallel continuously along the length of the
cylinder, with suitable spacers inserted between adjacent turns or discs to minimize
circulating currents between the parallel strands. The coil progresses outwards as a
helix resembling that of a corkscrew.
Transformer Core

The insulation used to prevent the conductors shorting together in a transformer is

usually a thin layer of varnish or enamel in air cooled transformers. This thin varnish or
enamel paint is painted onto the wire before it is wound around the core.

In larger power and distribution transformers the conductors are insulated from each
other using oil impregnated paper or cloth. The whole core and windings is immersed
and sealed in a protective tank containing transformer oil. The transformer oil acts as an
insulator and also as a coolant.

Transformer Dot Orientation

We cannot just simply take a laminated core and wrap one of the coil configurations
around it. We could but we may find that the secondary voltage and current may be out-
of-phase with that of the primary voltage and current. The two coil windings do have a
distinct orientation of one with respect to the other. Either coil could be wound around
the core clockwise or anticlockwise so to keep track of their relative orientations “dots”
are used to identify a given end of each winding.

This method of identifying the orientation or direction of a transformers windings is

called the “dot convention”. Then a transformers windings are wound so that the correct
phase relations exist between the winding voltages with the transformers polarity being
defined as the relative polarity of the secondary voltage with respect to the primary
voltage as shown below.

Transformer Construction using Dot Orientation

 

The first transformer shows its two “dots” side by side on the two windings. The current
leaving the secondary dot is “in-phase” with the current entering the primary side dot.
Thus the polarities of the voltages at the dotted ends are also in-phase so when the
voltage is positive at the dotted end of the primary coil, the voltage across the
secondary coil is also positive at the dotted end.

The second transformer shows the two dots at opposite ends of the windings which
means that the transformers primary and secondary coil windings are wound in opposite
directions. The result of this is that the current leaving the secondary dot is 180 o “out-of-
phase” with the current entering the primary dot. So the polarities of the voltages at the
dotted ends are also out-of-phase so when the voltage is positive at the dotted end of
the primary coil, the voltage across the corresponding secondary coil will be negative.

Then the construction of a transformer can be such that the secondary voltage may be
either “in-phase” or “out-of-phase” with respect to the primary voltage. In transformers
which have a number of different secondary windings, each of which is electrically
isolated from each other it is important to know the dot polarity of the secondary
windings so that they can be connected together in series-aiding (secondary voltage is
summed) or series-opposing (the secondary voltage is the difference) configurations.

The ability to adjust the turns ratio of a transformer is often desirable to compensate for
the effects of variations in the primary supply voltage, the regulation of the transformer
or varying load conditions. Voltage control of the transformer is generally performed by
changing the turns ratio and therefore its voltage ratio whereby a part of the primary
winding on the high voltage side is tapped out allowing for easy adjustment. The tapping
is preferred on the high voltage side as the volts per turn are lower than the low voltage
secondary side.

Transformer Primary Tap Changes

In this simple example, the primary tap changes are calculated for a supply voltage
change of ±5%, but any value can be chosen. Some transformers may have two or
more primary or two or more secondary windings for use in different applications
providing different voltages from a single core.

Transformer Core Losses

The ability of iron or steel to carry magnetic flux is much greater than it is in air, and this
ability to allow magnetic flux to flow is called permeability. Most transformer cores are
constructed from low carbon steels which can have permeabilities in the order of 1500
compared with just 1.0 for air.

This means that a steel laminated core can carry a magnetic flux 1500 times better than
that of air. However, when a magnetic flux flows in a transformers steel core, two types
of losses occur in the steel. One termed “eddy current losses” and the other termed
“hysteresis losses”.

Hysteresis Losses

Transformer Hysteresis Losses are caused because of the friction of the molecules
against the flow of the magnetic lines of force required to magnetise the core, which are
constantly changing in value and direction first in one direction and then the other due to
the influence of the sinusoidal supply voltage.

This molecular friction causes heat to be developed which represents an energy loss to
the transformer. Excessive heat loss can overtime shorten the life of the insulating
materials used in the manufacture of the windings and structures. Therefore, cooling of
a transformer is important.
Also, transformers are designed to operate at a particular supply frequency. Lowering
the frequency of the supply will result in increased hysteresis and higher temperature in
the iron core. So reducing the supply frequency from 60 Hertz to 50 Hertz will raise the
amount of hysteresis present, decreased the VA capacity of the transformer.

Eddy Current Losses

Transformer Eddy Current Losses on the other hand are caused by the flow of
circulating currents induced into the steel caused by the flow of the magnetic flux
around the core. These circulating currents are generated because to the magnetic flux
the core is acting like a single loop of wire. Since the iron core is a good conductor, the
eddy currents induced by a solid iron core will be large.

Eddy currents do not contribute anything towards the usefulness of the transformer but
instead they oppose the flow of the induced current by acting like a negative force
generating resistive heating and power loss within the core.

Laminating the Iron Core

Eddy current losses within a transformer core cannot be eliminated completely, but they
can be greatly reduced and controlled by reducing the thickness of the steel core.
Instead of having one big solid iron core as the magnetic core material of the
transformer or coil, the magnetic path is split up into many thin pressed steel shapes
called “laminations”.

The laminations used in a transformer construction are very thin strips of insulated
metal joined together to produce a solid but laminated core as we saw above. These
laminations are insulated from each other by a coat of varnish or paper to increase the
effective resistivity of the core thereby increasing the overall resistance to limit the flow
of the eddy currents.

The result of all this insulation is that the unwanted induced eddy current power-loss in
the core is greatly reduced, and it is for this reason why the magnetic iron circuit of
every transformer and other electro-magnetic machines are all laminated. Using
laminations in a transformer construction reduces eddy current losses.
The losses of energy, which appears as heat due both to hysteresis and to eddy
currents in the magnetic path, is known commonly as “transformer core losses”. Since
these losses occur in all magnetic materials as a result of alternating magnetic fields.
Transformer core losses are always present in a transformer whenever the primary is
energized, even if no load is connected to the secondary winding. Also this hysteresis
and the eddy current losses are sometimes referred to as “transformer iron losses”, as
the magnetic flux causing these losses is constant at all loads.

Copper Losses

But there is also another type of energy loss associated with transformers called
“copper losses”. Transformer Copper Losses are mainly due to the electrical
resistance of the primary and secondary windings. Most transformer coils are made
from copper wire which has resistance in Ohms, (Ω). This resistance opposes the
magnetizing currents flowing through them.

When a load is connected to the transformers secondary winding, large electrical

currents flow in both the primary and the secondary windings, electrical energy and
power (or the I2 R) losses occur as heat. Generally copper losses vary with the load
current, being almost zero at no-load, and at a maximum at full-load when current flow
is at maximum.

A transformers VA rating can be increased by better design and transformer

construction to reduce these core and copper losses. Transformers with high voltage
and current ratings require conductors of large cross-section to help minimise their
copper losses. Increasing the rate of heat dissipation (better cooling) by forced air or oil,
or by improving the transformers insulation so that it will withstand higher temperatures
can also increase a transformers VA rating.

Then we can define an ideal transformer as having:

 No Hysteresis loops or Hysteresis losses → 0

 Infinite Resistivity of core material giving zero Eddy current losses → 0
 Zero winding resistance giving zero I2*R copper losses → 0

In the next tutorial about Transformers we will look at Transformer Loading of the
secondary winding with respect to an electrical load and see the effect a “NO-load” and
a “ON-load” connected transformer has on the primary winding current.
Transformer Loading

Transformers can provide a voltage on their secondary winding but to transfer electrical
power between their input and output they need to be loaded

In the previous transformer tutorials, we have assumed that the transformer is ideal, that
is one in which there are no core losses or copper losses in the transformers windings.
However, in real world transformers there will always be losses associated with the
transformers loading as the transformer is put “on-load”. But what do we mean by:
Transformer Loading.

Well first let’s look at what happens to a transformer when it is in this “no-load”
condition, that is with no electrical load connected to its secondary winding and
therefore no secondary current flowing.

A transformer is said to be on “no-load” when its secondary side winding is open

circuited, in other words, nothing is attached and the transformer loading is zero. When
an AC sinusoidal supply is connected to the primary winding of a transformer, a small
current, IOPEN will flow through the primary coil winding due to the presence of the
primary supply voltage.

With the secondary circuit open, nothing connected, a back EMF along with the primary
winding resistance acts to limit the flow of this primary current. Obviously, this no-load
primary current ( Io ) must be sufficient to maintain enough magnetic field to produce
the required back emf. Consider the circuit below.

Transformer “No-load” Condition

 

The ammeter above will indicate a small current flowing through the primary winding
even though the secondary circuit is open circuited. This no-load primary current is
made up of the following two components:

 An in-phase current, IE which supplies the core losses (eddy current and
hysteresis).
 A small current, IM at 90o to the voltage which sets up the magnetic flux.

Note that this no-load primary current, Io is very small compared to the transformers
normal full-load current. Also due to the iron losses present in the core as well as a
small amount of copper losses in the primary winding, Io does not lag behind the supply
voltage, Vp by exactly 90o, (cosφ = 0), there will be some small phase angle difference.

Transformer Loading Example No1

A single phase transformer has an energy component, I E of 2 Amps and a magnetising
component, IM of 5 Amps. Calculate the no-load current, Io and resulting power factor.
Transformer “On-load”
When an electrical load is connected to the secondary winding of a transformer and the
transformer loading is therefore greater than zero, a current flows in the secondary
winding and out to the load. This secondary current is due to the induced secondary
voltage, set up by the magnetic flux created in the core from the primary current.

The secondary current, I S which is determined by the characteristics of the load, creates
a self-induced secondary magnetic field, Φ S in the transformer core which flows in the
exact opposite direction to the main primary field, Φ P. These two magnetic fields oppose
each other resulting in a combined magnetic field of less magnetic strength than the
single field produced by the primary winding alone when the secondary circuit was open
circuited.

This combined magnetic field reduces the back EMF of the primary winding causing the
primary current, IP to increase slightly. The primary current continues to increase until
the cores magnetic field is back at its original strength, and for a transformer to operate
correctly, a balanced condition must always exist between the primary and secondary
magnetic fields. This results in the power to be balanced and the same on both the
primary and secondary sides. Consider the circuit below.
Transformer “On-load”

We know that the turns ratio of a transformer states that the total induced voltage in
each winding is proportional to the number of turns in that winding and also that the
power output and power input of a transformer is equal to the volts times amperes, ( V x
I ). Therefore:

But we also know previously that the voltage ratio of a transformer is equal to the turns
ratio of a transformer as: “voltage ratio = turns ratio”. Then the relationship between the
voltage, current and number of turns in a transformer can be linked together and is
therefore given as:
Transformer Ratio

 Where:
   NP/NS = VP/VS -  represents the voltage ratio
   NP/NS = IS/IP -  represents the current ratio

Note that the current is inversely proportional to both the voltage and the number of
turns. This means that with a transformer loading on the secondary winding, in order to
maintain a balanced power level across the transformers windings, if the voltage is
stepped up, the current must be stepped down and vice versa. In other words, “higher
voltage — lower current” or “lower voltage — higher current”.

As a transformers ratio is the relationships between the number of turns in the primary
and secondary, the voltage across each winding, and the current through the windings,
we can rearrange the above transformer ratio equation to find the value of any unknown
voltage, ( V ) current, ( I ) or number of turns, ( N ) as shown.

The total current drawn from the supply by the primary winding is the vector sum of the
no-load current, Io and the additional supply current, I 1 as a result of the secondary
transformer loading and which lags behind the supply voltage by an angle of Φ. We can
show this relationship as a phasor diagram.
Transformer Loading Current

If we are given currents, IS and Io, we can calculate the primary current, I P by the
following methods.
Transformer Loading Example No2
A single phase transformer has 1000 turns on its primary winding and 200 turns on its
secondary winding. The transformers “no-load” current taken from the supply is 3 Amps
at a power factor of 0.2 lagging. Calculate the primary winding current, I P and its
corresponding power factor, φ when the secondary current supplying a transformer
loading is 280 Amperes at 0.8 lagging.

 
 

You may have noticed that the phase angle of the primary current, φ P is very nearly the
same as that of the secondary current phase angle, φ S. This is due to the fact that the
no-load current of 3 amperes is very small compared to the larger 56 amperes drawn by
the primary winding from the supply.

Actual real life, transformer windings have impedances of both X L and R. These
impedances need to be taken into account when drawing the phasor diagrams as these
internal impedances cause voltage drops to occur within the transformers windings. The
internal impedances are due to the resistance of the windings and an inductance drop
called the leakage reactance resulting from the leakage flux. These internal impedances
are given as:

So the primary and secondary windings of a transformer possess both resistance and
reactance. Sometimes, it can be more convenient if all these impedances are on the
same side of the transformer to make the calculations easier. It is possible to move the
primary impedances to the secondary side or the secondary impedances to the primary
side. The combined values of R and L impedances are called “Referred Impedances” or
“Referred Values”. The object here is to group together the impedances within the
transformer and have just one value of R and X L in our calculations as shown.
Combining Transformer Impedances

In order to move a resistance from one side of the transformer to the other, we must first
multiply them by the square of the turns ratio, ( Turns Ratio2 ) in our calculations. So for
example, to move a resistance of 2Ω from one side to the other in a transformer that
has a turns ratio of  8:1 will have a new resistive value of: 2 x 82 = 128Ω.

Note that if you move a resistance from a higher voltage side the new resistance value
will increase and if you move the resistance from a lower voltage side its new value will
decrease. This applies to the load resistance and reactance as well.

Transformer Voltage Regulation

The voltage regulation of a transformer is defined as the change in secondary terminal
voltage when the transformer loading is at its maximum, i.e. full-load applied while the
primary supply voltage is held constant. Regulation determines the voltage drop (or
increase) that occurs inside the transformer as the load voltage becomes too low as a
result of the transformers loading being to high which therefore affects its performance
and efficiency.

Voltage regulation is expressed as a percentage (or per unit) of the no-load voltage.
Then if E represents the no-load secondary voltage and V represents the full-load
secondary voltage, the percentage regulation of a transformer is given as:

 
So for example, a transformer delivers 100 volts at no-load and the voltage drops to 95
volts at full load, the regulation would be 5%. The value of E – V will depend upon the
internal impedance of the winding which includes its resistance, R and more
significantly its AC reactance X, the current and the phase angle.

Also voltage regulation generally increases as the power factor of the load becomes
more lagging (inductive). Voltage regulation with regards to the transformer loading can
be either positive or negative in value, that is with the no-load voltage as reference, the
change down in regulation as the load is applied, or with the full-load as reference and
the change up in regulation as the load is reduced or removed.

In general, the regulation of the core type transformer when the transformer loading is
high is not as good as the shell type transformer. This is because the shell type
transformer has better flux distribution due to the interlacing of the coil windings.

In the next tutorial about Transformers we will look at the Multiple Winding Transformer
which has more than one primary winding or more than one secondary winding and see
how we can connect two or more secondary windings together in order to supply more
voltage or more current to the connected load.

Multiple Winding Transformers

Multiple Winding Transformers generally have one single primary winding with two or
more secondary windings

But the beauty of transformers is that they allow us to have more than just one winding
in either the primary or secondary side. Transformers which have more than one
winding are known commonly as Multiple Winding Transformers.

The principal of operation of a multiple winding transformer is no different from that of

an ordinary transformer. Primary and secondary voltages, currents and turns ratios are
all calculated the same, the difference this time is that we need to pay special attention
to the voltage polarities of each coil winding, the dot convention marking the positive (or
negative) polarity of the winding, when we connect them together.

Multiple winding transformers, also known as a multi-coil, or multi-winding transformer,

contain more than one primary or more than one secondary coil, hence their name, on a
common laminated core. They can be either a single-phase transformer or a three-
phase transformer, (multi-winding, multi-phase transformer) the operation is the same.

Multiple Winding Transformers can also be used to provide either a step-up, a step-
down, or a combination of both between the various windings. In fact, a multiple winding
transformers can have several secondary windings on the same core with each one
providing a different voltage or current level output.

As transformers operate on the principal of mutual induction, each individual winding of

a multiple winding transformer supports the same number of volts per turn, therefore the
volt-ampere product in each winding is the same, that is N P/NS = VP/VS with any turns
ratio between the individual coil windings being relative to the primary supply.

In electronic circuits, one transformer is often used to supply a variety of lower voltage
levels for different components in the electronic circuitry. A typical application of multiple
winding transformers is in power supplies and triac switching converters. So a
transformer may have a number of different secondary windings, each of which is
electrically isolated from the others, just as it is electrically isolated from the primary.
Then each of the secondary coils will produce a voltage that is proportional to its
number of coil turns for example.

Multiple Winding Transformer

 
Above shows an example of a typical “multiple winding transformer” which has a
number of different secondary windings supplying various voltage levels. The primary
windings can be used individually or connected together to operate the transformer from
a higher supply voltage.

The secondary windings can be connected together in various configurations producing

a higher voltage or current supply. It must be noted that connecting together in parallel
transformer windings is only possible if the two windings are electrically identical. That is
their current and voltage ratings are the same.

Dual Voltage Transformers

There are a number or multiple winding transformers available which have two primary
windings of identical voltage and current ratings and two secondary windings also with
identical voltage and current ratings. These transformers are designed so that they can
be used in a variety of applications with the windings connected together in either a
series or parallel combinations for higher primary voltages or secondary currents. These
types of multiple winding transformers are more commonly called Dual Voltage
Transformers as shown.

Dual Primary & Dual Secondary Transformer.

Here the transformer has two primary windings and two secondary windings, four in
total. The connections to the primary or secondary windings must be made correctly
with dual voltage transformers. If connected improperly, it is possible to create a dead
short that will usually destroy the transformer when it is energized.

We said previously that dual voltage transformers can be connected to operate from
power supplies of different voltage levels, hence their name “dual voltage transformers”.
Then for example, let’s say that the primary winding could have a voltage rating of
240/120V on the primary and 12/24V on the secondary. To achieve this, each of the two
primary windings is, therefore, rated at 120V, and each secondary winding is rated at
12V. The transformer must be connected so that each primary winding receives the
proper voltage. Consider the circuit below.

Series Connected Secondary Transformer

Here in this example, the two 120V rated primary windings are connected together in
series across a 240V supply as the two windings are identical, half the supply voltage,
namely 120V, is dropped across each winding and the same primary current flows
through both. The two secondary windings rated at 12V, 2.5A each are connected in
series with the secondary terminal voltage being the sum of the two individual winding
voltages giving 24 Volts.

As the two windings are connected in series, the same amount of current flows through
each winding, then the secondary current is the same at 2.5 Amps. So for a series
connected secondary, the output in our example above is rated at 24 Volts, 2.5 Amps.
Consider the parallel connected transformer below.

Parallel Connected Secondary Transformer

 
Here we have kept the two primary windings the same but the two secondary windings
are now connected in a parallel combination. As before, the two secondary windings are
rated at 12V, 2.5A each, therefore the secondary terminal voltage will be the same at 12
Volts but the current adds. Then for a parallel connected secondary, the output in our
example above is rated at 12 Volts, 5.0 Amps.

Of course different dual voltage transformers will produce different amounts of

secondary voltage and current but the principal is the same. Secondary windings must
be correctly connected together to produce the required voltage or current output.

Dot orientation is used on the windings to indicate the terminals that have the same
phase relationship. For example, connecting two secondary windings together in
opposite dot-orientation will cause the two magnetic fluxes to cancel each other out
resulting in zero output.

Another type of dual voltage transformer which has only one secondary winding that is
“tapped” at its electrical center point is called the Center-tap Transformer.

Center Tapped Transformers

A center-tap transformer is designed to provide two separate secondary voltages, V A
and VB with a common connection. This type of transformer configuration produces a
two-phase, 3-wire supply.

The secondary voltages are the same and proportional to the supply voltage, V P,
therefore power in each winding is the same. The voltages produced across each of the
secondary winding is determined by the turns ratio as shown.

The Center-tap Transformer

 
Above shows a typical center-tap transformer. The tapping point is in the exact center of
the secondary winding providing a common connection for two equal but opposite
secondary voltages. With the center-tap grounded, the output V A will be positive in
nature with respect to the ground, while the voltage at the other secondary, V B will be
negative and opposite in nature, that is they are 180 o electrical degrees out-of-phase
with each other.

However, there is one disadvantage of using an ungrounded center tapped transformer

and that is it can produce unbalanced voltages in the two secondary windings due to
unsymmetrical currents flowing in the common third connection because of unbalanced
loads.

We can also produce a center-tap transformer using the dual voltage transformer from
above. By connecting the secondary windings in series, we can use the center link as
the tap as shown. If the output from each secondary is V, the total output voltage for the
secondary winding will be equal to 2V as shown.

Center-tap Transformer using a Dual Voltage Transformer

Multiple Winding Transformers have many uses in electrical and electronic circuits.
They can be used to supply different secondary voltages to different loads. Have their
windings connected together in series or parallel combinations to provide higher
voltages or currents, or have their secondary windings connected together in series to
produce a center tapped transformer.

In the next tutorial about Transformers we will look at how Autotransformers work and
see that they have only one main primary winding and no separate secondary winding.
The Autotransformer

The primary and secondary windings of an Autotransformer are linked together both
electrically and magnetically reducing the cost over conventional transformers

Unlike the previous voltage transformer which has two electrically isolated windings
called: the primary and the secondary, an Autotransformer has only one single voltage
winding which is common to both sides. This single winding is “tapped” at various points
along its length to provide a percentage of the primary voltage supply across its
secondary load. Then the autotransformer has the usual magnetic core but only has
one winding, which is common to both the primary and secondary circuits.

Therefore, in an autotransformer the primary and secondary windings are linked

together both electrically and magnetically. The main advantage of this type of
transformer design is that it can be made a lot cheaper for the same VA rating, but the
biggest disadvantage of an autotransformer is that it does not have the
primary/secondary winding isolation of a conventional double wound transformer.

The section of winding designated as the primary part of the winding is connected to the
AC power source with the secondary being part of this primary winding. An
autotransformer can also be used to step the supply voltage up or down by reversing
the connections. If the primary is the total winding and is connected to a supply, and the
secondary circuit is connected across only a portion of the winding, then the secondary
voltage is “stepped-down” as shown.
Autotransformer Design

When the primary current IP is flowing through the single winding in the direction of the
arrow as shown, the secondary current, I S, flows in the opposite direction. Therefore, in
the portion of the winding that generates the secondary voltage, V S the current flowing
out of the winding is the difference of I P and IS.

The Autotransformer can also be constructed with more than one single tapping point.
Auto-transformers can be used to provide different voltage points along its winding or
increase its supply voltage with respect to its supply voltage V P as shown.

Autotransformer with Multiple Tapping Points

The standard method for marking an auto-transformer winding is to label it with capital
(upper case) letters. So for example, A, B, Z etc to identify the supply end. Generally,
the common neutral connection is marked as N or n. For the secondary tapping’s, suffix
numbers are used for all tapping points along the auto-transformers primary winding.
These numbers generally start at number “1” and continue in ascending order for all
tapping points as shown.
Autotransformer Terminal Markings

An autotransformer is used mainly for the adjustments of line voltages to either change
its value or to keep it constant. If the voltage adjustment is by a small amount, either up
or down, then the transformer ratio is small as V P and VS are nearly equal. Currents I P
and IS are also nearly equal.

Therefore, the portion of the winding which carries the difference between the two
currents can be made from a much smaller conductor size, since the currents are much
smaller saving on the cost of an equivalent double wound transformer.

However, the regulation, leakage inductance and physical size (since there is no
second winding) of an autotransformer for a given VA or KVA rating are less than for a
double wound transformer.

Autotransformer’s are clearly much cheaper than conventional double wound

transformers of the same VA rating. When deciding upon using an autotransformer it is
usual to compare its cost with that of an equivalent double wound type.

This is done by comparing the amount of copper saved in the winding. If the ratio “n” is
defined as the ratio of the lower voltage to the higher voltage, then it can be shown that
the saving in copper is: n*100%. For example, the saving in copper for the two
autotransformers would be:
Autotransformer Example No1
An autotransformer is required to step-up a voltage from 220 volts to 250 volts. The
total number of coil turns on the transformer main winding is 2000. Determine the
position of the primary tapping point, the primary and secondary currents when the
output is rated at 10KVA and the economy of copper saved.
 

Thus the primary current is 45.4 amperes, the secondary current drawn by the load is
40 amperes and 5.4 amperes flows through the common winding. The economy of
copper is 88%.

Disadvantages of an Autotransformer
 The main disadvantage of an autotransformer is that it does not have the primary
to secondary winding isolation of a conventional double wound transformer. Then
an autotransformer cannot safely be used for stepping down higher voltages to
much lower voltages suitable for smaller loads.
 If the secondary side winding becomes open-circuited, load current stops flowing
through the primary winding stopping the transformer action resulting in the full
primary voltage being applied to the secondary terminals.
 If the secondary circuit suffers a short-circuit condition, the resulting primary
current would be much larger than an equivalent double wound transformer due
to the increased flux linkage damaging the autotransformer.
 Since the neutral connection is common to both the primary and secondary
windings, earthing of the secondary winding automatically Earth’s the primary as
there is no isolation between the two windings. Double wound transformers are
sometimes used to isolate equipment from earth.

The autotransformer has many uses and applications including the starting of induction
motors, used to regulate the voltage of transmission lines, and can be used to transform
voltages when the primary to secondary ratio is close to unity.

An autotransformer can also be made from conventional two-winding transformers by

connecting the primary and secondary windings together in series and depending upon
how the connection is made, the secondary voltage may add to, or subtract from, the
primary voltage.

The Variable Autotransformer

As well as having a fixed or tapped secondary that produces a voltage output at a
specific level, there is another useful application of the auto transformer type of
arrangement which can be used to produce a variable AC voltage from a fixed voltage
AC supply. This type of Variable Autotransformer is generally used in laboratories and
science labs in schools and colleges and is known more commonly as the Variac.

The construction of a variable autotransformer, or variac, is the same as for the fixed
type. A single primary winding wrapped around a laminated magnetic core is used as in
the auto transformer but instead of being fixed at some predetermined tapping point, the
secondary voltage is tapped through a carbon brush.

This carbon brush is rotated or allowed to slide along an exposed section of the primary
winding, making contact with it as it moves supplying the required voltage level.

Then a variable autotransformer contains a variable tap in the form of a carbon brush
that slides up and down the primary winding which controls the secondary winding
length and hence the secondary output voltage is fully variable from the primary supply
voltage value to zero volts.

The variable autotransformer is usually designed with a significant number of primary

windings to produce a secondary voltage which can be adjusted from a few volts to
fractions of a volt per turn. This is achieved because the carbon brush or slider is
always in contact with one or more turns of the primary winding. As the primary coil
turns are evenly spaced along its length. Then the output voltage becomes proportional
to the angular rotation.
Variable Autotransformer

We can see that the variac can adjust the voltage to the load smoothly from zero to the
rated supply voltage. If the supply voltage was tapped at some point along the primary
winding, then potentially the output secondary voltage could be higher than the actual
supply voltage. Variable autotransformer’s can also be used for the dimming of lights
and when used in this type of application, they are sometimes called “dimmer stats”.

Variacs are also very useful in electrical and electronics workshops and labs as they
can be used to provide a variable AC supply. But caution needs to be taken with
suitable fuse protection to ensure that the higher supply voltage is not present at the
secondary terminals under fault conditions.

The Autotransformer have many advantages over conventional double wound

transformers. They are generally more efficient for the same VA rating, are smaller in
size, and as they require less copper in their construction, their cost is less compared to
double wound transformers of the same VA rating. Also, their core and copper losses,
I2R are lower due to less resistance and leakage reactance giving a superior voltage
regulation than the equivalent two winding transformer.

In the next tutorial about Transformers we will look at another design of transformer
which does not have a conventional primary winding wound around its core. This type of
transformer is commonly called a Current Transformer and is used to supply ammeters
and other such electrical power indicators.
The Current Transformer

Current Transformers produce an output in proportion to the current flowing through the
primary winding as a result of a constant potential on the primary

The Current Transformer ( C.T. ), is a type of “instrument transformer” that is designed

to produce an alternating current in its secondary winding which is proportional to the
current being measured in its primary. Current transformers reduce high voltage
currents to a much lower value and provide a convenient way of safely monitoring the
actual electrical current flowing in an AC transmission line using a standard ammeter.
The principal of operation of a basic current transformer is slightly different from that of
an ordinary voltage transformer.

Typical Current Transformer

Unlike the voltage or power transformer looked at previously, the current transformer
consists of only one or very few turns as its primary winding. This primary winding can
be of either a single flat turn, a coil of heavy duty wire wrapped around the core or just a
conductor or bus bar placed through a central hole as shown.

Due to this type of arrangement, the current transformer is often referred to as a “series
transformer” as the primary winding, which never has more than a very few turns, is in
series with the current carrying conductor supplying a load.

The secondary winding however, may have a large number of coil turns wound on a
laminated core of low-loss magnetic material. This core has a large cross-sectional area
so that the magnetic flux density created is low using much smaller cross-sectional area
wire, depending upon how much the current must be stepped down as it tries to output
a constant current, independent of the connected load.

The secondary winding will supply a current into either a short circuit, in the form of an
ammeter, or into a resistive load until the voltage induced in the secondary is big
enough to saturate the core or cause failure from excessive voltage breakdown.

Unlike a voltage transformer, the primary current of a current transformer is not

dependent of the secondary load current but instead is controlled by an external load.
The secondary current is usually rated at a standard 1 Ampere or 5 Amperes for larger
primary current ratings.

There are three basic types of current transformers: wound, toroidal and bar.

 Wound Current Transformer – The transformers primary winding is physically

connected in series with the conductor that carries the measured current flowing
in the circuit. The magnitude of the secondary current is dependent on the turns
ratio of the transformer.
 Toroidal Current Transformer – These do not contain a primary winding. Instead,
the line that carries the current flowing in the network is threaded through a
window or hole in the toroidal transformer. Some current transformers have a
“split core” which allows it to be opened, installed, and closed, without
disconnecting the circuit to which they are attached.
 Bar-type Current Transformer – This type of current transformer uses the actual
cable or bus-bar of the main circuit as the primary winding, which is equivalent to
a single turn. They are fully insulated from the high operating voltage of the
system and are usually bolted to the current carrying device.

Current transformers can reduce or “step-down” current levels from thousands of

amperes down to a standard output of a known ratio to either 5 Amps or 1 Amp for
normal operation. Thus, small and accurate instruments and control devices can be
used with CT’s because they are insulated away from any high-voltage power lines.
There are a variety of metering applications and uses for current transformers such as
with Wattmeter’s, power factor meters, watt-hour meters, protective relays, or as trip
coils in magnetic circuit breakers, or MCB’s.
Current Transformer

Generally current transformers and ammeters are used together as a matched pair in
which the design of the current transformer is such as to provide a maximum secondary
current corresponding to a full-scale deflection on the ammeter. In most current
transformers an approximate inverse turns ratio exists between the two currents in the
primary and secondary windings. This is why calibration of the CT is generally for a
specific type of ammeter.

Most current transformers have the standard secondary rating of 5 amps with the
primary and secondary currents being expressed as a ratio such as 100/5. This means
that the primary current is 20 times greater than the secondary current so when 100
amps is flowing in the primary conductor it will result in 5 amps flowing in the secondary
winding. A current transformer of say 500/5, will produce 5 amps in the secondary for
500 amps in the primary conductor, 100 times greater.

By increasing the number of secondary windings, Ns, the secondary current can be
made much smaller than the current in the primary circuit being measured because as
Ns increases, Is goes down by a proportional amount. In other words, the number of
turns and the current in the primary and secondary windings are related by an inverse
proportion.

A current transformer, like any other transformer, must satisfy the amp-turn equation
and we know from our tutorial on double wound voltage transformers that this turns ratio
is equal to:
from which we get:

The current ratio will set the turns ratio and as the primary usually consists of one or two
turns whilst the secondary can have several hundred turns, the ratio between the
primary and secondary can be quite large. For example, assume that the current rating
of the primary winding is 100A. The secondary winding has the standard rating of 5A.
Then the ratio between the primary and the secondary currents is 100A-to-5A, or 20:1.
In other words, the primary current is 20 times greater than the secondary current.

It should be noted however, that a current transformer rated as 100/5 is not the same as
one rated as 20/1 or subdivisions of 100/5. This is because the ratio of 100/5 expresses
the “input/output current rating” and not the actual ratio of the primary to the secondary
currents. Also note that the number of turns and the current in the primary and
secondary windings are related by an inverse proportion.

But relatively large changes in a current transformer turns ratio can be achieved by
modifying the primary turns through the CT’s window where one primary turn is equal to
one pass and more than one pass through the window results in the electrical ratio
being modified.

So for example, a current transformer with a relationship of say, 300/5A can be

converted to another of 150/5A or even 100/5A by passing the main primary conductor
through its interior window two or three times as shown. This allows a higher value
current transformer to provide the maximum output current for the ammeter when used
on smaller primary current lines.

Current Transformer Primary Turns Ratio

Current Transformer Example No1

A bar-type current transformer which has 1 turn on its primary and 160 turns on its
secondary is to be used with a standard range of ammeters that have an internal
resistance of 0.2Ω. The ammeter is required to give a full scale deflection when the
primary current is 800 Amps. Calculate the maximum secondary current and secondary
voltage across the ammeter.

Secondary Current:

Voltage across Ammeter:

We can see above that since the secondary of the current transformer is connected
across the ammeter, which has a very small resistance, the voltage drop across the
secondary winding is only 1.0 volts at full primary current.

However, if the ammeter was removed, the secondary winding effectively becomes
open-circuited, and thus the transformer acts as a step-up transformer. This due in part
to the very large increase in magnetising flux in the secondary core as the the
secondary leakage reactance influences the secondary induced voltage because there
is no opposing current in the secondary winding to prevent this.

The results is a very high voltage induced in the secondary winding equal to the ratio
of:  Vp(Ns/Np) being developed across the secondary winding. So for example, assume
our current transformer from above is used on a 480 volt to earth three-phase power
line. Therefore:

 
This high voltage is because the volts per turns ratio is almost constant in the primary
and secondary windings and as Vs = Ns*Vp the values of Ns and Vp are high values, so
Vs is extremely high.

For this reason, a current transformer should never be left open-circuited or operated
with no-load attached when the main primary current is flowing through it just as a
voltage transformer should never operate into a short circuit. If the ammeter (or load) is
to be removed, a short-circuit should be placed across the secondary terminals first to
eliminate the risk of shock.

This high voltage is because when the secondary is open-circuited the iron core of the
transformer operates at a high degree of saturation and with nothing to stop it, it
produces an abnormally large secondary voltage, and in our simple example above, this
was calculated at 76.8 kV! This high secondary voltage could damage the insulation or
cause electric shock if the CT’s terminals are accidentally touched.

Handheld Current Transformers

There are many specialized types of current transformers now available. A popular and
portable type which can be used to measure circuit loading are called “clamp meters” as
shown.

Clamp meters open and close around a current carrying conductor and measure its
current by determining the magnetic field around it, providing a quick measurement
reading usually on a digital display without disconnecting or opening the circuit.

As well as the handheld clamp type CT, split core current transformers are available
which has one end removable so that the load conductor or bus bar does not have to be
disconnected to install it. These are available for measuring currents from 100 up to
5000 amps, with square window sizes from 1″ to over 12″ (25-to-300mm).

Then to summarize, the Current Transformer, (CT) is a type of instrument transformer

used to convert a primary current into a secondary current through a magnetic medium.
Its secondary winding then provides a much reduced current which can be used for
detecting overcurrent, undercurrent, peak current, or average current conditions.

A current transformers primary coil is always connected in series with the main
conductor giving rise to it also being referred to as a series transformer. The nominal
secondary current is rated at 1A or 5A for ease of measurement. Construction can be
one single primary turn as in Toroidal, Doughnut, or Bar types, or a few wound primary
turns, usually for low current ratios.

Current transformers are intended to be used as proportional current devices.

Therefore, a current transformers secondary winding should never be operated into an
open circuit, just as a voltage transformer should never be operated into a short circuit.

Very high voltages will result from open circuiting the secondary circuit of an energized
current transformer so their terminals must be short-circuited if the ammeter is to be
removed or when a CT is not in use before powering up the system.

In the next tutorial about Transformers we will look at what happens when we connect
together three individual transformers in a star or delta configuration to produce a larger
power transformer called a Three Phase Transformer used to supply 3-phase supplies.

Three Phase Transformers

Three-phase Transformers are the backbone of electrical power distribution whether

Delta or Star connected windings
Thus far we have looked at the construction and operation of the single-phase, two
winding voltage transformer which can be used increase or decrease its secondary
voltage with respect to the primary supply voltage. But voltage transformers can also be
constructed for connection to not only one single phase, but for two-phases, three-
phases, six-phases and even elaborate combinations up to 24-phases for some DC
rectification transformers.

If we take three single-phase transformers and connect their primary windings to each
other and their secondary windings to each other in a fixed configuration, we can use
the transformers on a three-phase supply.

ADVERTISING

Three-phase, also written as 3-phase or 3φ supplies are used for electrical power
generation, transmission, and distribution, as well as for all industrial uses. Three-phase
supplies have many electrical advantages over single-phase power and when
considering three-phase transformers we have to deal with three alternating voltages
and currents differing in phase-time by 120 degrees as shown below.

Three Phase Voltages and Currents

Where: VL is the line-to-line voltage, and VP is the phase-to-neutral voltage.

A transformer cannot act as a phase changing device and change single-phase into
three-phase or three-phase into single phase. To make the transformer connections
compatible with three-phase supplies we need to connect them together in a particular
way to form a Three Phase Transformer Configuration.
A three phase transformer or 3φ transformer can be constructed either by connecting
together three single-phase transformers, thereby forming a so-called three phase
transformer bank, or by using one pre-assembled and balanced three phase
transformer which consists of three pairs of single phase windings mounted onto one
single laminated core.

The advantages of building a single three phase transformer is that for the same kVA
rating it will be smaller, cheaper and lighter than three individual single phase
transformers connected together because the copper and iron core are used more
effectively. The methods of connecting the primary and secondary windings are the
same, whether using just one Three Phase Transformer or three separate Single
Phase Transformers. Consider the circuit below:

Three Phase Transformer Connections

The primary and secondary windings of a transformer can be connected in different

configuration as shown to meet practically any requirement. In the case of three phase
transformer windings, three forms of connection are possible: “star” (wye), “delta”
(mesh) and “interconnected-star” (zig-zag).

The combinations of the three windings may be with the primary delta-connected and
the secondary star-connected, or star-delta, star-star or delta-delta, depending on the
transformers use. When transformers are used to provide three or more phases they
are generally referred to as a Polyphase Transformer.
Three Phase Transformer Star and Delta
Configurations
But what do we mean by “star” (also known as Wye) and “delta” (also known as Mesh)
when dealing with three-phase transformer connections. A three phase transformer has
three sets of primary and secondary windings. Depending upon how these sets of
windings are interconnected, determines whether the connection is a star or delta
configuration.

The three available voltages, which themselves are each displaced from the other by
120 electrical degrees, not only decided on the type of the electrical connections used
on both the primary and secondary sides, but determine the flow of the transformers
currents.

With three single-phase transformers connected together, the magnetic flux’s in the
three transformers differ in phase by 120 time-degrees. With a single the three-phase
transformer there are three magnetic fluxes’ in the core differing in time-phase by 120
degrees.

The standard method for marking three phase transformer windings is to label the three
primary windings with capital (upper case) letters A, B and C, used to represent the
three individual phases of RED, YELLOW and BLUE. The secondary windings are
labelled with small (lower case) letters a, b and c. Each winding has two ends normally
labelled 1 and 2 so that, for example, the second winding of the primary has ends which
will be labelled B1 and B2, while the third winding of the secondary will be labelled c1
and c2 as shown.

Transformer Star and Delta Configurations

 

Symbols are generally used on a three phase transformer to indicate the type or types
of connections used with upper case Y for star connected, D for delta connected and Z
for interconnected star primary windings, with lower case y, d and z for their respective
secondaries. Then, Star-Star would be labelled Yy, Delta-Delta would be labelled Dd
and interconnected star to interconnected star would be Zz for the same types of
connected transformers.

Transformer Winding Identification

Connection Primary Winding Secondary Winding
Delta D d
Star Y y
Interconnected Z z

We now know that there are four different ways in which three single-phase
transformers may be connected together between their primary and secondary three-
phase circuits. These four standard configurations are given as: Delta-Delta (Dd), Star-
Star (Yy), Star-Delta (Yd), and Delta-Star (Dy).

Transformers for high voltage operation with the star connections has the advantage of
reducing the voltage on an individual transformer, reducing the number of turns required
and an increase in the size of the conductors, making the coil windings easier and
cheaper to insulate than delta transformers.
The delta-delta connection nevertheless has one big advantage over the star-delta
configuration, in that if one transformer of a group of three should become faulty or
disabled, the two remaining ones will continue to deliver three-phase power with a
capacity equal to approximately two thirds of the original output from the transformer
unit.

Transformer Delta and Delta Connections

In a delta connected ( Dd ) group of transformers, the line voltage, V L is equal to the
supply voltage, VL = VS. But the current in each phase winding is given as: 1/√3 × IL of
the line current, where IL is the line current.
One disadvantage of delta connected three phase transformers is that each transformer
must be wound for the full-line voltage, (in our example above 100V) and for 57.7 per
cent, line current. The greater number of turns in the winding, together with the
insulation between turns, necessitate a larger and more expensive coil than the star
connection. Another disadvantage with delta connected three phase transformers is that
there is no “neutral” or common connection.

In the star-star arrangement ( Yy ), (wye-wye), each transformer has one terminal
connected to a common junction, or neutral point with the three remaining ends of the
primary windings connected to the three-phase mains supply. The number of turns in a
transformer winding for star connection is 57.7 per cent, of that required for delta
connection.

The star connection requires the use of three transformers, and if any one transformer
becomes fault or disabled, the whole group might become disabled. Nevertheless, the
star connected three phase transformer is especially convenient and economical in
electrical power distributing systems, in that a fourth wire may be connected as a
neutral point, ( n ) of the three star connected secondaries as shown.

Transformer Star and Star Connections

The voltage between any line of the three-phase transformer is called the “line voltage”,
VL, while the voltage between any line and the neutral point of a star connected
transformer is called the “phase voltage”, V P. This phase voltage between the neutral
point and any one of the line connections is 1/√3 × VL of the line voltage. Then above,
the primary side phase voltage, VP is given as.

The secondary current in each phase of a star-connected group of transformers is the

same as that for the line current of the supply, then I L = IS.

Then the relationship between line and phase voltages and currents in a three-phase
system can be summarised as:

Three-phase Voltage and Current

Connection Phase Voltage Line Voltage Phase Current Line Current

Star VP = VL ÷ √3 VL = √3 × VP IP = IL IL = IP
Delta VP = VL VL = VP IP = IL ÷ √3 IL = √3 × IP

Where again, VL is the line-to-line voltage, and V P is the phase-to-neutral voltage on

either the primary or the secondary side.

Other possible connections for three phase transformers are star-delta Yd, where the
primary winding is star-connected and the secondary is delta-connected or delta-star Dy
with a delta-connected primary and a star-connected secondary.

Delta-star connected transformers are widely used in low power distribution with the
primary windings providing a three-wire balanced load to the utility company while the
secondary windings provide the required 4th-wire neutral or earth connection.

When the primary and secondary have different types of winding connections, star or
delta, the overall turns ratio of the transformer becomes more complicated. If a three-
phase transformer is connected as delta-delta ( Dd ) or star-star ( Yy ) then the
transformer could potentially have a 1:1 turns ratio. That is the input and output voltages
for the windings are the same.

However, if the 3-phase transformer is connected in star–delta, ( Yd ) each star-

connected primary winding will receive the phase voltage, V P of the supply, which is
equal to 1/√3 × VL.

Then each corresponding secondary winding will then have this same voltage induced
in it, and since these windings are delta-connected, the voltage 1/√3 × VL will become
the secondary line voltage. Then with a 1:1 turns ratio, a star–delta connected
transformer will provide a √3:1 step-down line-voltage ratio.
Then for a star–delta ( Yd ) connected transformer the turns ratio becomes:

Star-Delta Turns Ratio

Likewise, for a delta–star ( Dy ) connected transformer, with a 1:1 turns ratio, the
transformer will provide a 1:√3 step-up line-voltage ratio. Then for a delta-star
connected transformer the turns ratio becomes:

Delta-Star Turns Ratio

Then for the four basic configurations of a three-phase transformer, we can list the
transformers secondary voltages and currents with respect to the primary line voltage,
VL and its primary line current IL as shown in the following table.

Three-phase Transformer Line Voltage and Current

Primary-Secondary Line Voltage Line Current

Configuration Primary or Secondary Primary or Secondary

Delta – Delta

Delta – Star

Star – Delta

Star – Star

Where:  n equals the transformers “turns ratio” (T.R.) of the number of secondary

windings NS, divided by the number of primary windings N P. ( NS/NP ) and VL is the line-
to-line voltage with VP being the phase-to-neutral voltage.

Three Phase Transformer Example

The primary winding of a delta-star ( Dy ) connected 50VA transformer is supplied with
a 100 volt, 50Hz three-phase supply. If the transformer has 500 turns on the primary
and 100 turns on the secondary winding, calculate the secondary side voltages and
currents.

Given Data: transformer rating, 50VA, supply voltage, 100v, primary turns 500,
secondary turns, 100.

Then the secondary side of the transformer supplies a line voltage, V L of about 35v
giving a phase voltage, VP of 20v at 0.834 amperes.

Three Phase Transformer Construction

We have said previously that the three-phase transformer is effectively three
interconnected single phase transformers on a single laminated core and considerable
savings in cost, size and weight can be achieved by combining the three windings onto
a single magnetic circuit as shown.
A three-phase transformer generally has the three magnetic circuits that are interlaced
to give a uniform distribution of the dielectric flux between the high and low voltage
windings. The exception to this rule is a three-phase shell type transformer. In the shell
type of construction, even though the three cores are together, they are non-interlaced.

Three Phase Transformer Construction

The three-limb core-type three-phase transformer is the most common method of three-
phase transformer construction allowing the phases to be magnetically linked. Flux of
each limb uses the other two limbs for its return path with the three magnetic flux’s in
the core generated by the line voltages differing in time-phase by 120 degrees. Thus the
flux in the core remains nearly sinusoidal, producing a sinusoidal secondary supply
voltage.

The shell-type five-limb type three-phase transformer construction is heavier and more
expensive to build than the core-type. Five-limb cores are generally used for very large
power transformers as they can be made with reduced height. A shell-type transformers
core materials, electrical windings, steel enclosure and cooling are much the same as
for the larger single-phase types.
Audio Transformer

Audio Transformers are designed for use in audio amplifier applications for coupling and
impedance matching of amplifiers and speakers

As well as stepping up (increase) or stepping down (decrease) a signal voltage,

transformers also have one very other useful property, isolation. Since there is no
direct electrical connection between their primary and secondary windings, transformers
provide complete electrical isolation between their input and output circuits and this
isolation property can also be used between amplifiers and speakers.

We have seen in this section about transformers, that a transformer is an electrical

device which allows an sinusoidal input signal (such as an audio signal or voltage) to
produce an output signal or voltage without the input side and output side being
physically connected to each other. This coupling is achieved by having two (or more)
wire coils (called windings) of insulated copper wire wound around a soft magnetic iron
core.
When an AC signal is applied to the primary input winding, a corresponding AC signal
appears on the output secondary winding due to the inductive coupling of the soft iron
core. The turns ratio between the input and output wire coils provides either an increase
or a decrease of the applied signal as it passes through the transformer.

Then audio transformers can be considered as either a step-up or step-down type, but
rather than being wound to produce a specific voltage output, audio transformers are
mainly designed for impedance matching. Also, a transformer with a turns ratio of 1:1,
does not change the voltage or current levels but instead isolates the primary circuit
from the secondary side. This type of transformer is known commonly as an Isolation
Transformer.

Transformers are not intelligent devices, but can be used as bidirectional devices so
that the normal primary input winding can become an output winding and the normal
secondary output winding can become an input and due to this bidirectional nature,
transformers can provide a signal gain when used in one direction or a signal loss when
used in reverse to help match signal or voltage levels between different devices.

Note also that a single transformer can have multiple primary or secondary windings
and these windings may also have multiple electrical connections or “taps” along their
length. The advantage of multi-tap audio transformers is that they offer different
electrical impedances as well as different gain or loss ratios making them useful for
impedance matching of amplifiers and speaker loads.

As their name suggests, audio transformers are designed to operate within the audio
band of frequencies and as such can have applications in the input stage
(microphones), output stage (loudspeakers), inter-stage coupling as well as impedance
matching of amplifiers. In all cases, the frequency response, primary and secondary
impedances and power capabilities all need to be considered.

Audio and impedance matching transformers are similar in design to low frequency
voltage and power transformer, but they operate over a much wider frequency range of
frequencies. For example, 20Hz to 20kHz voice range. Audio transformers can also
conduct DC in one or more of their windings for use in digital audio applications as well
as transforming voltage and current levels at high frequency.
Audio Transformer Impedance Matching
One of the main applications for audio frequency transformers is in impedance
matching. Audio transformers are ideal for balancing amplifiers and loads together that
have different input/output impedances in order to achieve maximum power transfer.

For example, a typical loudspeaker impedance ranges from 4 to 16 ohms whereas the
impedance of a transistor amplifiers output stage can be several hundred ohms. A
classic example of this is the LT700 Audio Transformer which can be used in the output
stage of an amplifier to drive a loudspeaker.

We know that for a transformer, the ratio between the number of coil turns on the
primary winding (NP) to the number of coil turns on the secondary winding (N S) is called
the “turns ratio”. Since the same amount of voltage is induced within each single coil
turn of both windings, the primary to secondary voltage ratio (V P/VS) will therefore be the
same value as the turns ratio.

Impedance matching audio transformers always give their impedance ratio value from
one winding to another by the square of the their turns ratio. That is, their impedance
ratio is equal to its turns ratio squared and also its primary to secondary voltage ratio
squared as shown.

Audio Transformer Impedance Ratio

Where ZP is the primary winding impedance, Z S is the secondary winding impedance,

(NP/NS) is the transformers turns ratio, and (VP/VS) is the transformers voltage ratio.

So for instance, an impedance matching audio transformer that has a turns ratio (or
voltage ratio) of say 2:1, will have an impedance ratio of 4:1.

Audio Transformer Example No1

An audio transformer with an impedance ratio of 15:1 is to be used to match the output
of a power amplifier to a loudspeaker. If the output impedance of the amplifier is 120Ω.
Calculate the nominal impedance of the loudspeaker required for maximum power
transfer.
 

Then the power amplifier can efficiently drive an 8-ohm speaker.

Audio 100V Line Transformer

Another very common impedance matching application is for 100 volt line transformers
for the transmission of music and voice over public address tannoy systems. These
types of ceiling based speaker systems use multiple loudspeakers located some
distance from the power amplifier.

By using line isolating transformers, any number of low-impedance loudspeakers can be

connected together in such a way that they properly load the amplifier providing
impedance matching between the amplifier (source) and speakers (load) for maximum
power transfer.

As power loss of signals through speaker cables is proportional to the square of current
(P = I2R) for a given cable resistance, the output voltage of an amplifier used for public
address (PA) or tannoy systems uses a standard and constant voltage output level of
100 volts’ peak, (70.7 volts rms).

So for example, a 200-watt amplifier driving an 8-ohm speaker delivers a current of 5

amps, whereas a 200-watt amplifier using a 100-volt line at full power delivers only 2
amps allowing smaller gauge cables to be used. Note however that these 100 volts only
exists on the line when the power amplifier driving the line is operating at full rated
power otherwise there is reduced power (lower sound volume) and line voltage.

So for a 100V (70.7V rms) line speaker system, the line transformer steps up the audio
output signal voltage to 100 volts so that the transmission line current for a given power
output is comparatively low, reducing signal losses allowing smaller diameter or gauge
cables to be used.

Since the impedance of a typical loudspeaker is generally low, an impedance matching

step-down transformer (usually called a line to voice-coil transformer) is used for each
loudspeaker connected to the 100V line as shown.

100V Transmission Line Transformers

Here the amplifier uses a step-up transformer to provide a constant 100 volts
transmission line voltage at reduced current, for a given power output. The
loudspeakers are connected together in parallel with each speaker having its own
impedance matching step down transformer to reduce the secondary voltage and
increase the current, thereby matching the 100V line to the low impedances of the
loudspeakers.

The advantage of using this type of audio transmission line is that many individual
speakers, tannoy’s or other such sound actuators can be connected to a single line
even if they have different impedances and power handling capabilities. For example, 4
ohms at 5 watts, or 8 ohms at 20 watts.
Generally, transmission line matching transformers have multiple connections called
tapping points on the primary winding allowing for suitable power levels (and therefore
sound volume) to be selected for each individual loudspeaker. Also, the secondary
winding has similar tapping points offering different impedances to match that of the
connected loudspeakers.

In this simple example, the 100V line-to-speaker transformer can drive 4, 8, or 16 Ohm
speaker loads on its secondary side with amplifier power ratings of 4, 8 and 16 watts on
its primary side depending on the tapping points selected. In reality, PA system line
transformers can be selected for any combination of series and parallel connected
speaker loads with power handling capabilities up to several kilo-watts.

But as well as constant voltage impedance matching line transformers, audio

transformers can be used to connect low impedance or low signal input devices such as
microphones, turntable moving coil pick-ups, line inputs, etc to an amplifier or pre-
amplifier. As input audio transformers must operate over a wide range of frequencies,
they are usually designed so that the internal capacitance of their windings resonates
with its inductance to improve its operating frequency range allowing for a smaller
transformer core size.

We have seen in this tutorial about audio transformers, that audio transformers are
used to match impedances between different audio devices, for example, between an
amplifier and speaker as a line driver, or between a microphone and amplifier for
impedance matching. Unlike power transformers which operate at low frequencies such
as 50 or 60Hz, audio transformers are designed to operate over the audio frequency
range, that is from about 20Hz to 20kHz or much higher for radio-frequency
transformers.

Due to this wide frequency band, the core of audio transformers is made from special
grades of steel, such as silicon steel or from special alloys of iron which have a very low
hysteresis loss. One of the main disadvantages of audio transformers is that they can
be somewhat bulky and expensive, but by using special core materials allows for a
smaller design. This is because as a general rule of thumb, a transformers core size
increases as the supply frequency decreases.