Electric Vehicle Infrastructure

by Michael James Casey, December 9, 2010

This report is a critical examination of the efforts being put forth by governments and private corporations to
prepare the United States for widespread usage of electric vehicles (EVs). While the technology to run auto-
mobiles on electrons rather than fossil fuels has existed for decades, there has been a recent resurgence in the
EV industry, due to hefty federal incentives and the impending rollout of several new all-electric vehicles from
several automobile manufacturers. Although a consumer’s options for the purchase of a new electric vehicle are
going to exponentially increase, there are still many steps to be taken in terms of electric power infrastructure and
the recharging process, before EVs can truly become a profitable and substantial share of the global automobile
market. The report will begin with a recent history of electric vehicles and brief overview of some of the latest
models about to arrive in American showrooms. Next will be a technical breakdown of the battery recharge
process, followed by analysis of how energy utilities are going to meet demand, with a focus upon the leading ef-
forts of Portland, Oregon and the west coast as a whole. The second half of the report will discuss the lingering
environmental consequences that still accompany a shift from fossil fuels to grid power, followed by a compari-
son between the EV infrastructure goals that have been set forth by China and the United States. The goal of
the report is to assess current implementation efforts and give a comprehensive overview of how the widespread
rollout of electric vehicles will be facilitated by corporations and governments in the next decade and beyond.

Background
Throughout most of the 20th century, automobile
manufacturing represented the backbone of the
U.S. economy, with “locally made cars powered by
locally-produced oil”. But by the start of the 21st
century, the once sturdy U.S. auto industry had been
supplanted by foreign made cars running on foreign-
sourced oil, to keep up with the climbing American
demand. The market for producing and powering
vehicles has shifted overseas so much that today,
every time an American purchases a new car, they
are exporting $15,000 in capital to foreign econo-
mies that provide the oil and parts to run that car10.
Electric vehicles as a viable alternative to traditional
cars did not truly enter the mainstream consciousness
until the major oil crises of the early 1970s, which
made clear for the first time that the developing world
was rapidly depleting the planet’s crude oil stock.
The shock of sudden fuel shortages awakened a
complacent auto industry to the need for improving
engine efficiency while also developing alternative
propulsion technologies. After the crisis passed and
the country re-entered an era of cheap and seem-
ingly abundant oil, this early spark of progress was
stifled by the public’s demands for increasingly large
and consumptive personal vehicles, epitomized by
the “SUV craze” that gripped automobile makers
for the better part of the past two decades. In the
three plus decades since C.A.F.E. standards were
first mandated at 18 MPG, that rate has only risen to

1
 35 MPG, while according to the census bureau there
are 117,000 gas stations operating in the United
States, or one gas station for every 2,500 people6.

There was a well-documented push to bring all-elec-

tric vehicles into the mainstream in the 1990s, with
General Motors developing and test-leasing their
EV1 model to buyers in select markets in the Ameri-
can southwest beginning in 1996. After producing
nearly 1,200 of the vehicles, in early 2002 GM began
recalling the vehicles from lessees and systematically
destroying them. The following year, GM’s CEO
Rick Wagoner officially cancelled the EV1 program, The systemic destruction of GM’s first electric vehicle project
citing doubts that the company could sell enough of
the cars to make it a profitable long term investment. ongoing development of hybrid vehicles by a
growing list of manufacturers has spurred new
It is remarkable to consider that in less than a de- design innovations in battery technology,
cade since abandoning their electric vehicle pro- gradually reducing weight and increasing power
gram, GM is now heavily reinvested in developing storage capabilities and driving range9, steadily
EVs for its automobile portfolio. This abrupt turn- improving the appeal of all-electric vehicles as
around is due to a number of factors. In the after- viable transportation options for American drivers.
math of the financial collapse of late 2008, assistance
in the form of a government bailout of GM and The New EVs
Chrysler followed the near-collapse of both compa-
nies in 2009. Forcing out Rick Wagoner, the Obama
administration was explicit in their stipulation
that financial assistance was contingent upon GM
re-tooling their manufacturing process for small-
er, more efficient models while simultaneously
exploring new propulsion options for their vehicles.

In the years since GM lost out on the earliest stages of

the electric vehicle era with termination of the EV1,
Toyota has taken up the slack with its wildly popu-
lar Prius model. Instead of a purely electric vehicle,
the Prius utilizes both a battery pack and traditional
gasoline engine, a compromise that allows drivers to
exploit the efficiency advantages of electric propul-
sion with an unlimited driving range. After a decade
of production, Toyota Motor corporation has sold
over two million Priuses worldwide5, and while this
only represents a small portion of the 1 billion strong
global vehicle fleet, the success of the electric-gas hy-
brid from Toyota has forced GM and other car com-
panies to develop their own electric vehicle models
in order to compete. Just in the past few years, the
The hybrid-electric 2011 Chevrolet Volt
After years of well-publicized research and
promotion, a number of major automobile
makers are poised to rollout new electric vehicles
for the 2011 model year. Between next year and
2014, the influx of EVs into the marketplace will
accelerate from a trickle to a deluge, as over thirty
carmakers have announced plans to introduce
new electric, hybrid, and plug-in hybrid models
in the coming years11. The earliest of these models
are the Chevrolet Volt and Nissan Leaf, with the

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former being a range extender EV (battery topped
by a gas-powered generator) and the latter being a
purely battery driven vehicle5. The Volt is aimed at
the driver with a disposable income (prices start at
$40,000) who is wary of being stranded roadside
with a dead battery, offering 40 initial miles of all-
electric driving until the small gas engine kicks in
to extend range up to hundreds of miles1. The Leaf,
which costs significantly less ($25,280 after a fed-
eral tax credit), is an all-electric vehicle with a stated
range of 100 miles, aimed at the earliest technol-
ogy adopters who have the capacity to charge their
vehicle overnight in their own garages. To increase
the Leaf ’s viability and chances for long-term suc-
cess, Nissan is banking on the widespread imple-
mentation of electric vehicle infrastructure along
American roads in the near future. The company
is confident enough in its prospects that it has al-
ready retooled its manufacturing plant in Smyrna,
Tennessee to make up to 150,000 Leafs annually1.
The 100% electric 2011 Nissan Leaf
In addition to these new models from the major
automobile players, there are growing number of
electric vehicle startups making notable inroads into
the EV industry. Coda Automotive is a California-
based company that is developing an all-electric
sedan with a range of 120 miles, powered by Chinese
batteries and American electronics and assembled in
Oakland, the company plans to put 14,000 Codas
on the road starting next year with prices starting
at $37,00010. Smith Electric Vehicles is a Kansas
City-based subsidiary of the UK automotive com-
pany. They developed a line of all-electric medium
duty trucks for delivery fleets that run on electric
power trains made by Enova Systems of Tor-
rance, CA, to be initially sold to major delivery
companies like UPS and FedEx9. Compared to the
directional whims of individual vehicle owners, the
set routes that are driven by delivery trucks make
range anxiety less of an issue for delivery companies.
Over the next few years, EVs are sure to take hold of
the automobile market in a significant way, but will
be most concentrated in urban locations and with-
in local delivery fleets11. Electric vehicles will not
appear on a majority of American roads until there
is a recharging network with enough reach to facili-
tate travel not only within but between major cities.
Charging Infrastructure
Running more and more vehicles on electrons instead
of fossil fuel will require both a substantial invest-
ment in power distribution infrastructure and signif-
icant public education efforts. There are three power
levels of recharging stations that have been identified
by electricity providers. Level I is a standard 120-volt
electric outlet, which can be found in the garage of
many homes and will fully recharge an EV battery in
14 hours. Level II is a 240-volt/32 amp AC system
with a specialized plug and socket (similar to the ones
used for refrigerators), which will fully charge a bat-
tery in 4 to 8 hours but require substantial electricity
service upgrades for homeowners. Level III is a 500-
volt/125 amp system that will charge a battery in just
30 minutes, but require three phase electric circuits
(similar to the ones found in the rooftop HVAC
systems of high rises) and in the case of service sta-
tions with multiple recharge points, will require an
electricity capacity on the order of megawatts11.
Widespread usage of electric vehicles will present
the U.S. economy with a variety of downstream
business oppurtunities. The recharging of EVs will
represent a huge increase in the peak load demand
on electric power utilities, and will be dependent on
technology for charging providers to communicate
with power plants for load shedding and sudden
increases in demand. Utilities and large electrical
equipment manufacturers are realizing the potential
of the Electric Vehicle Service Equipment (EVSE)
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 industry, with some already providing charging
equipment for a user base that barely exists yet11.
General Electric plans to introduce their WattStation
charging system to the market in 2011, to be aimed at
EV drivers but also businesses and governments that
want to provide their customers and constituents
with automobile charging options outside the home.
There are many economic benefits to be shared in the
emerging EVSE industry, with electrical wholesalers
predicting that for every dollar spent on a new charg-
ing station, fifty cents worth of parts will be required
to hook it up to the power grid11. If current estimates
of 600,000 charging stations in North America by
2015 hold true, the implementation of EV recharging
The GE Wattstation
infrastructure represents a market of $3-6 billion
for the power industry over the next four years11.
Existing research shows that drivers mostly refuel in
close proximity to home or work, which is why auto
manufacturers suggest that initial infrastructure
investments focus on personal charging infrastruc-
ture 12. Getting EV technology off the ground among
individual consumers will largely rely on mundane but
crucial policy details, like the issuance of speedy con-
struction and electric work permits to bring recharg-
stations to private homes and work settings2.
The auto industry is also reaching out to pow-
er companies and major retailers to help in the
implementation of a public charging networks.
4
Carmakers know that they need to improve low
temperature battery performance and speed up
recharge times in order ease range anxiety among
consumers and ensure the profitability of their new
EV models, which is why they are encouraging the
installation of charge stations in supermarkets,
parking garages, and along city streets in the com-
ing years9. The world’s largest retail company Wal-
mart has said it is in discussions with auto manu-
facturers to install charging stations at some of its
over 8,500 locations, in addition to selling future
models of electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles11.
Between different regions of North America, there
are large disparities in the capacity for public re-
charging of EVs. Much of it is focused on the west
coast, with the state of Oregon currently leading
the nation in ownership of hybrid and all-electric
vehicles1. Portland Gas & Electric, which serves a
city that is already well-known for its comprehen-
sive environmental improvement strategies, began
installing last summer the first of over 2,500 charg-
ing stations in homes and businesses throughout
the city. Recharge stations of all levels are being
installed, with fast charge Level III points planned
in strategic locations and along high-traffic tran-
sit corridors9. PG&E has ambitious predictions for
the spread of EVs in the United States, forecasting a
30% share for EVs in total US car sales by 2020 if
a reliable recharging infrastructure is established9.
A public Level II charging station in Portland, Oregon
San Diego and southern California at large are also
preparing for widespread EV adoption, with util-
ity company SoCal edison utilizing the ZIP codes
of new electric vehicle owners in their plans for
upgrading transformers and other components
of an aging electricity infrastructure2. In anticipa-
tion of being one of the four host cities to receive
the first shipments of Nissan Leafs, San Diego has
installed the nation’s largest collection of Level
II public use chargers, with a total of 1,440 opera-
tional charging points in place as of summer 20101.
Environmental Impacts
Although an all-electric vehicles does not directly
emit CO2 or other harmful pollutants into the
atmosphere, reliance on grid electricity for propul-
sion only shifts the negative environmental impacts
to new sources that are mostly out of sight and there-
fore out of mind. While EV owners are charging
their new clean vehicles overnight in their garages,
coal and gas-fired electrical generation plants are
working overtime burning petro-chemicals to trans-
form into electricity and keep up with the new off-
peak demands6. As David Grainger of the Canadian
National Post puts it, “electric cars are dangerous be-
cause, like alcohol-based fuels, the man behind the
curtain is making us feel like his magic is real when
in fact it is all just an illusion. Choking fumes are
relentless, we are just moving them down the road”7.
In addition to operational energy consumption, the
manufacture of electric vehicle batteries also pose
significant environmental consequences. A lithium
ion battery is composed of materials that are mined
in Canada, refined in China, packaged in Japan, and
sent back to North America for a couple decades of
usage until they die, at which point the end users
have to dispose of them7. Faced with the prospect
of discarded EV batteries and their toxic materials
piling up in landfills, scientists and automakers alike
are exploring the potential use of old batteries as stat-
ic storage reservoirs for renewable energy sources,
and GM has explicitly petitioned the U.S. Congress
to incentivize the development of these second life
cycle options for electric vehicle batteries12. This
planning for the long term viability of electric vehicle
components highlights the fact that the most sustain-
able consumer products are the ones designed and
built from the outset for durability, flexibility, and
adaptation to different uses and second life cycles.
In spite of the environmental costs that accom-
pany electrically propelled cars, when considered
over the long term these vehicles are still drastically
cleaner than traditional fossil fuel models. Whereas a
typical car is directly dependent upon crude oil,
with its implicit environmental impacts from refine-
ment and distribution, through the electric grid an
electric vehicle can draw power from any source that
powers the utility - be it coal, nuclear, hydroelectric,
wind, or solar. The sad fact about shifting vehicle
energy sources from fossil fuel to electricity is that
it is “more practical to scrub the exhaust of a coal-
fired plant than to rely on individual vehicle owners
to maintain the quality of their emissions systems”11.
Implementation Strategies: China
The planet’s most populous nation has seen
explosive growth in the ranks of its middle classes over
the past few decades. Due to the enormous energy
demands of over 1.3 billion people, China has been
firing up new power plants and importing oil at an
astonishing rate, with gas prices at over $4 per gallon,
a steep rate in a country with a median annual income
of $2,80011. For these reasons of necessity, the govern-
ment has declared that by 2020, 5 million electric cars
will be on Chinese roads, up from practically none
today. The banking firm HSBC estimates that this
could represent as much 35% of the global electric
vehicle market. Beijing has already pledged $17 bil-
lion to cities for installing charging infrastructure15,
hoping to have facilities operational in the country’s
three largest cities by 201113. The government has also
provided $15 billion to the country’s leading automo-
tive battery companies to jump start electric vehicle
industries in 20 pilot cities10, in addition to discount-
ing EV purchases for consumers for up to $8,80015.
With substantial monetary incentives and a
totalitarian government reach, China is hoping to
beat the United States at the electric vehicle game
5

The S18, an all-electric vehicle from Chinese automaker Chery
and claim a greater share of the new battery and
vehicle manufacturing markets. But considering
the automobile’s long history of importance to
the American economy and lifestyle, it is doubt-
ful that the U.S. will remain complacent in the
face of this competitive challenge from overseas.
United States
The federal government plays a crucial role in fund-
ing and encouraging the spread of electric vehicles
and their charging networks throughout the nation.
Under the leadership of President Obama, the Amer-
ican Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) has
allotted $2.8 billion in grants to dozens of compa-
nies that are engaged in research and development of
electric car technologies. This funding is in addition
to the nearly $6 billion loaned to Ford Motor Com-
pany for expanding their EV operations5.In anticipa-
tion of the new all-electric vehicles being rolled out
by Nissan, the Department of Energy has invested
over $100 million to assist the four starter markets
(Portland, San Diego, Phoenix, and Nashville) with
their charging infrastructure1. The DOE has also giv-
en $39 million to Chicago-based truck manufacturer
Navistar to start making all-electric delivery vehicles.
The company made 400 electric delivery trucks in
2010, and expects to manufacture over 1000 annu-
ally in just a few years time9. Besides funding, the
federal government has an additional regulatory
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role in electric vehicle implementation. As charging
stations with powerful currents become more com-
monplace throughout the country, new regulations
for safety and interoperability of systems will need
to keep pace with emerging charging technologies.
Municipal and state governments have also been
facilitating the development of electric vehicle in-
frastructure, particularly along the west coast of
North America. Planners in the pacific northwest
envision a corridor of charging stations along Inter-
state 5, which links Portland and Vancouver, two
cities with substantial electric car infrastructure al-
ready in place. In July 2009, Vancouver’s city coun-
cil began requiring developers to include EV charg-
ing infrastructure in at least 20% of the parking
stalls for new multi-family residential projects1. As
more electric cars begin rolling on Oregon’s roads,
that state has found that the biggest hurdles to elec-
tric infrastructure implementation is the process of
providing permits to home and business owners, in
addition to implementing new building codes that
speed up the approval process. It is important that
local governments speed up their issuance of elec-
tricity upgrade permits in order to accommodate the
early electric vehicle adapters who need to charge
their cars at home2. The Clinton Climate Initia-
tive, established by the former president in 2006, has
announced plans to work with 14 of the world’s larg-
est cities, including Chicago and Houston, to install
electric vehicle infrastructure. Houston also hopes to
encourage EV usage by shortening the time for issuing
home charging permits to just 48 hours, while other
localities consider other non-financial incentives
including preferred parking in government-run lots
and H.O.V. lane access for single user electric vehicles2.
Electric vehicle adaptation is also being increas-
ingly backed by the private sector. During this
summer’s catastrophic oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico,
many Americans saw the unfortunate risks that now
accompany petroleum extraction in the age of
dwindling reserves. This disaster only helped to in-
crease consumer interest in electric vehicle technolo-
gies, and Wall Street was soon to notice. Two major
investment firms, Morgan Stanley and Lazard, have
given $700 million in capital to the battery service
company Better Place8. This company hopes to
develop a network of battery replacement stations
where drivers can stop and have their depleted bat-
teries swapped out for fully charged ones in minutes.
To make the replacement process as streamlined as
possible, Better Place is working with several different
EV companies on standardizing their battery designs9.
The batteries that will propel electric vehicles are
also one of their biggest impediments to widespread
implementation. The price premium for advanced
technology is the main reason why the Chevy
Volt’s base price is upwards of $40,000, but econo-
mists predict that the costs of batteries will steadily
decline in the near future as the technology
becomes more commonplace. The typical cost of a
battery pack in 2009 was between $700-$1500 per
kWh (a typical metal hydride battery pack requires
26 kWh), but could potentially drop below $500
as soon as 201513. Regardless of cost, it is likely that
more of the electric cars sold to Americans in the
future will also be built here, for the simple fact that
it is too expensive to ship the heavy batteries over
the oceans15. With a strong vehicle manufacturing
base already in place in the Midwest and emerging
EV industries in California, the U.S. government is
heavily funding electric vehicle implementation with
three overall goals: 1) reviving the nation’s depressed
manufacturing base with new jobs in emerging
industries, 2) reducing dependence on foreign sourc-
es of oil, 3) reducing the country’s overall transporta-
tion emissions and contributions to global warming.
President Obama checking out a Chevy Volt and electric
Ford Focus with Michigan governor Jennifer Granholm
Conclusion
Beginning next year and continuing into
the foreseeable future, the U.S. automobile
industry will be introducing a whole new genera-
tion of electric vehicles to the nation’s roads. This
report has demonstrated how private and
public charging infrastructure is the most crucial
requirement for the success of these new propul-
sion technologies. Government agencies at all
levels are providing financial and policy incen-
tives to accelerate the installation of electricity
charging points in parking garages and along
public roads, to supplant the home charging
stations that most EV drivers will be installing
in their own garages. While these efforts will
motivate consumer demand for electric vehicles
to a certain extent, the most effective way to
induce a permanent switch from fossil fuel to
electric vehicles would be an increased gasoline
tax. Although Europe has successfully stimulated
its own electric vehicle markets with $7 per gallon
gas10, the current political climate in the United
States makes a gasoline tax passage very unlikely,
and President Obama has not indicated any sup-
port for such a measure. Aside from a drastic
jump in oil and gas prices, the best way to facili-
tate the extensive adoption of electric vehicles
by American drivers is to build a comprehensive
and reliable roadside charging network
to power them.
7
 References

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10. Thomas L. Friedman, “Their Moon Shot And Ours”, The New York Times, September 26, 2010. Editorial, op-
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11. Doug Chandler, “Race of the Chargers”, Electrical Wholesaling. September 2010. 19 - 21. Accessed Decem-
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12. Alan I. Taub, “Light Duty Electric Vehicles” (paper presented as testimony to Committee on Senate Appro-
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13. Russell Hensley, Stefan Knupfer, Dickon Pinner, “Electrifying cars: how three industries will evolve”, McKin-
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