lesson five :

languange teacing : developing vocabulary and

grammar
introduction :
there are two main ways of presenting vocabulary :
showing the meaning in some way or using languages
the the student already know
grammar is the body of rules which underlie a language ,
govern the structure of words , phrases clauses and
sentences that are acceptable to educated native
speakers
the aim of teaching grammar is to get tstudents to
internalise structures which are the building blocks of
language , patterns of words which make meaningful
sentences . Until recently , stress was on the learning of
the structures by heart ;nowadays, structures are chosen
for their usefulness in communicative situations.
2. Developing Vocabulary
2.1 Methods of Teaching Vocabulary
2.1.1 Ostensive Means: Ostensive means by
showing or pointing to objects found in the classroom .
This approach is widely used with beginners , but its
potential with advanced learners should not be neglected
. Ostensive means used to show the meaning of words
and concepts are realia , pictures and gestures .
Realia are objects found or brought to the classroom :
bread or fruit , a whistle .
They create interest and allow the development of
contexts. Pictures are representations of objects that are
not easily carried or which are unavailable .
Simple pictures are better because the focus is clearer
and the meaning is less ambiguous .
Body expressions are any movement made any part of
the body . Gestures and facial expressions, Hands, Mime
and actions
2.1.2 Verbal Definition
We can define the meaning of new word through :
Word sets : related words , such as “child” , “boy”,
“girl” ,“infant” , “youngster” , “teenager” . A concept such
as “clothing” can easily be conveyed by giving different
examples of items of clothing . The same would apply to
other general words of that sort “transport” ,
“furniture” , “vegetables” .
Synonyms : words that have more or less the same
meaning , for example a “coach” is a “bus” which makes
long distance journeys.
Antonyms : words that have an opposite meaning , for
example “poor” and “rich” .
Cognates : words that have the same or very similar form
and meaning in the native language and the target
language .
Illustrative sentences : sentences used to create a
linguistic context in which the meaning of the unknown
word is illustrated .
Build on general knowledge : The teacher should base
the explanations on what the learners know about the
world , for example , the names of local towns and
villages ; their interests : music , Sports , school affairs
and personalities to explain introduce new words or
narrow differences between words, for example “near” ,
“not far” .
Scales : The teacher can show the meaning of some types
of words by sequencing them along a scale between two
antonyms . For example , to explain the words “rarely”
and “frequently” , we begin by writing the two antonyms
“never” and “always” on the
blackboard , then add other adverbs of frequency
that the students already know sometimes, often,
generally ,sometimes, then get them to use those
adverbs .
Translation : It can be used when the other
alternatives are not possible .
2 . 2 Vocabulary Choice
First , the teacher has to decide how many words to
present in a lesson . Second ,the words that the teacher
selects for presentation should be words of special value
for use in the classroom , for activities and for talking
about the students’interests, but which are not guessable
in the context .
2.3 Presentating Vocabulary
There are four steps to follow .
Step one : Sound and Meaning The teacher says the new
word two or three times , pronoucing it clearly . Indicate
the meaning at the same time , ostensively or verbally .
Step two : Repetition The class repeats the new word a
few times .
The pronunciation is carefully checked .
Step three : Written Form The new word is written on
the board and the class reads it aloud , without distorting
the pronunciation .
Step four : Illustrative Sentences. An illustrative sentence
is written on the board so that the meaning is clear.
3. Developing Grammar
3.1 Methods of Teaching Grammar
3.1.1 The Deductive Method
In this method , the teacher , first , writes an example on
the board or draws attention to the example in the
textbook ,then , the underlying rule is explained using the
metalanguage of grammar , then , the students practise
applying the rule , orally and in writing . These steps
correspond to the Grammar-Translation Method .
 3.1.2 The Inductive Method
To induce means to cause something to happen .
Teachers following this method induce the learners to
develop grammar rules without any grammatical
explanation . They believe that the rules will become
evident if learners are given enough appropriate
examples . When teaching a grammar point , the first
step is to demonstrate the meaning ,then to get the
students to produce the grammatical forms , then , the
grammar point is explained after extensive practice .
The Eclectic Method
As in all choices of teaching methodology , a middle path
is probably best , ie both deductive and inductive
teaching offer advantages . The Deductive Method is
quick and easy for the teacher and many learners ,
especially older ones , prefer this method because they
want to know how the language works .
The Inductive Method involves students much more .
Eclectic teachers use the two methods at various times ,
depending on the nature of the structure to be
developed .
 3.2 Techniques of Presentating Structures
As in the presentation of vocabulary , we show the form
of a structure , its meaning and its use .First the form and
meaning are explained through exemplification .
For example , “I have been learning English for two years”
Form : V in the Pr.Perf.C …..for ….
Meaning : the process is still going on ; it began two years
ago .
Then follows repetition of the structure .
Then follows an explanation of how the basic structure
generates other examples .
The use of a structure is called its function .
We use language for threatening , persuading ,
requesting , and giving information , complaing ,
describing , and so on .
Lesson six
Language Learning : Practising Vocabulary and
Grammar
1. Practising Vocabulary
 1. 1 Lexical Items: A lexical item is a word or a phrase (
a group of words ) with a single meaning . The meaning
of the group of words cannot be deduced from the
meaning of the individual words used in the phrase . So ,
the students are encouraged to keep a list of phrases
with a description of how the phrase is used , for
example , “How do you do” is a greeting used by both
speakers when meeting for the first time in formal
circumstances .
1.2 Active and Passive Vocabulary
“Knowing” a vocabulary item is not mere memorisation
of the word . From a receptive ( passive ) point of view , it
means recognising its meaning when it occurs in context (
spoken or written ) . In order to add the word to the
active vocabulary , we need to know the context in which
it can occur, the possible and impossible collocations of
the word as well as the connotational meaning of the
word .In dealing with “new words”, it is helpful to guide
students towards those words which they will add to
their active vocabulary as opposed to those they can
have as their passive vocabulary .
1.3 Words in Context
One of the positive results of the Notional / Functional
Approach to language teaching has been to point out
that students need certain language items for
communication relatively early in the course , even if
these items may seem structurally quite complex . In
such a situation , teachers explain for example the phrase
“would you like” by explaining its function : we use this
phrase “when we want to offer somebody something”.
An individual word in a language usually acquires a
meaning because of the relatioinship between the word
and the other words .
2. Practising Grammar
2.1Grammar Rules / Terminology
In the traditional method , the teacher gives a “rule” ,
some examples , and the students practise the rule .
Sometimes , no rules are given , only examples , then
students do some practise . Rules should be descriptive –
they should say how the language is used , not
prescriptive – how it should be used . Understanding a
rule is a process where examples and explanation
reinforce each other and consequently the internalisation
of the rule . Students learning a foreign language will
need either an explicit or implicit understanding of the
categories and patterns of a language .

Types of Grammar
Most grammar is not formally learned .It builds up over a
period of time . For example , the learning of the rule
“We put an “s” at the end of verbs in the third person
singular” requires a certain time before it becomes
acquisition where the rule is systematically used in the
spoken and the written language .
2.3 Situational Grammar : Language teaching should
not be entirely based on getting the forms correct . It
should maintain a balance between practice which
concentrates on fluency , and the rules which
concentrate on accuracy . Fluency practice focuses on
why a person is speaking : the functions of language ,and
accuracy practice on how the message is conveyed : the
structural forms . Most language lessons move from
controlled ( guided ) to free practice . Free practice
provides the students with a possibility to show what
they have learned and what remains to be learned .
Writing develops the whole range of skills which are
required for effective natural language use

__________
Lesson seven: Developing the Oral Skills
Introduction
To engage in any form of communication , we have to
understand and react to what has been said . Through
listening ,we acquire : vocabulary , syntax ,
pronunciation , stress ,and intonation . Listening can be
included in any type of lesson , usually as a warm up
phase to get the students used to the language . In order
to develop the speaking skill in the students , it is
important for the teacher to present a range of
communicative activities which involve the students in
discussion using language elements for an exchange of
information .
2. Developing the Listening Sill
2. 1 Listening Games
2.1.1 Simon Says: The class is given a series of
instructions , but they obey only if the command is
preceded by Simon Says... For example , “Pick up your
pen” : no response . “Simon says write your name …”:
the students write their name.
Telephone Numbers and Dates: You read out a few
telephone numbers, international codes and area codes
can be included , the students write them down , they
are checked on the board . Dates : the twelfth of March
1947 would be written 12/3/1947 .
2.1.3 Clock Faces: The students draw small circles . As
you call the times , they draw the hands in the correct
positions .
Which Picture?: The teacher describes a picture included
in the textbook ,giving less important details first . As the
teacher talks , the students flip through the textbook in
order to identify the picture . The same activity can be
done with several pictures put on the board which have
details in common .
2.1.5 True or False: Statements are made and the
students say whether it is right or wrong in terms of
grammar , for example , tenses , articles .
 2.1.6 Following Directions
The students are given a simplified town map on a poster
or the board with the letters of the alphabet or numbers
identifying buildings ( the post office , the hospital ....).
The teacher reads out a route , and the students trace
the route as they listen .
2.1.7 Guess Who? The teacher describes a famous
personality, giving outstanding characteristics, and the
students have to guess who this personality is.
2.1.8 Name the Product: The cooking instructions ,
ingredients , or any other sort of information are read out
and the class has to identify the product (chicken soup ,
soap powder, bleach , instant coffee, etc) .
2.2 Listening Activities
2.2.1 List the Items: The passage used for this activity
should include a variety of topic vocabulary , for
example , vehicles , fruit , clothing , shops . The learners
have to recall the exact items mentioned. They could be
asked to suggest other items , turning the listening
practice into vocabulary revision .
2.2.2 Cloze Listening: The cloze , a text with a certain
number of deleted words is read without the words
deleted and the students suggest words that are
appropriate for the gaps .
Dictation: Dictation gets students to listen carefufully .
The aim is to get the students to listen and show
comprehension , so precise writing accuracy, ie spelling
should not be focused on .The teacher first reads the
passage in a normal pace , then reads it in a slow manner,
then reads it quickly .
Dictogloss or Dictocomp: It is a variation of the dictation.
It consists of four steps :
The text is read aloud at a normal speed. The students
note down the key words and compare these words with
those of their pairs .
2. The text is read a second time , at normal speed . The
students compare the key word again with those of their
pairs .
3. The pairs reconstruct the original text , using the
key words they have noted .
4. The pairs exchange their written versions with
one or two nearby pairs .They indicate any errors that
they notice. Then , they make additions or omissions to
their own version .
5.The last step is public checking of the final
version of the text originally read by the teacher.
2.3 Recorded Materials : Through recordings , the class is
offered the chance to hear naturally spoken English , with
weakened vowels , hesitations and false starts. The
content of recorded material used depends on the age of
the learners , the objectives of the course . The types of
text recorded fall into two main categories :
Authentic Texts: These are recordings made from the
radio , the TV and internet live recordings , which are
unedited talks or discussions by native speakers .
Scripted Text: These are recordings of fluent speakers
reading exactly what is on a page, but being
spontaneous. Published textbook materials are of this
sort .

3. Developing The Speaking Skill

 Discussions and Debate: Debate can be introduced at
any time and can last as long as interest persists. Current
affairs get the students’ full mental involvement they
make the students express themselves in the foreign
language. In a small group situation , everyone gets an
opportunity to offer an opinion. Students also learn turn-
taking strategies , how to interrupt and to express
agreement or dissent . Even introvert students enjoy
taking part in such an activity .
Role Play: Role-play , as well as being enjoyable ,
offers a mental escape from the classroom .
It can be tightly controlled , perhaps as a logical
development of a dialogue in the textbook , or it can be
relatively free , with considerable scope for imagination
and creativity. It involves one student taking on a new
identity , stimulating imagination and genuine
unpredictable communication
The Information Gap: Information gaps are part of
everyday communication .
The speaker or writer says or writes something that the
receiver does not already know. The listener or reader
decodes and reacts : he speaks. Information gap activities
consist of a set of activities in which part of the
information needs to be completed .
Which Face?: The teacher shows a poster with about
twenty people . The people depicted should be: male and
female , old and young , spectacled and unspectacled ,
with and without a tie .Two women will be alike , except
that one wears a blouse and the other a cardigan . ach
face is numbered , for identification .
To play , one pair chooses a face but does not , of course ,
tell his the choice to the partner , who has to make
guesses that will narrow down the field.
Jumbled Pictures: This activity consists of two posters ;
each carries three or four pictures out of sequence .
Together , the six or eight different pictures on the two
posters tell a simple story . Each half of a group can see
only half of the pictures , of course . The students try to
reconstruct the story .
Lesson Eight: Developing Written Skills
Introduction
Reading offers language input , as listening does . Good
readers become autonomous , able to read outside the
classroom. We learn to write our mother tongue largely
as a consequence of reading . There have been
radical changes of attitudes toward the role of writing in
language teaching programmes. A hundred years ago ,
languages were taught through the written translation of
texts . Then came the Direct Method and writing was
virtually neglected . Since then , through the Audio-
lingual Method and most subsequent innovative
approaches , little written work has been included in
language teaching .

1. Developing the Reading Skill

1.1 Characteristics of Reading
Choice : We read selectively , when we want or need to.
We do not read everything in a newspaper ; We choose
what we read because of its personal importance to us .
Purpose : We read for a reason , for pleasure
information , knowledge , curiosity .
Strategies : We adopt different strategies depending on
the purpose and the text . We do not read a novel in the
same way as we do a poster. Sometimes , we rush
through along a chapter in a book by just scanning the
first and last lines of each paragraph until we get an
especially interesting part , which we read more
carefully .
Silence : We read silently . Except for TV and radio
announcers , people read visually , not out loud .
Speed : We read swiftly . We can read a passage far more
quickly than it could be spoken Slow readers are often
the product of schools where reading aloud was the
norm . They often continue to mouth the words as they
read privately .
Context : When we read , we have to cope with complex
syntax and unfamiliar lexical items in order to get the
general meaning from the context .
Authentic Texts: Authentic texts are those produced for
the genuine reader , not for teaching , for example
newspapers or magazines , recipes , books , labels ,
poems , instructions , songs , letters to newspapers,
airline schedules, advertisements, rhymes, menus, the
leaflet from a medicine pack .
Semi-authentic texts are shortened versions of the
original text :
we remove the unnecessary words or phrases , but do
not change the content or reduce sentence length , by
removing conjunctions and other cohesive devices and
making a structurally complex sentence become several
short sentences, or simplify the text , lexically and
grammatically : using simple words in place of less
common ones , an active construction instead of a
passive one , direct speech instead of indirect , for
example .
1.2 Reading Tasks
1.2.1 Scanning Tasks : When we scan we do not read the
entire text .
Find New Words for Old : This is a good way to focus
upon a new word or useful phrase . You can do this with
synonyms or antonyms , giving the clues in words that
they already know .
Locate Grammar Features : Make a list of specified
grammar features , such as all the irregular past tense
verbs (fought, broke), the prepositions of place, the
conjunctions … .
Shopping Lists : List all the vegetables available in the
different parts of a menu . With a long shopping list, note
all the products that would be bought in a specified
shop .
Make Word Sets : List specified sets of words (those
beginning with a prefix , adjectives , collective nouns,
topic vocabulary ... .

Skimming Tasks: Unlike scanning , this involves reading ,

but done at a fast speed .
Select a Title : Choose the most appropriate title for a
passage from a list of suggestions .
Create a Title : Compose an alternative title or subtitle for
the text or for each paragraph .
Draw Inferences : Draw inferences about the writer’s
attitude to a situation or topic .

1.2.3 Intensive Reading Tasks: This involves the class in

the close reading of a passage .
Match Nouns and Verbs : Circle all the subject nouns or
noun phrases and indicate the verb that goes with each
one .
Split Sentences : Put a slash between the two or more
parts of a longer sentence to show where it could be
broken down into shorter sentences. List the words that
would be removed in the process .
Combine Sentences : Indicate where shorter sentences
could be combined , suggesting the connecting words
that might be used .
Make Summaries : Give a summarising sentence for each
paragraph .
Reorder Sentences : Read a jigsaw sentence paragraph
and decide about the right order of the sentences .
Fill in the Gaps : Read a passage with blanks and provide
suitable words for each gap .
Complete Tables and Graphs : Read an article and list the
events . Complete a table or a graph to present any data
visually .
Take Side : List arguments for and against a proposition ,
those that are given in the passage and those that the
students themselves might like to make .
Identify Facts and opinions : Read an article or report and
separate facts from opinions .

1.2.4 Extensive Reading Tasks: This implies a supply of

long reading passages or books that students can take
away to read in their leisure time . It also implies a
measure of freedom and non-interference from the
teacher, so there should be little follow-up . Developing
the Writing Skill
2.1 Controlled Writing: Writing is controlled when the
outcome is predictable , either right or wrong ; so it can
be corrected quickly by the students themse For
example ,
Jigsaw Sentences : The students match the halves of
several sentences and write them out .
Copying with Corrections : The class writes a paragraph
,changing incorrect details .
Find and Copy : This is a vocabulary expanding exercise .
The writing can be of words, phrases or of
whole sentences .
Sentence Combining : The class is given a passage written
in short sentences ; they combine these sentences ,
using appropriate connectives , which are scrambled ,
with extra ones as distracters .
Sentence Reduction : The class copies a passage , taking
out all unnecessary words , making only minor necessary
changes to the original structures .

Dictogloss : This is essentially a note taking exercise .

2.2 Guided Writing

Picture Description : Students compose a few questions
about the picture they answer in writing in the form of a
description .
Formal Practice : A grammar point can become the basis
of a guided paragraph to practise example the passive
voice .
Summary : After a passage has been read intensively , it
can be rewritten in a summary form focusing on the
major points of content .
Replying to Letters : The students reply to a stimulus
letter, writing in a natural way, but answering a certain
number of requests from information to shape the
response .
Newspaper Clippings : Newspaper headlines can be given
as a starter of students’writing activity , creating the full
article .
Story Completion : It consists in building up a story , with
the writers responding to what others have written .
2.3 Ways of Correcting Written Work
Spot Check : Circulate when students are writing , making
spot checks; underline errors for self- correction ; tell the
students how to make the correction.
Peer Marking : Have students mark each other’s work
whenever possible , under your direction .
Global Marking : Mark free writing by impression .
Lesson Nine
Practising Language Skills
Introduction
A major objective of a language course is to prepare the
learners for meaningful interaction , making them able to
understand and use language as it is used in a natural
environment .
2. Language Drills
2.1 Purpose of a Drill: The most common purpose of
a drill is to involve the students in the practice of
language patterns . A drill allows the students to hear a
structure many times , which assists internalisation of the
language elements being taught .
2.2 Types of Drills
Repetition Drills
Step One : The Model : The teacher gives the model
to be repeated several times speaking clearly and
naturally , using proper stress and intonation .
Step Two : Whole Class Repetition or Choral Repetition :
The teacher asks the whole class to repeat the model
several times until the students are confident and can
speak at the same speed as in the model .
Step Three : Half Class Repetition : The first half of the
class repeats then the other one .
Step Four : Small Group Repetition :By now , the students
should be confident in repeating in small groups of two
or three students .
Step Five : Individual Repetition :At this point , the
teacher checks the pronunciation , stress and intonation
of the patterns practised .
Step Six : Whole Class or Half Class Repetition : To end
this activity , the teacher asks for a couple of choral or
half choral repetition to involve everyone again .
Substitution Drills The student is required to replace one
language element by another following specific directions
.
Transformation Drills : The students are required to
transform a sentence by changing its structure . The
transformation can be from affirmative to negative ,
interrogative to passive , changes of person , or of tense .
Expansion Drills : The students are required to add new
words given by the teacher . This requires
comprehension and grammatical sensitivity
3. Language Practice
3.1 Language for Communication
Purpose : Speech is purposeful : we greet people ,
apologise , criticise , enquire , inform and so on .
Unpredictability : We cannot guess the nature of most
speech acts .
Slips and Hesitations : We cannot monitor our speech , as
we do written work when our utterances violate
grammar rules of written language .
Creativity : Fluent speakers understand and create novel
utterances , string words into new and quite novel
sequences .
Spontaneity : Normally , we compose as we talk .
Economy : Words are not wasted : we take into account
what others know about a situation , avoiding
redundancies .
Stress and Intonation : Through the music of language ,
we express attitudes and feelings . We can even make
changes of meaning evident by the tone of voice .
Comprehension Checks : We look at people with whom
we talk , checking if they have understood .
Turn Taking : Speakers interact , signalling when they
want to take over the speech act or to surrender it .
Often , the hand over is non-verbal , by facial expression
or gesture.
Language for Socialising
Greetings and Farewells : “ Hello there , hi! Nice to see
you
Responding to Greetings : “fine thanks , very well , pretty
good
Enquiring about Health : “How are you this lovely day ?
Everyone OK ?
Thanking :
To acknowledge a favour , you can say “Thanks a lot ,
thank you very much
Praising :“good , well done , excellent , fine , jolly good ,
nice work
Seeking help : “Please Miss/Sir , Excuse me Miss / Sir.
May I…?