Castingslides 161115034827 PDF

2.
008x
Casting
MIT 2.008x
Prof. John Hart

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2.008x
What is casting?
Why is it a useful and

important manufacturing
process?
How does it compare

and contrast to
processes we have
studied already?
à Casting is the process
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whereby a part is produced by
solidification (of a molten
metal) to take the shape of a
mold.
à Why casting?
§ Versatile to many types of
metals
§ Potential for rapid and cost-
effective production
§ Wide range of length scales
(mm to m!)
§ Complex part geometries
(including internal cavities)
Engine block by 160SX ( talk) - 160SX ( talk)'s file, CC BY-SA 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=7899838
Brass r at by Pigsfly33 at English Wikipedia, CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=31980643,
Casting and history
Left: Bronze s tatue of a man,
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Hellenistic period, mid-2nd-1st
century B.C., H. 73 in (185.4 c m)
Below: Herakles (Son of Zeus)
Bessemer s teel converter (enabled reduction of

carbon content in Iron à steel), 1865
http://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/257580
https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/28.77/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessemer_process#/media/File:Bessemer_converter.jpg (Public
domain)
The engine from the 1903 Wright Flyer had an aluminum crankcase. The Wrights
contracted a local Dayton foundry, the Buckeye Iron and Brass Works, to cast the
aluminum crankcase. Buckeye acquired their raw aluminum from the nearby Pittsburgh 2.008x
Reduction Company, renamed Alcoa in 1907, the world’s leading producer of aluminum.
http://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/multimedia/detail.cfm?id=5817
Global cast iron and steel production
(millions of tons) 2.008x
World census of c asting production:

http://www.afsinc.org/multimedia/contentMCDP.cfm?ItemNumber=16433
Agenda:
Casting 2.008x
§ Classification of casting methods

§ Sand casting
§ Die casting
§ Casting process physics:
§ Fluidity and cooling (with
demonstration)
§ Solidification and microstructure
§ Investment casting
§ Comparison and conclusion
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Casting:
2.Classification of
casting methods
Classification of casting processes
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General sequence (all casting processes):

§ Pattern/mold making
§ Melt preparation
§ Mold filling
§ Cooling and solidification
§ Removal (‘breakout’) of the parts
Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
Sand casting
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Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing

Important criteria for
casting materials 2.008x
§ Melting point and latent heat

§ Density versus temperature
§ Solubility with other elements
§ Diffusion rates
§ Reactivity (especially to oxygen)
§ Outgassing (vapor pressure)
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3000° C
Tungsten Carbide (WC)
Tungsten Carbide, WC,
Silicon Carbide, SiC Cubic Zirconia, ZrO2
Silicon Carbide (SiC)
Molybdenum
Molybdenum
Alumina Al2O3
Alumina (Al 2 O 3 ;; 2072 C)
o
2000° C
Platinum, Pt
Titanium, Ti
Platinum, Titanium
IronFE, Plain Carbon Steels,(1668
low alloy, C)
o
stainless
Nickel, Ni
Iron and steels, Nickel, Silicon
Silicon, Si
Nickel Allows
1000° C Copper, Cu, Bronze, Brass

Copper, Bronze, Brass
Aluminum (660 oC)

Aluminum
Magnesium
Magnesium Nylon
Zinc (420
Zinc, Zn o C)
Acetal
PTFE
Tin (Teflon)
Tin, Sn
0° C HDPE
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Casting:
3. Sand casting
Sand casting
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HSOtZj2Y8is
Sand casting
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§ Mold cavity is formed by packing

sand around a pattern.
§ Interior geometry is defined by a
core (disposable).
§ The pattern is removed and the
cavity has the desired shape.
§ Sand for the mold is, for example,
90% sand, 3% water and 7% clay.

Sand casting: key attributes
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§ Low surface detail;; post-machining often required for
high tolerances.
§ It’s the most common casting method (by total weight);;
can make VERY large parts.
§ Because mold filling is gravity-driven (more to come
later), must pay most careful attention to flow and
shrinkage.
§ It’s a (relatively) labor-intensive process with long cycle
time (why?)
§ 3D printing of molds and complex cores (though one-
time use) can achieve previously impossible geometries.
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Voxeljet: 3D printed

sand molds
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Casting:
4. Die casting
Die casting of aluminum wheel caps
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N6ODcxK8_lg
Die casting: attributes
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§ Pressure: ~1-1000 MPa (how

does this compare to IM?)
§ Cycle time: ~10’s of seconds for

average components (tools/toys)
§ Parts have many similarities to

IM, i.e., ejector pin marks,
parting lines, gates/runners.
§ Dies are endangered by heat-

induced cracking and corrosion
(accelerated at high
temperature) à need tool-grade
steel or other special materials.
Die casting: hot chamber method
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: cold chamber method

Hot Wheels!
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Image: http://www.amazon.com/Hot-Wheels-9-Car-Gift-Styles/dp/B006EFMSSM
Which processes?
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20 for $15 (Amazon);; how is that possible?
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DFM: Integral rivets!
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Ferrari F12 Berlinetta
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Wheelhouses:
sand casting
Frame components:
High pressure die
casting
Top image: s creenshot from http://auto.ferrari.com/en_US/sports-cars-models/car-range/f12-berlinetta/#design-360_exterior-5

Bottom image: http://auto.ferrari.com/en_EN/wp-content/uploads/sites/5/2013/07/architecture11.jpg
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Casting:
5. Fluidity and cooling

Surface tension and viscosity
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Ux
Ux(H) = Ux
∂U
τ =µ Ux(y) h
∂y
Ux(0) = 0
Surface tension, σ Dynamic viscosity, μ

Water (25 C) 0.07 N/m 1×10-3 kg/m-s [Pa-s]
Honey (25 C) ~0.06 ~10
Liquid thermoplastic ~0.03 102-103
Molten aluminum (600 C) 0.90 3×10-3
Fluid flow
considerations for 2.008x
good casting
à If gravity-driven, pressure ‘head’
must be sufficient to overcome flow
resistance to fully infiltrate mold
cavity.

Fluid flow
considerations for 2.008x
good casting
à Flow must remain laminar to
prevent air entrainment.avoid
abrupt direction change. Trapped
air leads to ‘dross’ (oxide flakes)
à same as
μ (viscosity)

Testing ‘fluidity’ for casting
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Al with increasing
content of
reinforcing
particles (SiC)

Behera et al. “Effect of Reinforcement Particles on the Fluidity and Solidification Behavior of the Stir Cast Aluminum Alloy
Metal Matrix Composites”, American J ournal of Materials Science, 2012;; 2(3): 53-61
Demonstration: Cooling in sand casting vs.
die casting (‘wood’s metal’) 2.008x
Solidification time
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80
70
Sand Casting
60
Temperature [°C]
50
Die Casting
40
30
20
10
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Time [s]
Chvorinov’s rule
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n
"V %
tsolidify = C ⋅ $ '
# A&
§ V = volume of the

casting
§ A = surface area of the
casting
§ C = mold constant,
depends on mold
material and thermal
properties of casting
metal

Solidification: sand cast versus die cast
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~0.1 cm2/s
αsteel
αsand ~0.01 cm2/s αaluminum ~0.9 cm2/s
LIQUID!
SOLID!
LIQUID!
SOLID!
SAND METAL
TM! TM!
T0! T0!
0 0
2
"V % "V %
tsolidify = C ⋅ $ ' tsolidify = C ⋅ $ '
# A& # A&
à Like injection molding, but à Lower-bound (assumes
mold has low thermal conductivity constant mold temp)
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Casting:
6. Solidification and
microstructure
Solidification of pure metals
§ Metal releases latent heat as it freezes;; this accounts for 2.008x
up to ~50% of the energy transfer.
§ As a result, solid and liquid co-exist in the mold for a
significant time.
1/Temperature

Formation of cast microstructure
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Columnar
Shell zone
(‘Chill’)
Grain size is

inversely
proportional to
cooling rate.
Shell has finer

Hall-Petch model: smaller grains grains à
give higher strength thinner die
σ0 = stress to start dislocation movement cast parts are
ky = material hardening constant typically
d = grain size ky stronger
σ y = σo +
d grain
Alloys: dendrites and the ‘mushy zone’
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Casting:
7. Defects
What causes the voids? 2.008x
Shrinkage!
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Shrinkage!
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Casting: general defects
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§ Misrun: solidification before complete filling
§ Cold shut: lack of fusion due to premature freezing
§ Cold shot: metal splatter entrapped in casting
§ Shrinkage cavity: depression in surface caused by
solidification shrinkage (or hot tear = internal void)

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Casting:
8. Investment casting
Investment (‘lost wax’) casting
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Image from http://www.custompartnet.com/wu/investment-casting

An industrial investment casting process
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Screenshot from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cptlGzWYFEk

Investment casting: key points
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§ Use of wax template enables excellent surface finish
with little/no post-processing.
§ Ceramic shell enables casting of high melting point
metals/alloys.
§ Metal typically poured in vacuum oven (reduces
defects).
§ Very labor intensive à robots!
Why investment casting?

§ Jewelry: complex geometries, high tolerances and fine
features.
§ Jet engine parts: smooth surface finish, compatibility
with high temperature alloys.
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Image from ATI Aerospace (http://www.slideshare.net/johnpsilk/ati-jet-engine);; s ee also

http://www.geaviation.com/commercial/engines/genx/;; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S1ahHWXGx5Y
Investment casting of turbine blades
à Careful control of solidification can give single crystal blades (= very 2.008x
high strength and fatigue life under cyclic load at high temperature)

Image at right from http://www.chromalloy.com/files/newspressrelease/7ac07680-0adb-460b-8f27-f7d47745a4c4.pdf
Great article: ‘The metal that brought y ou c heap flights’ http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-32749262
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Casting:
9. Comparison and
conclusion
What casting method was used and why?
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1 2
Die casting: Small parts, precision Sand casting: Larger parts, rough
features, good surface finish surface finish
Investment casting: Complex curves, good surface finish (at right)
Aluminum castings from the s and mold ( modified): photograph taken by G lenn McKechnie - Own work, CC BY-SA 2.0,
An investment c ast turbocharger turbine, Nuclear v alve by Mark Bolton - CC BY-SA 3.0, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=10729027,
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Why would I:
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à Choose die casting instead of

injection molding?
Need metal (strength, durability)
instead of plastic
à Choose investment casting

instead of die casting?
Higher melting point material,
complex internal cavities, high
precision
à Choose machining instead of die

casting?
Higher tolerances;; better control of
microstructure/properties (can use
wrought/forged material)
Reflection: the big four
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Sand Investment Die
Rate Medium Low High
Quality Low Medium High
Cost Low Medium High
Flexibility Low-Medium Medium Low

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Top image from:

http://www.alcoa.com/global/en/innovation/alcoa_micromill.asp
Article: Automotive News, September 14, 2015.
Continuous casting of aluminum sheet
(Alcoa ‘micromill’ process) 2.008x
Furnace (molten Al)
Continuously
moving sheet
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AH2QcNGM87w
http://www.alcoa.com/global/en/innovation/alcoa_micromill.asp
References
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1 Introduction
Photo of Fire Hydrant by User: KeystonePetPlace on Pixabay. This work is in the public domain.
Photo of Die Cast BMW Car by User: RockyHorror on Pixabay. This work is in the public domain.
Photo of Cast Elbow Pipes by User: Dyanap on Pixabay. This work is in the public domain.
Photo of Wheel Rims by User: Pashminu on Pixabay. This work is in the public domain.
Photo of Jet Engine Turbine by User: Michael Schwarenberger on Pixabay. This work is in the
public domain.
Photo of Engine Block by 160SX (160SX (talk)'s file) on Wikimedia. (CC BY-SA) 3.0
Photo of Propeller Blade by User: seehund on Pixabay. This work is in the public domain.
Photo of MIT Class Ring by User: Pigsfly33 on Wikimedia. (CC BY-SA) 3.0
Image of Herakles Statue © 2000–2016 The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Image of Bronze Statue of a Man © 2000–2016 The Metropolitan Museum of Art
References
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Image of Bessemer Converter Diagram from "Discoveries & Inventions of the Nineteenth Century"
by R. Routledge, published 1900. This work is in the public domain.
Image of Wright Brothers Engine from the National Air and Space Museum © The Smithsonian.
Image of Wright Brothers Flyer from the National Air and Space Museum © The Smithsonian.
Image of US and China Casting Production © American Foundry Society
Image of Global Cast Iron and Steel Production © IKB Deutsche Industriebank AG
2 Classification
Casting Process Classification: Figure II.3 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th
Edition)" by Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Sand Casting Mold Features: Figure 10.2 b) from "Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing (4th
Edition)" by Groover. © John Wiley & Sons Inc. (2010).
References
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3 Sand Casting
Video of Sand Casting © 2006 - 2016 ChinaSavvy. All Rights Reserved.
Sand Casting Mold Features: Figure 10.2 b) from "Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing (4th
4 Die Casting
Video of Die Casting © 2016 Die Castings China
Hot Chamber Die Casting: Figure 11.13 1) and 2) from "Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing
(4th Edition)" by Groover. © John Wiley & Sons Inc. (2010).
Cold Chamber Die Casting: Figure 11.14 1) and 2) from "Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing
(4th Edition)" by Groover. © John Wiley & Sons Inc. (2010).
Image of Ferrari F12 Berlinetta by Ferrari S.p.A. Copyright 2016. All Rights Reserved.
Image of Ferrari Aluminum Chassis by Ferrari S.p.A. Copyright 2016. All Rights Reserved.
References
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5 Fluidity / Cooling
Gated Casting with Risers: Figure 10.8 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th
Spiral Test Casting: Figure 10.9 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by
Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Image of Changing Fluidity Index © 2012 Scientific & Academic Publishing
Temperature Distribution at Mold Wall: Figure 10.10 from "Manufacturing Engineering &
Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing
(2014).
6 Solidification
Temperature Evolution over Time: Figure 10.1 a) from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology
(7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Change in Specific Density: Figure 10.1 b) from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th
References
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Casting Cross-Section: Figure 10.2 b) from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th
Phase Diagram: Figure 10.4 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)" by
Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
7 Defects
Shrinkage and Cavity Formation: Figure 10.8 2) and 3) from "Fundamentals of Modern
Manufacturing (4th Edition)" by Groover. © John Wiley & Sons Inc. (2010).
Shrinkage Allowances: Table 12.1 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th Edition)"
by Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing (2014).
Common Casting Defects: Figure 11.22 a) - d) from "Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing (4th
References
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8 Investment Casting
Image of Investment Casting Process © 2009 CustomPartNet
Video of Investment Casting Process ©2011 Wisconsin Precision Casting Corporation
Image of Jet Engine Materials © 2016 ATI. All Rights Reserved.
Single Crystal Turbine Blade: Figure 11.25 b) and c) from "Manufacturing Engineering &
Technology (7th Edition)" by Kalpakjian, Schmid. © Upper Saddle River;; Pearson Publishing
(2014).
Image of Wax Patterns for Turbine Blades © SouthComm Publishing Company 2015.
9 Conclusion
Photo of Threaded Faucet Connection by User: byrev on Pixabay. This work is in the public
domain.
Photo of Bearing by User: petitgiovanni on Pixabay. This work is in the public domain.
References
2.008x
Photo of Toy Truck by User: da_hammer on Pixabay. This work is in the public domain.
Photo of Sand Cast Parts by User: Graibeard on Wikimedia. (CC BY-SA) 2.0
Photo of Investment Cast Turbocharger Turbine Blades by MarkBolton at English Wikipedia. (CC
BY-SA) 3.0
Photo of Valve for Nuclear Power Station by MarkBolton at English Wikipedia. (CC BY-SA) 3.0
Compatison of Casting Methods: Table 11.2 from "Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (7th
Image of Micromill © 2016 Alcoa Inc.
Article on F150 Production © Crain Communications, Inc.
Image of Ford F150 Chassis © 2014 Sustainable Enterprises Media, Inc.
Image of Ford F150 © 2016 Ford Motor Company
Image of Micromill Plant © 2016 Alcoa Inc.
Video of Micromilling © 2016 Alcoa Inc.

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2.

Prof. John Hart

What is casting?

Why is it a useful and

How does it compare

Bessemer s teel converter (enabled reduction of

World census of c asting production:

§ Classification of casting methods

General sequence (all casting processes):

Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing

§ Melting point and latent heat

1000° C Copper, Cu, Bronze, Brass

Aluminum (660 oC)

§ Mold cavity is formed by packing

Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing

Voxeljet: 3D printed

§ Pressure: ~1-­1000 MPa (how

§ Cycle time: ~10’s of seconds for

§ Parts have many similarities to

§ Dies are endangered by heat-­

: cold chamber method

Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing

Top image: s creenshot from http://auto.ferrari.com/en_US/sports-­cars-­models/car-­range/f12-­berlinetta/#design-­360_exterior-­5

5. Fluidity and cooling

Surface tension, σ Dynamic viscosity, μ

Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

§ V = volume of the

Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Grain size is

Shell has finer

Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing

Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing

Image from http://www.custompartnet.com/wu/investment-­casting

Screenshot from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cptlGzWYFEk

Why investment casting?

Image from ATI Aerospace (http://www.slideshare.net/johnpsilk/ati-­jet-­engine);; s ee also

Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Investment casting: Complex curves, good surface finish (at right)

Kalpakjian and Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

à Choose die casting instead of

à Choose investment casting

à Choose machining instead of die

Sand Investment Die

Rate Medium Low High

Quality Low Medium High

Cost Low Medium High

Flexibility Low-­Medium Medium Low

Top image from:

Furnace (molten Al)

Edition)" by Groover. © John Wiley & Sons Inc. (2010).

Video of Die Casting © 2016 Die Castings China

Image of Investment Casting Process © 2009 CustomPartNet

Image of Micromill © 2016 Alcoa Inc.

Article on F150 Production © Crain Communications, Inc.

Image of Ford F150 © 2016 Ford Motor Company

Image of Micromill Plant © 2016 Alcoa Inc.

Video of Micromilling © 2016 Alcoa Inc.

§ Pressure: ~1-1000 MPa (how

§ Dies are endangered by heat-

Top image: s creenshot from http://auto.ferrari.com/en_US/sports-cars-models/car-range/f12-berlinetta/#design-360_exterior-5

Image from http://www.custompartnet.com/wu/investment-casting

Image from ATI Aerospace (http://www.slideshare.net/johnpsilk/ati-jet-engine);; s ee also

Flexibility Low-Medium Medium Low