C hapter III

GONDWANA SUPERGROUP
 63

The term 'Gondwana' has be en variously used by

different work e r s for different sense in different

d i s c i p l i n e s of ear th science. For some wor ke rs, the term

'Gondwana' implies an essentially t e r r estrial

s e d i m e n t a r y s equen ces of Upper C a r b o n i f e r o u s to Per mian

age, that oc cu rs in d i f f e r e n t c o n t i n e n t a l segme nts in

southern he misphere. For P a l a e o n t o l o g i s t s , the prima ry

concern in this rock seq u e n c e is w i t h the floral and

faunal b o n d a g e w hich they ex h ibit rega r d l e s s of their

disposition and development acro ss the pre sen t day

o c e a n i c ba rri ers. From the g e o t e c t o n i c vie w point, this

term im plies d y n a m i c b e h a v i o u r of c r u stal plates, w hich

we re separated and d r i f t e d away from the comp o s i t e

mosaic of cru stal plates forming the Gondwanic

continental sup er -pla te. As far as In dia is conce rne d,

it sig nifies the G o n d w a n i c plate of Indian su bco ntin ent ,

w h i c h inc lu de s se di ment s d e p o s i t e d in ter restrial inland

ba sin s as well as, s e d i m e n t s d e p o s i t e d in pe ri p h e r a l

mari n e doma i n (Du tta ^ 1983).

The G o n d w a n a rocks are m a i n l y d e v e l o p e d alo ng two

sides of a great t r i a n g u l a r area, the third side of

which is form ed by the n o r t h e r n part of the east coast

of Pe ninsula, i.e. from the G o d a v a r i valley to the

Rajmahal hills. The n o r t h e r n side of this corr e s p o n d s

roughly to the Damodar, Sone and Narmada valleys

t rendin g E-W, w h i l e the s o u t h w e s t e r n side runs along the

 64

N W - S E G o d a v a r i valley. In the inter ior of this triangle

is a s u b s i d i a r y belt a l o n g the M a h a n a d i valley. In the

Extrapeninsular part, these are expos ed a l ong the

fo ot h i l l s of H i m a l a y a a l o n g A s s a m and Kashmir. Detached

outcrops of these rocks are seen b e t w e e n Cuttack and

Cape Comorin, in Rajmahal hills, Madhya Pradesh,

Saur ash tra , Rewa and K u t c h (Krishnan, 1982).

Classification of G o n d w a n a sequen ce is one of the

d eba t e d topics in India n Geolo gy, In this regard, there

are two group s of opinion. One g roup pref e r r e d the two­

fold classification of Gon dwan a, while the second

suggested t h r ee-fol d classification of Go pndwana.

W o r k e r s like King (1881), O l d h a m (1893), Cotter (1917),

Fox (1931), Pasco e (1957), and K r i s h n a n (1982) pref e r r e d

t wo- f o l d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of G o n d w a n a sequen ce in which

u pper and lower units were s eparated by b reak in

stratigraphy and plant life. In the two-fold

classification, the lower G o n d w a n a s are c h a r a c t e r i s e d by

Glossopteris flora and the up per Gondwanas are

characterised by Ptillophyllum flora, the line of

division is taken as a bove the P a n chet Series (Fox,

1931). The two-fol d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of G o n d w a n a seq uenc e

proposed by Fox (1931) is g i v e n T a b l e 3.1. The three­

fold classification of Gondwana is prop o s e d by

F e i s t m a n t e l (1880) and is foll o w e d by V r e d e n b u r g (1910)

and W a d i a (1926). The t h r e e - f o l d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n is bas ed

 65

T a b l e 3.1 : C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of I n d i a n G o n d w a n a s e q u e n c e ,

by F o x (19 3 1) .

Um ia stage

J a b a l p u r Series J a b a l p u r stage

Chau g a n stage Jurassic

Ko ta stage

Upper R a j m a h a l Series R a j m a h a l stage

Gondwana P a r s o r a stage

M a h a d e v a n Series M a l e r i (Denwa)
s tage

P a n c h m a r h i stage T ria s s i c

B r e a k -----------------------------

Pa nch et Series Hi ra pu r stage

M ait ur stage
(Mangli beds)

Kamth i stage

Raniganj Series Raniganj or Upper

coal me as ures

M a h u d a stage P e rmian
Lower
Bar re n M e a u r e s Iron st on e shale/
Gondwana
Kulti stage

B ara k a r Series B arakar or lower

coal m e asures

K arhe r b a r i stage

Talc h i r Series R ikb a plant stage

Upper
T alchir n e e d l e shale Carboni­
ferous
Gla ci al bo ul der beds
 66

on the l i t h o l o g i c a l s i m i l a r i t y of upper parts of lower

Gondwana sequenc e and lower parts of upper Gondwana

sequence. The se t r a n s i t i o n a l f o r m a t i o n s were sepa r a t e d

by them and grou p e d as middle Gond wana s. The lower

Gondwana form a t i o n s are c o n s i d e r e d to be characterised

by Glossopteris flora, the upper Gond w a n a s by

P t i l l o p h y l l u m flora and the transiti onal beds of m i ddle

Gondwanas contain Triassic reptilian remains. This

thr e e - f o l d d i v i s i o n of G o n d w a n a rou g h l y c o r r e s p o n d s to

Permian, T r i a s s i c and J u r a s s i c sy stems respectiv ely .

According to M i t r a and D u t t a (1977), the Gondwana

s edi m e n t s of P e n i n s u l a r bas ins exh ibit several

significant s t r a t i g r a p h i c br eak s w h i c h do not c o i n c i d e

with any si ngle time plane. The first maj or er osional

break is r eco r d e d above the L owe r Permian Bara kar

For mat ion in Wardha-Godavari, Hutur, Mohpani and

Rajm a h a l basins. A s i g n i f i c a n t b r e a k is also clear ly

defined abov e the L ower T r i a s s i c Pa nchet For ma t ion in

the Damodar and Son v a l l e y b asin belts. W i thin the

Triassic sequence, a n o t h e r s t r a t i g r a p h i c hi atus above

the N o r i a n i.e. the south R e w a are a is well docu men ted.

According to them, these observations intr o d u c e an

el eme nt of u n c e r t a i n i t y in the e x e r c i s e of correlating

different rock units on a regi o n a l scale and so, any

a t t e m p t to e s t a b l i s h a c l o s e inte r b a s i n r e l a t i o n s h i p on

a regi o n a l scale is fr a ught w i t h lac una e and ambiguities,

 67

V e n k a t a c h a l a and M ahe s h w a r i , 1988 (in Venkatachala

and Maheshwari, 1991) p r o p o s e d to use the formal term

Gondwana Supergroup for a continuous sequence of

s edi ments laid down in P e n i n s u l a r India, that c omp r i s e s

a g l a c i g e n e unit at the base and a red bed faci es at the

top. The s u c c e s s i o n of G o n d w a n a S u p e r g r o u p in Damo d a r

g r aben p r o p o s e d by them is given in T ab le 3.2. W i thin

Gondwana Supergroup in Damo d a r graben, they have

recognised four groups and se ven formati ons . According

to them, these formations ne ed not necessarily be

developed in other grabens, but are represented by

homotaxial beds w h o s e rela t i o n w i t h the Damo d a r vall e y

beds is essentially e s t a b l i s h e d on the basis of

c o n t a i n e d pl ant fossils.

As mentioned in C h a p t e r I, the area under study

constitutes the northwestern part of the Pra nhita-

Go d a v a r i basin, and is l o c ated in the W a r d h a valley. The

generalised geological sequence of Wardha valley

e s t a b l i s h e d by Raja Rao (1982) is g i v e n in Tabl e 1.2. In

the area, the rocks b e l o n g i n g to Talc h i r Formation,

B a r a k a r F o r m a t i o n and Kam thi F o r m a t i o n i.e. r e p r e s e n t i n g

Lowe r G o n d w a n a sequ e n c e are only exposed. The det a i l s of

the f ie ld and l a b o r a t o r y stud ies c a r r i e d out of these

rocks are g iven below.

 68

Tab le 3.2 : The s u c c e s s i o n of G o n d w a n a S u p e r g r o u p in

Da m odar graben, by V e n k a t a c h a l a and M a h e s h w a r i

(1988) .

----------------------h i a t u s ---------------------------

Mahadeva Group Supr a Pa nchet F o r m a t i o n

Pa nchet G roup Hirapur F ormation

M a itur F o r m a t i o n
Gondwana
D a m u d a Grou p Raniganj F o r m a t i o n
Supergroup
Kulti F o r m a t i o n

Bara k a r Form a t i o n

T a l c h i r G ro up Tal chi r Form a t i o n

-hi atus--------------------
FIG.3.1 •G E O L O G I C A L MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF STUDIED
LITHOSECTIONS OF TALCHIR FORMATION.
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 70

2) five samples (Ml, M2, M3, M4 and M5), from Ghonad

l i t h o s e c t i o n ( L o c a l i t y 3) seven samples (Gl, G2, G3, G 4 ,

G5, G6 and G7) and from Belsani l i t h o s e c t i o n (Loca lit y

4) fif tee n sampl es (Bl, B2, B 3 , B 4 , B 5 , B 6 , B7a, B7b,

B8, B 9 , BIO, Bll, B12, B13, and B14) were c o l l e c t e d for

labo r a t o r y studies. T hese samp les were c o l l e c t e d at a

vertical inte rval of abo ut 80 cm to 1.20 m. In these

collected samples, two sampl es n a m e l y K1 and K2 from

K ochi l i t h o s e c t i o n r e p r e s e n t basa l m a s s i v e diamictites ,

the r e m a i n i n g six sa mpl es from Koc hi (K3 to KB) and five

samples from M e h a s a l (Ml to M5) repr e s e n t stra t i f i e d

d i a m i c t i t e and s a n d s t o n e facies. Fine g r a i n e d s a ndstone

facies is r e p r e s e n t e d by se ven samples (Gl to G7) of

Ghonad lith ose cti on, and interbedded siltstone-shale

facies is r e p r e s e n t e d by 11 sampl es (Bl, B 2 , B 3 , B 4 , B5,

B6, B7a, B7b, B8, B9 and BIO) of Be lsani li thosection.

Out of these 11 samples, six sam ple s (Bl, B3, B 5 , B7a,

B7b and B9) r e p r e s e n t s i l t s t o n e and five samples (B2,

B4, B 6 , B8 and BIO) r e p r e s e n t shales. Samp le No.B ll is

youn ger massive d i a m i c t i t e and B12, B13 and B14 are

o v e r l y i n g y o u n g e r s t r a t i f i e d dia mict ite .

The typical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the rocks belonging

to abo ve m e n t i o n e d four s e d i m e n t a r y facies are give n

below.
 71

Basal m a s s i v e d i a m i c t i t e

In the pr esent study, the diamictite l i t h ofacies

code sugg e s t e d by Eyles e_t a l . (1983) was followed.

According to them, the n o n g e n e t i c term 'diamict' is

referred to any po orly sort e d c l a s t - s a n d - m u d admi x t u r e

reg a r d l e s s of d e p o s i t i o n a l env ironment, and the term can

be used for se di ments where cla sts m u t u a l l y suppor t each

ot her in addi t i o n to those sed ime nts , w here clasts are

dispe rse d, Lithified 'diamict' is refe r r e d to as

diamictite.

In case of T a l c h i r se qu e n c e s und er study, massive

diamictite occurs in their bas al part ( F i g . 3.2 a). As

mentioned in Cha pter I, in W a n i - R a j u r area, these are

observed to be u n c o n f o r m a b l y r e s t i n g over the Penganga

limestones. T hese occur as l ateral ly discontinuous

bo die s w hich vary in their th ick ness from 1.0 m to 2.5

m. T hese are yellowish bro wn and yellowish green

coloured si lty rocks in w h i c h pebbles, cobbles and

bould e r s are di spersed, and h ence are h e r e d e s c r i b e d as

ma trix s u p p o r t e d m a s s i v e diam i c t i t e . Pl ate 3.1, photo 1

r e p r e s e n t s m a s s i v e d i a m i c t i t e w i t h rounded b o o u l d e r s of

f e l s p a t h i c gneiss. In gen eral , the cla sts are s u b r o u n d e d

in n a ture and w i t h i n the clasts, b o u l d e r s are observesd

to be v o l u m e t r i c a l l y d o m inating. Striated clasts are not

u n c o m m o n (Plate 3.1, photo 2), and in most cases two or

mo re s t r i a t i o n sets are ob served. The obse r v e d clasts

 72

are of fe l s p a t h i c gneisses, Peng a n g a limestones,

s a ndstones and sil t s t o n e s i.e. these are of local

derivation (Plate 1.3, photo 2). Within massive

di a m ictite, bett er sort ed s t r a t i f i e d si ltstone and green

shale lenses are n o t i c e d (Plate 1.4, ph oto 1). In the

u p per parts, these diamictites exh ibi t crud e

s t r a t i f i c a t i o n (Plate 3.2, phot o 1).

S t r a t i f i e d d i a m i c t i t e and sands tone

Massive d i a m i c t i t e pa sses u p w a r d into s t ratified

diamictite and s andstone unit. Good e xposures of this

unit are o b s e r v e d in the Ghon a d st ream east of Kochi, as

well as, in the s t r e a m c u t t i n g w e s t of M e h asal ( F i g . 3 . 2a

and 3.2b). It v a ries in thic k n e s s from 3 m to 10 m and

can be c o n t i n u o u s l y traced l a t e r a l l y upto a d i s t a n c e of

250 m. As c o m p a r e d to m a s s i v e d i a mictite , the stra t i f i e d

diamictites show d e c r e a s e in the boulder and cobb le

cla sts and increas e in the p e b b l e clast s (Plate 1.4,

phot o 2). In the stratified diamictites elongated,

rounded pebb les are aligned parallel to the

s t r a t i f i c a t i o n (cen tra l part of Pla te 3.2, ph oto 2). At

places, these exhibit development of horizontal

para l l e l lam i n a t i o n and c r o s s - b e d d i n g . Pl ate 3.3, photo

1 e x h ibit parallel laminated diamicti te. The cross­

bedded d i a m i c t i t e is shown in P late 1.5, photo 1. The

a d j o i n i n g bed sets of s t r a t i f i e d d i a m i c t i t e s show large

 73

variation in the te xture and sorting. Clast s upport ed

d i a m i c t i t e and m a t r i x s u p p o r t e d d i a m i c t i t e v a r i e t i e s are

o b s e r v e d to be i n t e r b e d d e d (Pla te 3.3, photo 2), as well

as, in the a d j o i n i n g bed sets one may be d o m i n a t e d with

coar ser pe bble clast s and the oth er d o m i n a t e d by finer

granule size clasts (Plate 3.4, photo 1). Within

st r a t i f i e d d i a m i cti tes, sl umped diamictite horizons

(upto 2.5 m thick) are re co rded . Plate 3.4, ph oto 2

shows slumped d i a m i c t i t e horiz on. In the lower part of

the sequences, the a s s o c i a t e d s a n d s t o n e s c o m m o n l y occu rs

as lenses of v a r y i n g t h ick ness (varying from 30 cm to 70

cm) w i t h i n the s t r a t i f i e d d i a m ic tite, w h i l e in the uppe r

parts coar s e grained sandstones are obse r v e d to be

i n t e r b e d d e d w i t h s t r a t i f i e d d i a m i c t i t e (Plate 3.5, ph ot o

1). Many a times, these s a n dstones exh ibi t planer,

tabular c r o s s - b e d d i n g (Pla te 3.5, phot o 2), and trough

cross-bedding (Plate 1-5, photo 2). In these

o c c a s i o n a l l y scour and fill s t r u c t u r e is developed.

The fo r eset a z i m u t h s of the 16 crossbedded sets

were recorded from this facies. These readings w ere

corrected for tectoni c tilt, g r o u p e d into 10° azimuth

class interval, paleocurrent ro s ette prepared and

azimuth of the resultant v e ctor (vector mean) was

determined by f o l l o w i n g the p r o c e d u r e g iven by Pot ter

and P e t t i j o h n (1977). The prep a r e d p a l e o c u r r e n t rosette

exhibit a domin a n t mode of 18.75 % in 310°N to 330°N

 74

azimuth class and s u b o r d i n a t e m odes of 1 2 . 5Z are in

330°N to 350°N and 30°N to 40°N a z i m u t h cla sse s ( F i g . 3.3

a). The c a l c u l a t e d a z i m u t h of the r esultant v e ctor is N

6°E, and th er efor e indicat e northerly paleocurrent

direction.

Fine g r a i n e d sands tones

Fine g r a i n e d s a n d s t o n e s are well ex posed near the

confluence of G h o n a d s t r e a m w i t h W a r d h a river ( F i g . 3.2

c). Plate 1.6, phot o 1 e x h ibit the gen e ral v i e w of this

e x p osed section. T h e s e v a r y in th ick ness from 10 m to

over 15 m. In the lower part of the sequence, these

exhi b i t alternate thin fine sand and clay la yer ing

(varves). In this lower part, at places, pa rallel

la minae of silt and clay d e p o s i t e d from s u s p e n s i o n and

draped over an u n d e r l y i n g b e d f o r m are seen (c entral

part of Pla te 3.6, photo 1). This is follo wed by a unit

of climbing r i pple l a m i n a t i o n w i t h ripp le laminae in

drift. In the lower part of Pla te 3.6, photo 2, c l i m b i n g

ri ppl e l a m i n a t i o n is seen. At places, sinuous crested

ripple mark s are also o b s e r v e d (Plate 3.7, ph oto 1). In

the uppe r part of the seque nce , large scale crossbedded

u nit s with for ese ts d i p p i n g at h i g h angles are no ti c e d

(Plate 3.7, photo 2) .

The fo reset azi m u t h s of 18 c r o s s b e d d e d sets were

recorded from the Ghonad section. The prepared

 N

b ) n =18

0 10

V.

N
/1
Del 6

FIG 3 3 - P A L E O C U R R E N T ROSETTE 01A G R A M S ( cross

bedding) OF TALCHIR FORMATION, a ) STRATFIEO
DIAMICTITE AND SANDSTONE FACIES, b ) FINE
G RAINED SANDSTONE FA CIES ^
 75

paleocurrent ros et te e x h i b i t a domi n a n t mode of 33 .33%

in the 20°N to 30°N a z i m u t h class and s u b o r d i n a t e mode

of 2 7 .78% in 350°N to 350°N a z i m u t h cl ass ( F i g . 3.3 b).

The c a l c u l a t e d a z i m u t h of r e s u l t a n t v e ctor is N 4° E,

w h i c h suggests a n o r t h e r l y p a l e o c u r r e n t direction.

I n t e r b e d d e d silt s t o n e s and shales

I n t e r b e d d e d s i l t s t o n e s and shales are well expo s e d

in the W a r d h a ri ver section l o c ated n o rth of Be lsani

(Plate 1.6, photo 2). Here these i n t e r b e d d e d s i lt stones

and shales are o b s e r v e d to be o ver l a i n by you nger

m a s s i v e d i a m i c t i t e unit ( F i g . 3.2 d). The silt s t o n e s are

g r e y i s h y e l l o w in colour, w hile the shales are green in

colo u r and are s p l i n t e r y in nature. The in div idual

s i l t s t o n e and shale h o r i z o n v a ries in thickness from 60

cm to 1.20 m. W i t h i n the s i l t s t o n e h o r i z o n thin (upto 4

cm thick) shale layers are n o t i c e d (Plate 3.8, photol),

as well as w i t h i n shal e horiz o n , thin (upto 10 cm thick)

silt s t o n e bands are rec orde d. At places, loaded con t a c t s

w i t h sinke d silt lobes and u p w a r d l y p u sh ed shale layers

are seen. Plate 3.8, p hoto 2 e x h ibit loaded contact,

below the contact b o u d i n s are seen. R a rel y crudely

developed c u r rent r i pple l a m i n a t i o n is recorded. Plate

3.9, photo 1 show the f a i n t l y m a r k e d rippl e la mi nation

(left lower part). In the lower part of the sequence

development of soft sediment m i c r o f a u l t i n g is noticed.

 76

Plate 3.9, photo 2 exhi bit soft sedim ent m icrofau l t i n g .

Thes e m i c r o f a u l t s are of special type w i t h res pec t to

their g e o m e t r y and their m o r p h o s c o p i c ch ara cte rs. They

are of few c e n t i m e t e r l e n g t h and are cu rv ed conc a v e

upward w i t h dip at 10° to 40° to bedding. The dihe d r a l

angl e b e t ween c o n j u g a t e m i c r o f a u l t va ries from 110° to

130°. A long the fault planes, the d i s p l a c e m e n t is always

dip slip and is slight. They are c l o s e l y spaced and cut

the m a t e r i a l into small b i p y r a m i d a l comb shape d units

with axes no rmal to bedding. These are closely

associated with wa ter esc ap e structures, and the

b i p y r a m i d a l u nit s fit p e r f e c t l y w i t h the necks of water

esca pe s t r u c t u r e s (c entral and u pper parts of Plate 3.9,

photo 2). The se rocks also exh ibit h y d r o p l a s t i c

slick nsi des . These h y d r o p l a s t i c s l i c k e n s i d e s are

developed on con vex fault pl anes with cylindrical

curvat ure , these are of the same colour as that of

s u r r o u n d i n g s u r face of s i l t s t o n e (Plate 3.10, photo 1),

and show step ( Rie del-type) structures (Plate 3.10,

photo 2). In the upp er part of the interbedded

siltstone-shale sequence, i m b r i c a t e thrust sheets and

napp e b o u d i n s for med due to g r a v i t y c o l l a p s e are n o t i c e d

(central part of Plate 3.11, p hoto 1). Pl ate 3.11, photo

2 and Pla te 3.12, photo 1 r e p r e s e n t the close up of

boudins.
 77

The o v e r l y i n g y o u n g e r m a s s i v e d i a m i c t i t e s obser v e d

in Bels a n i l i t h o s e c t i o n are sim ila r to basal mass i v e

diam i c t i t e s , and these also ex hibit development of

s t r a t i f i c a t i o n in their u pper parts.

L a b o r a t o r y s tudies

The collected sa mples representing four

l i t h o s e c t i o n s n a m e l y Kochi, Meh asa l, G h onad and Bel san i

of the T a l c h i r F o r m a t i o n w e r e s u b j e c t e d to thin section-

heavy mi ner al-, X R D - , granulometric-, shape- and SEM

studies. The m e t h o d s f o l l o w e d and the result s obtained

are p r e s e n t e d below.

Th in sect ion s tudies

The m oda l a n a l y s i s of the p r e p a r e d thin secti ons

was c a r r i e d out by u sing Dolla r ' s inte g r a t e d stage and

the obtained vol ume percentage composition of the

d i f f e r e n t c o n s t i t u e n t s are g iven in Table 3.3.

In these thin sect ions, m a t r i x is pr esen t in large

a m ount (av 41.81%) and f r a m e w o r k c o n s t i t u e n t s prese nt

are q u a r t z (av 38.077o), felspars (av 10.13%), u n s t a b l e

lithic fr ag m e n t s (av 10.13%) and accessories (av

0.34%). F o l l o w i n g O k a d a 's (1971) c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , out of

the 29 thin sections, 12 r e p r e s e n t q u a r t z o s e w a c k e , nine

are lithic w ac ke and eight are in the field of

f e l s p a t h i c w a c k e ( F i g . 3.4). In general, in case of thin

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m a MONOMINERALIC FIELD
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 79

secti o n s r e p r e s e n t i n g m a t r i x of diamictites, unstable

lithic f ragments are p r e s e n t in a p p r e c i a b l e a mou n t and

h e n c e are in the field of li thic wac ke (Kl, K 4 , K 7 , K8,

Ml, M3, Bll, B12 and B13), w h i l e the s a ndstones and

silt s t o n e s are either f e l s p a t h i c w a cke or quartzose

wacke.

As the m a t r i x is p r e s e n t in large amount, these

thin secti ons exhibit w a c k e f r a m e w o r k i.e. the f r a m e w o r k

gra ins are floa t i n g in mat rix. The matr i x is made up of

fine grai n e d d e t r i t a l q u a r t z and clay mi ner als, and at

plac es fine g r a i n e d m i c r i t i c c a l c i t e is also observed.

The f r a m e w o r k c o n s t i t u e n t s are ve ry poo rly sorted and

show the large v a r i a t i o n in g r a i n size from c o a r s e sand

to silt. Pla te 3.12, ph oto 2 show poorl y sorted

framework grai ns f l o a t i n g in c l a y e y matrix. All these

characteristics indicate the textural imma t u r i t y of

these rocks. Occasionally well rounded detr i t a l

ch l o r i t e is observed to be one of the framework

constituents (Plate 3.13, pho to 1).

In thin s ect i o n s of these rocks, qua rtz v a ries from

12.68 % to 58 .98% and a v e r a g e s to 38.07%. W i thin quartz,

both monocrystalline and polycrystalline quar tz

v a r i e t i e s are present, w i t h d o m i n a n c e of m o n o c r y s t a l l i n e

quartz. M o n o c r y s t a l l i n e quar t z vari es from 2.34 % to

47.55 % and a v e r a g e s to 31.70%. Within monocrystalline

 80

quartz, n o n u n d u l o s e q u a r t z v a r i e s from 2.34% to 47.55%

(av 30.93%) and dominates the undulose qua rtz whi ch

v a ries fr om 0 .30% to 2 . 06% (av 0.60%). Plate 3.13,

ph oto 2 shows undulatory and nonundulatory quart z

floating in c a l c a r e o u s matrix. At places, the qu artz

gr ain s have c o r r o d e d b o a r d e r s due to ea ting of qua rtz by-

c a l c i u m carbon ate. I n c l u s i o n s of a c c e s s o r y mine r a l s such

as mica, zircon, t o u r m a l i n e and iron oxi de in quartz

grain s are not uncom mon. P o l y c r y s t a l l i n e quart z va ri es

from 0.50% to 29.72% and averages to 6.38%. The

polycrystalline quartz is m a i n l y r e p r e s e n t e d by fine

grained cher t fr agments, and f r agments consisting of

large nu mbe r of q u a r t z g r a i n s of v a r y i n g sizes. Plate

3.14, ph oto 1 exhi b i t s c o a r s e sand sized p o l y c r y s t a l l i n e

quartz consisting of aggregate of large nu mber of

quartz gra ins of v a r y i n g sizes w i t h sutured contacts.

F e l d s p a r s vari e s from 0 .16% to 27 .05% and averages

to 10.13%. Both K - f e l s p a r s and p l a g i o c l a s e s are present.

K-felspars vari es fr om 0 . 1 6 % to 20.7 9% (av 7.96%) and

d o m i n a t e s over the p l a g i o c l a s e s w h i c h vary from 0 .43% to

6 .26% w i t h an a v e r a g e of 2.17%. Most of the felspar s are

fres h and are s u b r o u n d e d to r o u n d e d in nature. Within

K-felspars m o c r o c l i n e d o m i n a t e s over or tho cla se. Plate

3.14, photo 2 shows c o a r s e m i c r o c l i n e g rain exhibiting

typical crosshatched twinning. Plagioclases occur as

elongated grain s e x h i b i t i n g typical lamellar twinn ing

(^Plate 3.15, phot o 1). Few p e r t h i t e grai ns c o n s i s t i n g of

fine i n t e r g r o w n lam in ae are also seen.

Unstable lithic f rag ments v a r ies from 0 .32% to

66.467o and averag es to 10.13%. W i thin the unstable

lithic fr agments, s e d i m e n t a r y rock frag ments such as

limest one s, s a n d s t o n e s and s i l t s t o n e s are obse r v e d to be

dominating and h ence the sedi m e n t s under study can be

d e s c r i b e d as s e d o l i t h i c w a c k e (Plate 3.15, photo 2).

Plat e 3.16, photo 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 exhi b i t l i mestone

fragments present in these rocks. Within lim est one

fragm ent s, the different types observed in clude 1)

m i c r i t i c lime s t o n e c o n s i s t i n g of fine g r a i n e d m i c r i t e in

w h i c h pale brow n clay is d i s s i m i n a t e d (Plate 3.16, photo

1), 2) pelmicrite fragment with eve nly distributed

brownish rounded p e l let s (Plate 3.16, photo 2), 3)

sparr y limestone consisting of spar ry c a l cite and

carbonaceous matter (Plate 3.16, photo 3), 4)

stromatolitic li mes tone exhibiting domal upwarp of

alternate pell et ri ch and p e l l e t poor micrite rich

lami nae (Plate 3.16, photo 4), and 5) lime flake

conglomerate consisting of elongated pel let rich

i ntr a c i s t s b o u n d e d by p e l m i c r i t i c m a t r i x (Plate 3.16,

photo 5). The d i f f e r e n t types of te rrigenous clas t i c

rocks fr ag m e n t s observed includ es 1) sil tstone

c o n s i s t i n g of fine g r a i n e d q u a r t z and clay m a t t e r (Plate

 82

3.17, ph oto 1, 2 and 3), 2) c a l c a r e o u s fine g r a ined

s a n d s t o n e c o n s i s t i n g of fine g r a i n e d qu artz and felsp ars

bounded in c a l c a r e o u s m a t r i x (Plate 3.17, photo 4), 3)

micaceous s a n d s t o n e c o n s i s t i n g of quartz, fels par and

mica flakes (Plate 3.17, phot o 5). The other types of

lithic f r agments p r e sent are those of phyll i t e sho wing

well developed f o l i a t i o n (Plate 3.18, photo 1), mica

gne iss c o n s i s t i n g of a l t e r n a t e bands of qu art z rich and

mica rich layer (Plate 3.18, photo 2) and gra nit e

s h o wing i n t e r g r o w t h of q u artz and felsp ars (Plate 3.18,

photo 3, 4 and 5) .

The observed ph yl lite, m i c a - g n e i s s , and gran i t e

fragments are considered to be representative of

Precambrian gra nites and m e t a m o r p h i c source. Following

B lat t e^ a l . (1972) the p o l y c r y s t a l l i n e quart z grai ns

consisting of large n u m b e r of d i f f e r e n t sized grains

with sutured con t a c t s is infe r r e d to be representing

Precambrian gneisse s. The above described lime ston e

fragments show g r eat similarity to the different

varieties of limestones such as pelmicri te,

stromatolitic limesto nes , m i c r i t i c l i m es tones and lime

flake c o n g l o m e r a t e s of the P e n g a n g a G roup d e s c r i b e d in

Chap t e r II, and h ence are c o n s i d e r e d to be representing

Penganga lime s t o n e source. The observed micaceous

sandstones and s i l t s t o n e s m i g h t have been d e r i v e d from

 83

Penganga s a ndstones and s i l t s t o n e s as these are the

common rock types of P e n g a n g a G r o u p (Raja Rao, 1982;

S r i n i v a s a Rao, 1987).

The thin sect ion s d e s c r i p t i o n gi ven above indi cat es

that the T a l c h i r s e d i m e n t s are t e x turally as well as

m i n e r a l o g i c a l l y immature, the o b s e r v e d fresh fels par and

detrital chlorite are s u g g e s t i v e of their deposition

from the n e arer source u nder arid, cold climatic

co n d i t i o n s (P ettijohn, 1984; Kennett, 1982).

H eav y m i n e r a l studi es

The heavy mineral constituents in terrige nou s

sedi m e n t s are the m i n e r a l s a mong pa rent rock, w h i c h ha ve

survived the d e s t r u c t i o n (Pettijohn, 1984). The heavy

mineral c o m p o n e n t of a t e r r igenous sedime nt cons i s t of

all c l a s t i c grains w i t h s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y grea t e r than

2.9 (Carver, 1971). The h e a v y m i n e r a l s are e x tremely

significant constituents of sed imen ts, especially in

m a t u r e se diments, w h i c h lack in rock fr agments or light

minerals that are d i a g n o s t i c of prov ena nce . Eventhough

the heavy m i n e r a l s are e x t r e m e l y im por tant from the

provenance point of view, they are d i f f i c u l t to study,

as they c o n s t i t u t e s less than IZ of the bulk of clastic

rocks, ther e f o r e in order to investigate them they

sh ou ld be isol a t e d and c o n c e n t r a t e d from light minerals

with which they are ass o c i a t e d , by means of either

 84

gravity or m a g n e t i c s e p a r a t i o n m e t h o d s ( C a r v e r , 1 9 7 1 ;

Pettij ohn , 1984). Al though, some h e a v y minerals like

p y r o x e n e s and a m p h i b o l e s m a y get eas ily d e s t r o y e d d u r i n g

tr a n s p o r t a t i o n and d i a g en esis, the r esistent miner a l s

such as zircon, tourmalin e, rutile ma y survive m any

cyc le s of sediment a t i o n . Hube r t (1962) has sugg e s t e d the

co m b i n e d p e r c e n t a g e of zircon, tourm ali ne and rutile as

an index of m i n e r a l o g i c a l matur ity .

Apart from its use to k n o w the provenance, the

heavy mineral resi d u e has also be en used in

s t r a t i g r a p h i c c orrelation. This a p p l i c a t i o n is b a s e d on

view that t h e o r i t i c a l l y each s t r a t i g r a p h i c unit di ffers

in some de grees from every othe r in character and

abundance of its suite of h e a v y m i nerals, and hence

these heavy mineral suite forms the basis for

"Petrographic c o r r e l a t i o n ”. According to Pott e r and

Pettijohn (1977), the a r eal d i s t r i b u t i o n of particular

h e a v y m i n e r a l suite d e f i n e s the s e d i m e n t a r y p e t r o g r a p h i c

province and m a p p i n g of such petrographic prov i n c e s

help s in understanding of paleocurrents and

paleogeography.

Method of study : Commonly used meth o d s for heav y

m i n e r a l s e p a r a t i o n are g r a v i t y and m a g n e t i c separati on.

In the present study, the gravity method of h e avy

m i n e r a l s e p a r a t i o n is u s e d f o l l o w i n g the p r o c e d u r e give n
 85

by Carv er (1971). The g r a v i t y m e t h o d of sep a r a t i o n is

based on mass s e p a r a t i o n in a liquid with speci fic

gravity between the specific gravities of g roup of

minerals to be separated.

In all 19 samples r e p r e s e n t i n g four facies of the

Talchir Formation unde r study were selected. Out of

these 19 sam ple s two samp les (K1 and Bll) repr e s e n t s

ma s s i v e d i a m i c t i t e facies, nine sa mples (K3, K 4 , K 5 , K 6 ,

K7, K8, B12, B13 an d B14) belongs to stratified

diamictite and s a n d s t o n e facies, five samples (G3, G4,

G5. G6 and G7) r e p r e s e n t fine g r a i n e d sand s t o n e facies,

and three sam pl es (Bl, B5 and B7a) are of i n t e rbedded

siltstone-shale facies. T hese sample s were gent l y

c r u s h e d and d i s a g g r i g a t e d . The d i s a g g r i g a t e d sample was

then siev ed and sand size f r a c t i o n b e t w e e n 1 phi to 4

phi was col lected. The c o l l e c t e d f r a c t i o n was pann e d to

r e move dust and other fine p a r t i c l e s and then dried. The

dried samp le was poured in a separating funnel

containing B r o m o f o r m (CHBr^), s t i r r e d for five m i n utes

and a l l o w e d to remain s t a n dstill. The he av i e s se ttled at

the b o t t o m of s e p a r a t i n g funne l were c o l l e c t e d over a

filte r paper and w a s h e d w i t h alcohol. The light f raction

was collected s e p a r a t e l y on a n o t h e r fi lter paper and

washed w i t h alcohol. The o b t a i n e d crop of heavies was

t reat ed w i t h ox alic acid to re move f e r r u g i n o u s coat i n g s

on the grains. The h e a v y m i n e r a l r e s i d u e was m o u n t e d on

 86

microglass slide in C a n a d a - B a l s a m , and then st udied

u nde r normal p e t r o l o g i c a l microscope. The m i c r o s c o p i c

stu die s in volve identification of the in div idual

tran s p a r e n t h e a v y m i n e r a l species, and d e t e r m i n a t i o n of

their f r e q u e n c y p e r c entages. For this, the c o u n t i n g of

heavy mineral speci es was carried out by us ing

mechanical stage and keeping 2 mm inte rva l betw e e n

successive traverses. For each sample m i n i m u m of 300

grains were c o u nte d and frequency percentages of

d i f f e r e n t h e a v y m i n e r a l s was calcula ted .

Resu l t s : In the pres e n t study h e a v y m i n e r a l s r e c o g n i s e d

were grouped into two categories nam ely trans pa re nt

m i n e r a l species and opaques. The op aques present include

magnetite and ilmenite, thes<= not taken into

consideration for the deteri i of f requency

per c e n t a g e s . In g e n e r a l they fo ^out 20% to 257o of

the total crop. \

The obtained frequency percentages of the

tr a n s p a r e n t h e avy m i n e r a l spe cies in the 19 sam ples

unde r study are give n in T able 3.4, and the typical

characteristics of the d i f f e r e n t h e a v y m i n e r a l species

are exhibited in Plate 3.19, photo 1 to 20. The

representative samples of the four facies under study

show the similarity in the n u mber of h eavy mine r a l

spe cie s pr esent as w e l l as in their abun dan ce. In all

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 88

ten transparent h e a v y mineral species were recorded.

T hes e are zi rcon (av 7.291), t o urmaline (av 0.85%),

ru til e (av 0.79%), gar net (av 85.65%), epi d ote (av

1.74%), staurolite (av 1.79%), monazite (av 1.27%),

sillimanite (av 0.11%), sphe ne (av 0.16%), and zoi sit e

(av 0.16%). In general, ga rnet (av 85.65%) constitutes

the m a j o r b u l k of the t r a n s p a r e n t h e a v y m i n eral crop. In

gene r a l in these samples, very low val ues (less than

10%) of the ZTR index ( combined zircon, tourm ali ne and

ru til e perc e n t a g e ) are noticed. The ZTR index vary from

0 . 55% to 6 4 .57% and aver a g e s to 9.14%. The obse r v e d

characteristics ofthese h e a v y minerals are desc r i b e d

below.

Zir con is the sec ond a b u n d a n t spec ies pre sent in

heavy m i n e r a l a s s e m b l a g e of T a l c h i r Formation. Zircon

vari e s from 0.4 7% to57.26% and a v e r a g e s to 7.29%.

Within the zircons, three varieties are recognised

namely colourless zircon, yellowish zircon and pink

zircon, of w h i c h c o l o u r l e s s zir con well dom i n a t e s the

yellowish and pink zircon. W i t h i n the zircons, grain s

exhibiting el ongated, r o u n d e d n a t u r e are d o m i n a n t than

that of the subh e d r a l zircon. The typical

characteristics of the z ir co ns are e x h i b i t e d in P la te

3.19, photo 1 to 7. Pl ate 3.9, ph oto 1 exhibits

subhe dra l, stu bby c o l o u r l e s s zircon w i t h thick bo rders

and well d e v e l o p e d p r i s m a t i c and p y r a m i d a l faces. Plate

 89

3.19, photo 2 exhibits subhedra1 colourless zircon with

opaque inclusion as well as characteristic prismatic and

pyramidal faces. Plate 3.19, photo 3 exhibits rounded

pink zircon with inclusion of zircon and exhibit thick

borders. Plate 3.19, photo 4 exhibits elongated
colourless zircon with development of cracks, prismatic,
and worn pyramidal faces. Plate 3.19, photo 5 shows

wellrounded colourless zircon. Development of cracks

within the zircon are also clearly observed in this

photo. Commonly subrounded as well as rounded colourless

and pale yellowish zircons are observed. Occasionally

spherical, wellrounded zircons with thick border are

observed (Plate 3.19, photo 6). Rarely twinned,

wellrounded colourless zircons are also present (Plate

3.19, photo 7).

Tourmaline is present in smaller amount. It varies

from 0.04% to 2.37% and averages to 0.85%. Tourmaline

occurs in three colour varieties namely brown, dirty

bl ue, of Which brown and dirty green

green, an d
more commonly observed than the blue
varieties are

Most of the tourmalines are subrounded to

Yariety.
with few subhedral grains. In tourmaline,

of tourmaline and opaques are commonly

Plate 3.19, photo 8 exhibits pale brownish

tourmaline with opaque inclusion. Sometimes

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 90

wellrounded, spherical tourmaline are also noticed

(Plate 3.19, photo 9). Rarely development of outgrowth

and presence of cracks within the tourmaline grains are

observed.

Rutile varies from 0.18% to 6.70% and averges to

0.97%. Two colour varieties namely wine red, and pale

yellow are noticed. Amongst these, wine red variety

dominates over pale yellow variety. Within rutile,

rounded grains are dominatin g over the subhedral g rains.

Rarely striated rutiles are also noticed. Rutile show

hi gh relief and thick borders. Plate 3.19, photo 10

represent subhedral wine red coloured rutile grain.

Ga r net is the predominant mineral present in the

h e a vy mi n e ral assemblag e studied. It varies from 14.46%

to 98 .96 % a nd a v erag es to 85.65 %. Within g arnet, two

varie ti es name l y colourless and pink are record e d.

Colourless va r ie t y ( a v 77.30 %) we ll dominat e s over the

pink variety (av 8 . 35%) . Colou r l ess g arn e t varies fr om

13 . 92% to 93 . 56% and pink garne t varies from 0 . 54% to

16 . 67% . Garnets commonly show high relief, irregular

form and conchoidal breakage pattern. The observed

characteristic forms and features of the garnets are

exhibited in Plate 3.19, photo 11 to 17. The garnets

exhibiting arc shaped breakage patterns are recorded

(Plate 3 . 19, photo 12). Commonly on the surface of

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 91
garnet striations are observed. Plate 3.19,
photo 11 to
15 represent the different types of .
str1ations observed
on the garnet. In some grains
striation sets are
observed to be at a high angle to eac h other
(Plate
3.19, photo 15). Many a times, on the surface of garnets
globular protrubances of .
varY1ng sizes are recorded
(Plate 3.19, photo 16 and 17). Apart from these features
smallscale indentations, mechanically formed V pits etc.
are noticed in the garnets, these features are described
in SEM studies.

Epidote varies from 0.04% to 7.93% and averages to

1.74%. It occurs as colourless or pale yellowish green
coloured, irregular, grains (Plate 3.19, photo 18).

Staurolite varies from 0.11% to 5.69% and averages

to 1.79%. Staurolite occurs as yellowish brown coloured
subangu1ar grains which exhibits lInd order interference
colours, and these grains are observed to be clouded

with iron oxide inclusions.

varies from 0.08% to 6.35% and averages to

Plate 3.19, photo 19 represents monazite grain.

commonly pale yellowish in colour with high relief

surfaces.

19 samples under study, sillimanite lS

six samples. It varies from 0.05% to

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 92

0. 57 % and averages to 0 . 11% . Pla Le 3 . 19 , photo 20

exhibit a s ub r ound ed si l liman i Le grai n. It commonly
occurs a s colourl e ss grain with mod er at e r e l ief.

Out of the 19 samples, sphene is record ed in seven

samples. It varies from 0.02% to 1.83% and average s to
0.16%. Sphene occurs as yellowish green coloured an gular
grains which exhibit high relief.

Zoisite is present only in nine samples. It varies

from 0.02% to 0.96% and averages to 0.16%. Sometimes in
zoisite prismatic faces are noticed. It is characterised
by deep blue interference colour.

The observed very low ZTR index of an average 9.14%

is indicative of the mineralogical immaturity of these
sediments, which in the present case may be related to
the short distance of transport. The rounded Z1rcons
suggests the polycyclic nature of these sediments, their
ultimate source may be Archean granites and gneisses

(Poldervart, 1956). The observed yellowish brown

tourmaline is considered by Blatt et al. (1972) to be

representative of metamorphic source. The derivation of

these sediments from the Precambrian metamorphic
provenance is further supported by the presence of
garnet, staurolite, sillimanite, zoisite etc. The
1)
garnet may be related to their g laci ~ge n ic

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 93

X-ray diffraction studies

X-ray diffraction studies of separated clays from

the six representative samples belonging to four facies

namely massive diamictite (Kl), stratified diamictites

and sandstones (K3 and B12), fine grained sandstones (G2

and GS) and interbedded siltstones and shales (BS) were

carried out. The details of the procedure followed are

given in Chapter II.

Results : The obtained X-ray diffracto grams of the clays

separated from these samples are g iven in Fig.3.5. The

calculated 'd' spacing and I/Imax ratios of these

samples are given in Table 3.5, 3.6, 3.7 and 3. 8 .

From Fig.3.S and Table 3.5, 3.6, 3.7 and 3. 8 , it i s

seen that, the X-ray diffraction results of the f our

facies under study are similar. In the clay siz e

of these samples, quartz (3 . 34 dA O-100%, 4 .26

1.82 dAo-10 to 15%, and 2.13 dAo-7 to 9%) is

ominant mineral, and clay minerals are presen t in

Clay minerals present includ e illite

to 20%, 3.35 dAO-20% to 30%, 2 . 82 dAo-10

dA O -8% to 10% and 1.99 dA O- 8% to 10%) and

to 10%, 7.12 dA O-10% to 15% and

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 9A

Table 3.5 : X - r a y d i f C r a c t i o n r e s u l t s of c l a y s from

m a s s i v e d i a m i c t i t e facies, T al chir
Formation.

Sample No. K1

Peak No. 2 5- d spacing I/I m a x .

1. 6.15 14.36 7.14

2. 20.92 4. 24 9.52

3. 22. 11 4.02 21.82

4. 22.21 4.00 15.87

5. 23.64 3. 76 5.55

6. 24.02 3.70 13.09

7. 24.30 3.66 15.87

8. 25.62 3.48 11.90

9. 26.71 3.34 11.51

10. 27.55 3.24 100.00

11. 27.89 3. 19 14.68
12. 28,01 3.18 22.22
13. 32.00 2.79 9.13
14. 35. 50 2.52 7.94
15. 36.60 2.45 15.08
16. 39.52 2.28 10. 71
17. 40.36 2.23 7.14
18. 41.36 2. 18 9.52
19. 45.90 1 . 98 9.13
20. 50.22 1 . 82 19.05
21-. 50.67 1.80 8.73
22. 57.63 1 . 60 7.14
23. 59. 98 1 .5 4 7. 14
24. 63.90 1 . 46 14.68
25. 64.07 1. 45 15.08
 95
Table 3.6 : X-ray diffr ac tio n results of clays from
stratified diamictite and sandstone facies
Talchir Formation.

Sampl e No.K3 Sa mp l e No.B12

Peak 2 9- d spacing I/I max P ea k 2 6, d spacing l/l max

No. No.

1. 12.26 7.22 14.13 1. 19.74 4.50 4.35

2. 20.90 A . 25 49.46 2. 20.76 4.28 13.04

3. 22.52 3.95 15.22 3. 21.93 4.05 5.80

4. 23.02 3.86 8.69 4. 26.54 3.36 100.00

5. 23.48 3.79 21.74 5. 27.60 2.23 9.42

6. 23.66 3.76 15.22 6. 2 7 . 74 3.21 5.07

7. 24.34 3.65 7.06 7. 27.87 3.20 4.35

8. 24.64 3.61 14.67 8. 29.42 3.03 7.25

9. 24.85 3.58 10.87 9. 30.70 2.91 5.07

10. 25.63 3.47 14.13 10. 35.18 2.55 6.52

11. 26.62 3.35 100.00 11. 36.42 2.47 3.62

1 2. 27.03 3.29 25.54 12. 39.40 2.29 6.52

13. 27.44 3.25 54.89 13. 42.50 2.13 3.62

14. 29.86 2.99 10.59 14. 45.65 1.99 3.62

15. 30.85 2.89 14.40 15. 49.99 1.82 8.69

16. 32.50 2.75 6.52 16. 50.102 1.82 3.62

17. 34.75 2.58 8.69 17. 55.75 1.65 3.62

18. 35.53 2.52 12.77 18. 59.85 1.54 7.25

19. 36.57 2.46 8.97

20. 37.78 2.38 9.78

21. 39.43 2.28 28.26

22. 39.54 2.27 20.11

23. 40.50 2.23 4.89

24. 41.70 2.16 6.52

25. 42.49 2.13 19.56

26. 47.09 1.93 10.05

27. 50.14 1.82 25.81

28. 50.27 1.81 15.76

29. 50.52 1.80 21.74

30. 50.70 1.80 13.59

31. 50.83 1.80 4.08

 96

Table 3.7 : X-ray diffraction results of clays from fine

grained sandstone facies, Talchir Formation

Sample No.G2 Sample No.G5

Peak 2 e d spacing l/l max Peak 2 e d spacing l/l max

No. No.

1. 8.78 10.07 12.89 1. 20.90 4.24 21.94

2. 12.25 7.25 5.55 2. 22.11 4.02 18.37

3. 17.50 5.07 6.75 3. 23.50 3.95 14.79

4. 19.50 4.55 7.94 4. 24.25 3.68 13.26

5. 20.78 4.27 27.78 5. 25.65 3.47 12.75

6. 26.56 3.35 100.00 6. 26.70 3.34 100.00

7. 31.63 2.82 11.90 7. 27.81 3.21 26.53

8. 34.88 2.57 8.33 8. 27.99 3.19 29.59

9. 36.46 2.46 9.52 9. 29.50 3.03 12.24

10. 39.39 2.29 7.54 10. 36.60 2.45 10.20

11. 42.37 2.13 8.33 11. 39.45 2.29 9.69

12. 45.40 1.99 8.33 12. 40.25 2.24 6.12

13. 50.05 1.82 8.33 13. 42.50 2.13 8.69

14. 50.18 1.82 9.92 14. 50.16 1.82 13.77

15. 59.88 1.54 8.33 15. 54.85 1.64 6.12

16. 60.06 1.54 5.95 16. 59.99 1.54 10.20

 97

Table 3.8 : X - r a y d i f f r a c t i o n r e s u l t s of c l a y s f r o m
i n t e r b e d d e d si 1 t s t o n e - s h a l e f a c i e s ,
Talchir Formation.

Sample No. B2

P e a k No. 2 9^ d spacing 1/ I m a x .

1. 20.87 4.26 34.90

2. 22.01 4.04 5.37

3. 23.61 3. 77 6.04

4. 24.22 3 .6 7 7.05

5. 26.65 3 .3 4 100.00

6. 27 .14 3 .2 8 4.70

7. 27. 79 3 .2 1 16. 78
8. 27.95 3. 19 6.04

9. 28.32 3.15 3.58

10. 30. 17 2 . 96 1 6.71

11. 34. 32 2. 61 4.70

12. 35.28 2. 54 7 .04

13. 36. 52 2.46 8.05
U. 39.44 2.28 4. 70
15. 40.20 2.24 3 . 55
16. 42.44 2.12 6.71
17. 42.80 2.11 5.03
18. 42.94 2.10 5.37
19. 45.50 1. 99 4.70
20. 47.43 1 .9 1 2.35
21. 50. 16 1. 82 18.12
22. 50.29 1.81 2.68
23. 51.78 1 .7 6 1 . 68
24. 59. 95 1. 54 7.38
25. 60.09 1.51 4.70
26. 63.99 1 .4 5 4.03
 98

The d o m i n a n c e of q u a r t z over clay minerals, in the

clay size fractions of the T alchir sediments is

indicative of their g l a c i a l origin (Anderson, 1983),

w h i c h is further su pp o r t e d by the p re se nc e of illite and

c h l o r i t e (Kennett, 1982; Weaver, 1989).

G r a n u l o m e t r i c s tudies

G r ai n size an al ys is forms an integral part of the

sedimentological studies. Several a t t e m p t s have been

done to g at h e r the g e o l o g i c a l i nf o r m a t i o n from the grain

size an al y s i s of s e d i m e n t a r y rocks. E v e n t h o u g h the term

'size' is c o m m o n l y used in s e d i m e n t o l o g y , the size of

sand g rain p a r t i c l e can no t be u n i q u e l y defined except

their simp le g e o m e t r i c forms such as sphere or cube.

According to P e t t i j o h n (1984), the m ai n aim of grain

size an al y s i s is to p r o v i d e a da ta on the b asis of w hi c h

s ed i m e n t s can be a c c u r a t e l y described. According to

McBride (1977), the data e x tr a c t e d from grain size

a n a l y s i s can be used for :

1. d e s c r i p t i o n of s amples in terms of s ta t i s t i c a l

measures,

2. correlation of samples from similar

e n v i r o n m e n t s or s t r a t i g r a p h i c units,

3. determination of the agent of transportation

and d ep o sition.
 99

4. to d e t e r m i n e the pr oc es s of final deposition,

5. to d e t e r m i n e the e n v i r o n m e n t of de po sition.

U dden (1898), p r o p o s e d a 'g r a d e - s c a l e ' b a se d on a cen tr e

of one m i l l i m e t e r and m u l t i p l i e r or d i v i de r of two. The

names p r o p o s e d by Ud den (1898) were later m o d i f i e d and

redefined by Wentworth (1922) as boulder, cobble,

pebble, granule, sand, silt and clay. Krumbein (1934)

introduced a logarithmic transformation of Udden-

Wentworth scale as Phi (^) scale. This phi scale is

n o w a d a y s c o m m o n l y used as this provid e s w h ol e num be r for

each size class i nstead of f ra ction in ear li er scales,

w h i c h per m it s the use of a r i t h m a t i c g r a p h paper thereby

s i m p l i f y i n g b o t h g r a p h i c a l and s ta t i s t i c a l measures.

I nspite of the use of grain size an alysis in

describing the s ed i me nt s accurately, n um e r o u s at t empts

h av e been made to c o l l ec t i nf o r m a t i o n about m e c h a n i s m of

transportation and environment of deposition of

s e di me nt s from grain size analysis. The ability to

describe depositional p ro c e s s e s and environmental

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n from se di m e n t g rain size characteristics

is the topic of c o n t r o v e r s y right from 1898 to the

pr es en t (Mclearn, 1981), and in re la t i o n to this large

v o l u m e of l i t e r a t u r e is a v a i l a b l e (Folk and Ward, 1957;

Folk, 1966; F r iedmann, 1962, 1967, 1979; Sahu, 1964;

Moss, 1962; Spencer, 1963; Visher, 1965, 1969; So lo hu b

 100

and KLovan, 1970, etc.)- There

~xh - ^ 7 5
are
5
two met ho ds of

interpreting the g rain size data in terms of

transportation and environment of deposition of

sediments. The first m e t h o d make use of four s t a t i s t i c a l

parameters such as mean, st an d a r d deviation, s ke wness

and kurtosis d e t e r m i n e d by either graphic or mome nt

method. The plots of these s ta t i s t i c a l measures in

v a r io u s c o m b i n a t i o n d e t e r m i n e d for m o d e r n environments

of d e p o si ti on , can be used for anc ie nt cla st i c

sediments. The se co n d m e t h o d of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of grain

size d at a d eals with qualitative examination and

comparison of the shape of cumulative curves on

p r o b a b i l i t y paper.
T K - 7 5 - *

M e thod of study : In all 24 representative samples

belonging to three facies under study, were subje c te d

for granulometric studies. Out of these 24 samples,

three samples (Kl, K2 and Bll) are of m a s s i v e d i a m i c t i t e

facies, f o u r t e e n sam p le s (K3, K 4 , K 5 , K 6 , K 7 , K8, Ml,

M2, M3, M4, M5, B12, B13 and B14) are of st ra t i f i e d

d i a m i c t i t e and s a n d s t o n e facies, and seven samples (Gl,

G2, G3, G4, G5, G6 and G 7 ) r ep r e s e n t s fine gra in ed

sandstone facies. The samples b e l o n g i n g to interbedded

s i l t s t o n e - s h a l e facies were not s ubjected to g rain size

s tudies b e c a u s e of their hard, com pa ct and fine g ra i n e d

nature. As these s amples are h ar d and compact, it was

not p o s s i b l e to d i s a g g r i g a t e them w i t h o u t a l t e r i n g the

 101

size of the c o n s t i t u e n t grains and t herefore these

c anno t be s ub j e c t e d to sieve or p i p e tt e m e t h o d of grain

size a nalysis. Due to the fine g ra i n e d n a tu re of these

samples b e l o n g i n g to i n t e r b e d d e d s i l t s t o n e - s h a l e facies,

the thin s e c ti on m e t h o d of grain size analy s is p ro p o s e d

by F r i e d m a n (1962) was also not possible.

The s el e c t e d f r i a b l e samples of the three facies

m e n t i o n e d above were d i s a g g r i g a t e d w i t h o u t a l t e r i n g the

c o n s t i t u e n t s grain size and g rain size data was o b t a i n e d

by sieve and p i p e t t e m e t h o d s given by Ingram (1971) and

G a l e h o u s e (1971) r es pe ct iv el y.

For this pur po se 30 to 50 gms of sample was soaked

in d i s t i l l e d w a te r for d i s a g g r i g a t i o n in 1000 ml beaker.

The sample was mashed with fingers for c om p l e t e

disaggrigation. For r e m o v a l of ca rb onates, the sample

was tre at ed with 107c HCl and w a s he d with distilled

water, taking prop er care to avoid loss of fines. For

r em o v a l of org an ic matter, the sample was treated with

6% H 2 _0 _2 _ and w a s h e d a g a i n w i t h d i s t i l l e d water.

To the c o m p l e t e l y d i s a g g r i g a t e d and treated sample

10-15 ml of 10% s o di um h e x a m e t a p h o s p h a t e was a d ded as

d i s p e r s a l agent and the samp le was stirred, and all ow e d

to stand overnight for complete di sp e r s a l of the

pa rticles. A fter c h e c k i n g the c o m p l e t e d i s p e r s a l of the

 102

sample, the sample was s u b j e c t e d to wet sieving through

a sieve of 240 m e s h (4 phi). The finer f ra ct io n g reater

than 4 phi was c o l l e c t e d and tr an s f e r r e d to 1000 ml

graduated c y l i n d e r for p i p e t t e analysis. The f ra ct io n

r e t a i n e d above the sieve was w a sh ed w i t h d i s t i l l e d w ater

and washings were t r a n s f e r r e d to 1000 ml g ra d u a t e d

cylinder and the c o a r s e r f r a c t i o n was dried. The d ried

f ra c t i o n was then s u b j e c t e d to sieve analysis by u sing

B.S.S. sieves on a R h o - t a p sieve shaker for 20 minutes.

The s ie v i n g was done on 1/4 phi size grade. The

f ra c t i o n s retained on each sieve was collected and

w e i g h e d accurately.

To the f ra ct io n c o l l e c t e d in 1000 ml graduated

c ylinder, d i s t i l l e d w a t e r was added upto 1000 ml mark,

the suspension was stirred, the t e m p er at ur e of the

suspension was r e c o r d e d and w i t h d r a w l s times g iven by

Galehouse (1971) w e r e n ot ed down. The s u sp e n s i o n was

then a g ai n st ir re d for five mi nu t e s and withdrawls of

f ra c t i o n s from the c y l i n d e r at d i f f e r e n t depths were

taken a c c o r d i n g to n ot ed timings by u s in g 20 ml pipette.

Each w i t h d r a w l was then t r a n s f e r r e d to p r e w e i g h e d petter

dish and p i p e t t e was r i n s e d w i t h d i s t i l l e d w a te r and

transferred to petter dish. The f r ac ti on s c o l l e c t e d in

pet te r d i sh es w e re d r i ed in oven b e l o w 40°C. The dried

p et t e r dish es were a c c u r a t e l y w e i g h e d and the w e ig ht of

s amples w er e calculated.
 103

The weights o b t a i n e d by both sieve and pi pe t t e

method we re clubbed together. From these weights,

f r e q u e n c y and c u m u l a t i v e p e r c e n t a g e s were c a l c u l a t e d and

p l o t t e d on c e n t i m e t e r g r a p h paper and the f r e q u e n c y and

cumulative curves were obtained. From the cumulative

curves j)5, j2(l6, (fl5, y(50, jl5, ^84 and j^95 percentile

values we re obtained. W i t h the h el p of these values, the

f o l l o w i n g four g r a p h i c a l m e a s u r e s s ug g e s t e d by Folk and

Ward (1957) w e r e cal cu la te d.

/ l 6 + /50 + / S 4
G ra p h i c m ea n (Mz) = ------------------
3

I nc l u s i v e g r a p h i c s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n i)

(/S 4 - / 16) (/9 5 - / 5 )

4 6.6

I n cl us iv e g r a p hi c s ke w ne ss (sKl)

{fSk + /I6- 2pO) (/9 5 + / s - 2/ 50)

2 (^84 - / I 6) 2 (^95 - / 5 )

)/95 - / s
G r a p h i c Ku rt o s i s (KG) = --------------- ---
2.44 (/7 5 - ^2 5 )

The obtained graphical p ar a m e t e r s were p lotted

according to their p o s i t i o n s in the lithosections and

 104

the n a t u r e of f l u c t u a t i o n s seen is recorded. Following

Visher (1969), the c u m u l a t i v e p er c e n t a g e s were plo tt ed

on arithmatic probability paper and different

populations such as s urface creep, s a lt a t i o n and

suspension w er e distinguished and their tr uncation

points were noted.

R esults : The o b t a i n e d g r ai n size fr eq u e n c y percentages

of these samples are g i ve n in Table 3.9 and 3.10 and the

prepared frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n curves are gi ven in

F i g . 3 . 6a, 3.6b, 3.7, 3.8a, 3.8b and 3.9. From these

tables and figures, it is o bs e r v e d that, in general

these samples ex hi bi t w id e range of grain size classes

from - 2.25 phi to " ^ I Q . O O phi. They e xhibit p o ly m od al

g ra in size d i s t r i b ut io n. In the a d j o i n i n g samples w i t h i n

the different lithosections, the d om i n a n t and

s u b o r d i n a t e m od es are not overlapping.

The calculated g r a p h i c m ea s u r e s for the samples

u nder study are given in Table 3.11. The o bt a in ed

gra ph ic m e an and standard deviation values of the

samples are pl ot t e d a c c o r d i n g to their p os it io ns in the

l i th os ec ti on s. T hese are e x h i b i t e d in F i g . 3.10., 3.11,

3.12 and 3.13. In case of samples r e p r e s e n t i n g m a t r i x of

massive d i a m i c t i t e s (Kl, K2 and Bll), m ea n size varies

from fine sand (Mz 2.60 phi) to coar se silt (Mz 4.93

phi) size class. T he se s amples b e l o n g to very poorly

 Table 3.9 : Grain size frequency percentages of Talchir sediments.

Size in phi K1 K2 K3 K4 K5 K6 K7 K8 Ml M2 M3 M4 M5

^ .
2.25 1.64 7.63 6.27 - - - - 4.15

2.25- - 2.00 4.00 11.78 1.53 3.90 2.83 - 17,24 - - 0.42

2.00- - 1.75 1.10 4.60 1.81 0.91 1.29 - 0.29 - - 0.18 '

1.75- - 1.50 2.23 7.92 5.01 2.23 2.25 - 0.56 - - 0.35

1.50- - 1.25 3.70 7.00 5.42 1.44 1.45 - 0.66 - - 0.42

1.25- - 1.00 3.19 4.64 4.07 0.69 0.92 - 0.50 - - 0.13

1.00- - 0.75 0.14 - 5.57 6.98 7.96 0.84 1.30 - 0.94 - - 1.06

0.75- - 0.50 0.32 - 3.64 2.42 3.20 0.37 0.61 - 0.50 - - 0.56

0.50- - 0.25 1.68 - 8.69 6.09 8.80 0.80 1.10 - 1.32 - - 0.87

0.25- 0.00 0.32 - 1.07 0.44 0.69 0.11 0.09 0.58 0.21 ■ - - 0.13

0.00- 0.25 0.64 - 2.18 1.02 1.17 0.30 0.22 0.68 0.28 - - 0.21

0.25- 0.50 2.73 - 5.47 3.34 3.97 0.67 0,93 1,55 0.98 1.34 - 0.70

0.50- 0.75 4.07 - 5.41 2.42 0.11 2.08 0.84 0.69 2,22 0.94 0.93 - 0.70

0.75- 1.00 12.50 - 8.35 4.07 0,24 3.72 1.70 2.56 4,25 2.52 3.66 - 2.07

1.00- 1.25 6.24 - 2.91 1.39 0.17 0.90 1.06 1.42 1,38 1.16 2.20 - 0,91

1.25- 1.50 16.51 - 7.99 3.18 0.97 2.32 4.00 7,29 5,07 6.50 14.06 - 4,24

1.50- 1.75 2.08 2.80 1.32 0.54 0.27 0.45 0.08 1,80 1,03 1,21 2.99 2.36 1,04

1.75- 2.00 7.29 7.86 3.48 1.88 2.08 1.62 4.87 8,01 3.99 6.06 19.49 8.28 4,73
O
2.00- 2.25 3.12 5.88 1.67 1.10 2.60 1.00 3.85 6,31 2,76 4.42 8.87 5.77 3.50 Co,

2.25- 2.50 1.77 3.70 0.95 0.77 2.31 0.65 3.00 2,75 1.85 2.89 5,99 5.72 2,96

2.50- 2.75 3.38 8.94 1.79 1.64 11.71 1.54 8.34 7,72 4.63 8.25 9.20 10.51 7.82

2.73- 3.00 2.08 7.24 1.31 1.62 20.59 1.36 8.88 3.45 3.73 7.13 4.42 9.91 8.55

3.00- 3.25 0.95 4.61 0.66 0.85 9.16 0.70 5.51 1.31 2.45 6,10 1.69 4.15 6.78

3.25- 3.50 0.68 3.40 0.44 0.85 2.40 0.35 1.26 0.43 1.05 1.60 0.57 1.71 1.32

3.50- 3.75 1.00 6.59 0.95 1.63 9.51 1.70 8.40 1.32 3.22 6.98 1.87 9.78 8.68

3.75- 4.00 0.39 2.17 0.24 0.63 2.73 0.42 2.40 0.65 0.32 1.55 0.57 2.28 1.34

4.00- 4.50 3.86 4.76 1.60 4.57 4.51 2.55 8.06 5.35 4.15 0.49 5.67 15.30 8.09

4.50- 5.00 11.61 9.03 0.91 1.49 0.14 0.27 0.38 2.90 4.33 1.46 0.17 4.11 1.55

5.00- 5.50 0.39 8.02 0.93 0.09 0.82 0.54 4.50 0.83 5.00 0.16 1.54 2.46 1.19

5.50- 6.00 1.84 7.09 0.93 1.31 1.23 0.90 2.96 1.19 1.30 2.77 0.17 1.64 1.55

6.00- 7.00 1.18 0.92 2.41 2.42 1.23 2.26 1.72 0.71 4.81 0.16 0.86 6.57 2.02

7.00- 8.00 0.53 0.31 2.97 1.12 0.96 1.63 1.34 2.61 8.15 0.49 1.72 6.98 0.71

8.00- 9.00 4.61 0.62 0.18 1.95 2.47 0.54 4.49 3.80 12,22 0.32 4.81 1.23 0.71

9.00- 10.00 8.03 16.03 1.49 8.21 0.14 2.44 2.39 17.59 7,78 0.49 3.95 1.23 2.50

10.00 - - 10.22 23.61 24.76 _ _ 11,48 12.86 3.26 _

17.84
>
 Table 3.10 : Grain size frequency percentages of Talchir sediments.

Size in phi G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 Bll B12

< . - 2.25 - - - - - - - - 6.67

- 2.25- - 2.00 - - - - - - 1.28 - 1.64

- 2.00- - 1.75 - - - - - - 0.75 - 0.97

- 1.75- - 1.50 - - - - - - 1.07 - 2.11

- 1.50- - 1.25 - - - - - - 1.46 - 1.83

- 1.25- - 1.00 - - - - - - 1.47 - 1.91

- 1.00- - 0.75 - - - - - - 3.55 - 2.51

- 0.75- - 0.50 - - - - - - 1.85 - 1.58

- 0.50- - 0.25 - - - - - - 6.04 - 3.77

- 0.25- 0.00 - - - - - - 0.66 - 0.33

0.00- 0.25 - - - - - - 1.80 - 0.67

0.25- 0.50 - - - - - - 4.92 - 3. .3

0.50- 0.75 - - - - - - 5.34 - 2.66

0.75- 1.00 - - 0.14 - - - 12.272 - 7.42

1.00- 1.25 - - 0.18 2.68 - - 4.85 0.22 2.56

1.25- 1.50 1.56 - 2.82 8.55 - - 13.27 0.25 9.99

1.50- 1.75 0.52 0.76 2.05 1.57 1.45 1.53 2.19 0.11 1.53

1.75- 2.00 0.73 1.53 21.83 6.36 17.75 5.61 6.38 0.17 5.92

2.00- 2.25 0.56 1.00 15.52 4.04 12.99 3.64 3.01 1.88 2.55

2.25- 2.50 0.58 16.21 6.32 3.46 9.25 2.92 1.86 2.17 1.67

2.50- 2.75 0.63 16.60 7.62 11.50 15.62 6.24 3.03 15.47 2.96

2.75- 3.00 0.55 16.42 3.81 9.73 10.98 16.48 2.29 13.74 1.87

3.00- 3.25 0.44 0.84 2.33 7.34 6.59 9.64 1.26 9.60 0.97

3.25- 3.50 0.09 0.85 1.02 3.92 1.65 4.52 0.65 3.44 0.29

3.50- 3.75 3.28 16.25 3.75 8.12 3.68 9.83 1.70 12.10 1.26

3.75- 4.00 7.07 0.66 1.36 2.41 0.35 0.83 0.43 2.07 0.51

4.00- 4.50 48.27 4.33 4.08 4.95 2.65 9.19 2.12 1.94 4.17

4.50- 5.00 18.65 3.92 2.59 2.29 0.42 3.85 1.36 7.04 2.78

5.00- 5.50 3.85 3.81 4.92 0.34 0.84 10.06 0.26 2.31 0.64

5.50- 6.00 3.85 3.81 0.52 1.03 3.80 6.63 1.83 1.21 0.11

6.00- 7.00 4.95 6.10 2.07 1.37 0.84 0.86 4.19 0.97 3.42

7.00- 8.00 1.65 3.05 0. .78 7.36 0.21 5.35 0.65 1.09 4.60

8.00- 9.00 2.75 0.76 1.16 3.94 0.84 1.28 0.13 2.43 2.46
 size in ^
FI G- 3 - 6 a : GRAIN SIZE FREQUENCY CURVES OF TALCHIR
FORMATION FROM KOCHI LITHOSECTION
 size in (f)
Fl G- 3- 6b: GRAIN SIZE FREQUENCY CURVES OF TALCHIR
FORMATION FROM KOCHI LITHOSECTION
 size in <j)

FIG O V : GRAIN SIZE FREQUENCY CURVES OF TALCHIR

FORMATION FROM MEHASAL LITHOSECTION
 20 -

®/o A

10

----------- T ---------- 1--------- 1--------- r

Size in <j)

FIG-3'8a: GRAIN SIZE FREQUENCY CURVES OF TALCHIR

FORMATION FROM GHONAD LITHOSECTION.
 size in

FI G-3 8 b : g r a in SIZE FREQUENCY CURVES OF TALCHIR

FORMATION FROM GHONAD LITHOSECTION
 Size in 0

FIG- 3-9: GRAIN SIZE FREQUENCY CURVES OF

TALCHIR FORMATION FROM B E L 5 A N I
LITHOSECTION
 107

Table 3.11 : Graphical parameters for Talchir sediments.

Sample Mean Standard Skewness Kurtosis

No. ^Mz) Deviation (Ski) (Kg)
{€' i)

B14 2.73 1.66 0.51 3.62

B13 4.37 3.19 0.77 0.99

B12 2.57 3.97 0.39 1.20

Bll 4.93 2.91 0.73 1.79

G7 1.43 2.50 0. .34 2.31

G6 3.71 1.51 0.37 1.21

G5 2.87 1.74 0.62 2.81

G4 3.93 2.55 0.65 1.46

G3 4.05 2.85 0.80 1.24

G2 3.52 1.47 0.73 1.09

G1 4.37 0.76 0.09 2.72

M5 4.68 3.94 0.38 1.51

M4 3.78 1.72 0.32 1.43

M3 2.75 2.16 0.64 2.21

M2 1.88 3.80 0.02 1.82

Ml 5.07 3.09 0.09 0.68

K8 3.35 4.20 0.85 1.10

K7 2.07 3.18 0.12 1.62

K6 3.20 4.70 0.69 0.49

K5 5.20 3.10 0.78 0.60

K4 0.73 3.31 0.60 1.04

K3 2.00 3.63 0.53 1.54

K2 4.70 2.74 0.52 1.15

K1 2.60 2.42 0.62 1.03

m ~A~'- A - A . A-

10 - ^ . A • A • ^
A . A '• A 'r Z T
a: A -a : A
i ■ A . k '- k -
£k - L L A

A- • A, ^
A , A ■A •
A- A-'
• A • *A ■
•
A
■A ■ ^ A■• A
A

0
M,

FIG 310 -. VARIATION IN GRAPHICAL MEASURES IN KOCHI

LITHOSECTION
 0 0
M z <T;

FIG.3.11: VARIATION IN GRAPHICAL MEASURES IN

MEHASAL LITHOSECTION.
m

4>
cT;

FIG.3.12: VARIATION IN GRAPHICAL MEASURES

IN GHONAD LITHOSECTION
m
Bu -

B i3 *

B
12

B n

L _L
2 3 U

0
cT:

FIG. 3.13 : VARIATION IN GRAPHICAL MEASURES

IN BELSANI LITHOSECTION
 108

s o rt ed class of Folk (1966) as for these samples the

g r a p h i c s ta n d a r d d e v i a t i o n value s vary from 2.4-2 phi to

1
2.91 phi (Table 3.1). For the samples representing

s t r a t i f i e d d i a m i c t i t e and s a n d s t o n e facies (K3, K 4 , K5,

K6, K7, K8, Ml, M2, M3, M 4 , M5, B12, B13 and B14), mean

size varies from c o a rs e sand (Mz 0.73 phi) to m e d iu m

silt (,Mz 5.20 phi;, and these also exhibit large

v a r i a t i o n in the g r a p hi c s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n v a lu es from

1.66 phi ( poorly sorted) to 4.70 phi (ex tr em el y poorly

sorted). In this facies, the a d j o i n i n g samples withi n

the indi vi du al li t h o s e c t i o n s are showing large v a r i a t i o n

in the mean and s ta n d a r d d e v i a t i o n values. For e xample

in the Kochi l i t h o s e c t i o n ( F i g . 3.10), m ea n for sample K4

is 0.73 phi (coarse sand) and for K5 is 5.20 phi (medium

silt), and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n for K5 is 3.10 phi (very

p o o r l y sorted) and for K6 is 4.70 phi (e xtremely poorly

sorted). In case of samples r e p r e s e n t i n g fine gra in ed

sandstone facies (Gl, G2, 03, G 4 , G5, G6 and G7) mean

size varie s from m e d i u m sand (Mz 1.48 phi) to coarse

silt (Mz 4.37 phi;, and these are m o d e r a t e l y sorted ((S" i

0.76 phi) to very poorly sorted i 2.50 phi). In

general, in this facies up w a r d i nc rease in mean grain

size from coa rs e silt to medium sand is not ic ed

( F i g . 3.12), and the samples of this facies are ob se rv ed

to be better sorted (<5^i av 1.91 phi) than those

b e l o n g i n g to s t r a t i f i e d d i a m i c t i t e and s an d s t o n e facies
 109

( i av 3.26 phi), and m a s s i v e d i a m i c t i t e facies ( * ^ i

av 2.69 p h i ).

The samples representing different facies under

study show s i m i l a r i t y i n the g r a ph ic skewness and gra ph i c

kurtosis val ue s (Table 3.11). All these samples are

positively skewed (Ski av 0.45 phi) indicating the

d o m i n a n c e of finer f r a c t i o n over the co ar se r admixture,

and r e p r e s e n t m i x i n g of two or m or e subequal grain size

p o p u l a t i o n s (KG av 1.53 phi).

The grain size log p r o b a b i l i t y plots of samples

u nder study are given in F i g . 3.14, 3.15, 3.16, 3.17,

3.18, 3.19 and 3.20. The d e t e r m i n e d p e r c e n t a g e s of the

su rf ac e creep, s a l ta ti on and s u s p en si on populations

a long with their t r u n c a t i o n points are presented in

T ab le 3.12.

In general, in these samples, the surface cr eep

population v a r ie s from 0 . 8 0 % to 2 7 . 00 % and a ve r a g e s to

4.92%, s a l t a t i o n p o p u l a t i o n varies from 12.00% to 75.00%

and a v e r a g e s to 50.15%, and s u s p e n s i o n p o p u l a t i o n varies

from 2 3 . 0 0 % to 88 .0 0 % w i t h an a v e r ag e of 45,35%.

In case of samples r e p r e s e n t i n g m a s si ve diamictite

facies (Kl, K2 and Bll) su rf a c e c r e e p p o p u l a t i o n vari es

from 0 .80% to 10.00% and a ve r a g e s to 4.00%, sa lt a t i o n

p o p u l a t i o n vari es from 3 6 . 2 0 % to 6 6 . 00 % and av er a g e s to

 -? 0 ? i.

Size in (j) Size in <p

F I G - 3 1^' LOG PROBABILITY PLOTS OF TALCHIR FORMATION FROM
KOCHI LITHOSECTION
 S i z e in S i z e in ^

FIG 3-15: LOG PROBABILITY PLOTS OF TALCHIR FO RMA TION FROM

KOCHI LITHOSECTION
 - 2 0 ? i.

S i z e in (j)

S i z e in (j)
FIG-316: LOG PROBABILITY P L OT S OF TALCHIR FORMATION FROM
MEHASAL LITHOSECTION
 Stze in (p
F1G 3 17-, LOG P R O B A B I L I T Y PLOTS OF T A L C H I R
FORMATION FROM M E H A S A L LITHOSECTION
 Si ze in P Si ze in (/)
FIG-3-18^ LOG PROBA BILI TY PLOTS OF TALCHIR FORMATIOM FROM
GHONAD LITHOSECTION
 S ize in (j)

- ? 0 ? 1. 6 8

Size in (j)

FIG-3-l9:LOG PROBABILITY PLOTS OF TALCHIR F ORMAT I ON FROM

OHONAD LITH05ECTI0N
 Si ze in (j) S i z e in ^

F I G - 3 20 -.LO G PROBABILITY PLOTS OF TALCHIR FORMATION FROM BELSANI

LITHOSECTION
 110
Table 3 .1 2 ; Percentages of different populations and their truncation points of
rocks belonging to Talchir Formation.

Sample Surface Salta­ Suspen­ T1 T2 Tsl Ts2

No. creep 7. tion 7. sion X

B14 - 7 5 .0 0 2 5 .0 0 - 2 .7 5 - -

B13 - 3 0 .0 0 7 0 .0 0 - 1 .9 0 2 .9 0 -

B12 2 7 .0 0 2 5 .0 0 A S .00 0 .7 5 2 .2 5 - -

Bll 0 .8 0 3 6 .2 0 6 3 .0 0 2 .0 5 2 .8 5 3 .6 5 5 .1 5

G7 - 7 2 .0 0 2 8 .0 0 - 2 .3 0 - -

G6 - A 2 .0 0 5 8 .0 0 - 3 .2 0 - -

G5 - 7 A .00 2 6 .0 0 - 3 . AO - -

GA - 6 6 .0 0 AA.OO - A . 10 - -

G3 - A 8 .0 0 5 2 .0 0 - 2 .1 0 A .90 -

G2 - A O .00 6 0 .0 0 - 2 .7 5 A . 10 -

Gl 7 .0 0 7 0 .0 0 2 3 .0 0 3 .6 0 A . 70 - -

M5 8 .5 0 5 5 .5 0 3 6 .0 0 0 .8 0 A . 25 - -

MA - 3 5 .0 0 6 5 .0 0 - 2.7 5 A .60 -

M3 - 7 0 .5 0 2 9 .5 0 - 2 .5 0 - -

M2 2 3 .0 0 5 2 .0 0 2 5 .0 0 0 .9 0 A .00 - -

Ml - 1 2 .0 0 8 8 .0 0 - 1 .6 0 3 .1 5 -

K8 1 9 .5 0 A 8 .5 0 3 2 .0 0 0 .8 0 3 .0 0 - -

K7 2 1 .0 0 5 2 .0 0 2 7 .0 0 1 .5 0 A. 10 - -

K6 - 3 7 .0 0 6 3 .0 0 - 0 .6 5 3 .2 0 -

K5 - 6 0 .0 0 AO. 00 - 3 .7 5 - -

KA - AO. 05 5 9 .9 5 - 0 .9 5 1 .9 5 -

K3 - A 5 .0 0 5 5 .0 0 - 0 .7 5 2 .5 0 -

K2 1 0 .0 0 6 6 .0 0 2A.OO 1 .9 0 3 .0 0 A.AO 6 .0 0

Kl 1 .2 0 5 1 .8 0 A 7 .0 0 0 .5 0 2 .0 0 A . 25 A .75

Avercige A . 92 5 0 .1 5 A 5 .3 5

Kl, K2 and Bll : Massive diam ictite fa c ies.

K3, K4, K5, K6, K7, K8, Ml, M2, M3, MA, M5, B ll, B12 andB13 : Stratified
dianiictite and sandstone facies.

G l, G2, G3, GA, G4, G5, G6 and G7 : Fine grained sandstone facies.

T1 : Truncation point between surface creep and saltation population.

T2 : Truncation point between saltation and suspension.

TSl and Ts2 : Additional truncation points in suspension population.

 Ill

51.33^, and s u s p e n s i o n p o p u l a t i o n from 24.00% to 63 .0 0 %

with an a v e r a g e of 44.67%. In these samples t r u n ca ti on

p oint b e t w e e n sur fa c e c r e e p and salta ti on populations

(Tl) v a ri es from 0.50 phi to 2.05 phi, t r u n ca ti on point

b e t w e e n s a l t a t i o n and s u s p e n s i o n p o p u l a t i o n (T2) varies

from 2.00 phi to 3.00 phi. In these samples two

additional t ru n c a t i o n poin ts (TSl and TS2) w it h i n

suspension p o p u l a t i o n s are r ec og nised. TSl v a r i e s from

3.65 phi to 4.40 phi and TS2 vari es from 4.75 phi to

6.00 phi.

In case of s amples representing st ra t i f i e d

diamictites and s a n d s t o n e facies (K3, K 4 , K 5 , K6, K7,

K8, Ml, M2, M3, M 4 , M 5 , B12, B13 and B 1 4 ) , the surface

creep population va ri e s from 8.50% to 27. 00 % and

averages to 7.07%, saltation population varies from

12.00% to 75.00% and a v e r a g e s to 45.54%, and suspension

p o p u l a t i o n var ie s from 25.0 0% to 88.00% w i t h an a v e r ag e

of 47.39%. In this facies only in five samples (K7, K8,

M2, M5 and B 1 2 ) , surface c r e e p p o p u l a t i o n is present, in

these samples Tl v a ri e s from 0.75 phi to 1.52 phi. The

truncation point between sa lt a t i o n and su sp e n s i o n

population (T2) v a r ie s from - 0.65 phi to 4.25 phi.

W i t h i n the s u s p e n s i o n p o p u l at io n, additional trun ca ti on

p oint (TSl) is pr es e n t in six samples (K3, K 4 , K 6 , Ml,

M4 and B 1 3 ) . For these sam pl es TSl va ri e s from 1.95 phi

to 4.60 phi.
 112

In case of samples representing fine g ra i n e d

s a nd st on e facies (Gl, G 2 , G3, G 4 , G5, G6 and G7) s urface

c r e e p p o p u l a t i o n is p r e se nt only in sample No.Gl w i t h a

v al ue of 7. 00% and its t r u nc at io n point wi t h salta ti on

p op u l a t i o n lies at 3.60 phi. The s al t a t i o n population

v a r ie s from 4 0 . 0 0 % to 7 4. 0 0 % and av er ag e s to 58.86% and

s us p e n s i o n p o p u l a t i o n v a r i e s from 23.00% to 60.00 % and

a ve ra g e s to 41.57%. The t r u nc at i on point between

s alta ti on and s u s p e n s i o n (T2) varies from 2.10 phi to

4.70 phi. Within suspension population additional

t runc at io n point (TSl) is pres en t in two samples (G2 and

G 3 ) , TSl for these samples v a ri es from 4.10 phi to 4.90

phi.

In general grain size log probability plots of

T a l ch i r se di m e n t s exhi bi t four b as ic types of curve

shape, these are e x h i b i t e d in F i g . 3.21 a to d. The

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c fe atures of these are as follows.

Type 1 : C on si st s of large number of small s tr ai gh t

line segments. In this surface c re ep

p op u l a t i o n isbetter sorted than the

saltat io n p o p u l a ti on , sa lt a t i o n p o p u l a t i o n

is b e tt er sorted than suspension

population, and within suspension

p op u l a t i o n two additional breaks are

 S i z e in ^
FIG . 3-21 ; R E P R E S E N T A T I V E LOG PROBABILITY PLOTS OF TALCHIR FOF
 113

present. This type is typical of massive

d i a m i c t i t e facies ( F i g . 3.21 a).

Type 2 : Only two p o p u l a t i o n s n a m e l y s a lt at i on and

s u s p en si on of more or less equal strength

are present. Sa lt a t i o n po pu l a t i o n is well

sorted and s u s p e n s i o n p op u l a t i o n is poor ly

sorted ( F i g . 3.21 b ) . This is c o m mo n type

for s amples belonging to stratified

diamictite and s a n d s t o n e facies, but is

also o b s e r v e d in fine g r ai n e d sa nd s t o n e

facies.

Type 3 : Only two p o p u l a t i o n s name l y sa lt a t i o n and

s us p e n s i o n are pr es en t and withi n poor ly

sorted su s p e n s i o n population additional

b reak is pr es e n t ( F i g . 3.21 c ) . O b s e r v e d in

samples belonging to fine g ra i n e d

s andstone facies, as well as those

representing stratified diamictite and

sand st on e facies.

Type 4 : Salta ti on p o p u l a t i o n is well sorted, and

both the surface creep and suspension

p op u l a t i o n s are p o or ly sorted ( F i g . 3.21

d ) . O b s e r v e d in samples b e l o n g i n g to fine

grained s a nd st on e facies, as well as

 114

s trat if ie d diamictite and sandstone

facies.

The shapes of the type 2, 3 and 4 plots show

similarity to those g iv en by V i sh er (1969) for fluvial

sediments, the ex am pl es of type 1 plots are

c o m p a r a t i v e l y rare in the p u b l i s h e d literature.

Snape a nalysis

G rain shape is d e f i n e d as the spatial geometric

form of the grain. There are different ways of

classification of shape of object which depe nd upon

their p u r p o s e i.e. g e o m e t r i c i a n c l a s s i f i e d the shape as

cube, prism, sphere, cy li n d e r and cone, wh ile the

crystallographer may classify them as euhedral,

a nhedral, h e x ag on al , t e t ra go na l etc. and it can also be

described in free f or m terms such as globular, round,

v er miform, reniform, s ha r d-like, disk-shaped, needle

shaped, fusiform, irregular, lozenge and rodlike.

Eventhough these classification of shapes are

informative, they lack e x a c t n e s s and consistency of

d e s c r i p t i o n of shape, t h e re fo re n u m e r i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n of

shape is p r e f e r r e d to qualitative description

( P e t t i j o h n , 1984).

According to R e i n e e k and Singh (1980), the shape

and r ou nd ne s s of g r a in s d e p e n d upon m e d i u m and m o d e of

tr an sp or ta ti on , composition as well as internal

 115

st ru c t u r e of sediment grains and original form of

mineral grains. A c c o r d i n g to them, the shape of grains

is also g o v e r n e d by reli ef of an ar ea and i n t en si ty and

type of w e a t he ri n g.

Shape and roun dn es s measurements of sand size

g rain s are n o r m a l l y m a de in two di me nsions, o wing to

their smaller size. C o m m o n l y u s e d shape p a ra me te r for

sand grains are the s p h e r i c i t y index (Wadell, 1935) and

r ou n d n e s s (Wadell, 1933). W a d e l l (1932) developed the

c o n ce p t of sp he ricity. A c c o r d i n g to him, it m e a s u r e s the

d e g re e to w h i c h a p a r t i c l e a p p r o a c h e s a spherical shape

and d e f i n e d the s p h e r i c i t y as the ratio b et w e e n d i a m e t e r

of sphere w i t h the same v o l u m e as the p a rt ic le and the

d i a m e t e r of c i r c u m s c r i b e d sphere. R il ey (1953) proposed

a projection s p h e r i c i t y for the measurement of sand

g rain s in two d i m e n s i o n s and d e f i n e d it as the ratio of

diameter of largest in s c r i b i n g c i r c l e to d ia m e t e r of

s ma ll es t c i r c u m s c r i b i n g circle. W a d e l l (1932) defined

r ou nd ne s s as the ratio of c u r v a t u r e of several co rn e r s

or edges to the radius of c u r v a t u r e of m a x i m u m i n s c r i b e d

circle.

W it h the adven t of computational f ac ilities by

u s in g computer, several a t t e m p t s h a v e been done for

extracting geologically significant info rm at i on from

g ra in shape studies. Eh rl i ch and Weinberg (1970)

 116

d e v e l o p e d a F o u ri er grain shape a n a l y s i s technique that

m e a s u r e s the shape c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of individual grai n s

as p r e c i s e l y as desired. A c c o r d i n g to them, the g rain

shape may be described precisely by Fourier series

e x p a n s i o n of radius about the c e n t r e of mass, utilizing

the coordinates of p e r i p h e r a l points. Ehr li ch ^ al.

(1980) d e m o n s t r a t e d that the three m a j o r factors that

in fl u e n c e pa rt i c l e shape - pr ov e n a n c e , process history

and transp or t rate can often be c l e a r l y d e c i p h e r e d from

shape data. This allo ws q u a r t z grain shape to play the

role that the mi ne ra l c o m p o s i t i o n u s u al ly plays in

detrital sedimentology.

M e t h o d of study : In the p r e s e n t study, the grain shape

studies were carried out by u si ng Fo ur ie r series

t ec hn iq u e su gg e s t e d by E h r l i c h and W e i n b e r g (1970). In

all 14 r e p r e s e n t a t i v e samples we re s u b j e c t e d for F o u r i e r

g rain shape studies. Out of these 14 samples, two

samples (K1 and K2) r ep r e s e n t s massive diamictite

facies, seven samples (K4, K 5 , K 6 , K 7 , B12, B13 and B14)

are of s t ra t i f i e d d i a m i c t i t e and associated sandstone

facies, three samples (G3, G4 and G5) r e p re se nt s fine

g r a i n e d s a n d s t o n e facies and two samples (B1 and B5) are

of s il t s t o n e s from i n t e r b e d d e d s i l t s t o n e s shale facies.

By projecting the thin sectio ns of matrix of

di am ic ti te , sandstone and s il ts tones, the ind i vi du al

 117

g rain boundaries of q ua r t z grain s were traced using

C am e r a lucida. F i f t ee n grai ns per thin section were

traced. A c c o r d i n g to E h r l i c h and W e i n b e r g (1970), the

g rain shape can be e s t i m a t e d by one e x p a n s i o n of

periphery radius asa f u n c t i o n of a ngle about grains

c e nt er of g r a v i t y by a F o u ri er series and the radius can

be g i v e n by

oO

R(-9-) = Ro + ^ Rn cos (n6 - Jn) - I

n=l >

w here

% = Polar a ngle measured from arbitrary

r e fe re nc e line,

Ro = First term in the series e qu i v a l e n t to

av er ag e radius of g ra in in plane of

interes t ,

n = Ha rm o n i c order,

Rn = H ar m o n i c ampl it ud e,

n = Phase angle.

The a na l y s i s begins by r e c o r d i n g the coordinates of

p e r i p h e r a l poin ts by d i g it iz in g, the p e r i p h e r y of q u ar tz

grains. As a t l e as t twice the n u m b e r of poionts m us t be

digitized for the highest desired harmonic, in the

p re s e n t study 40 p e r i p h e r a l pints were digitized by

projecting the grain on grid and r e c o r d i n g the X and Y

 118

i n t er ce pt s manually. Digitization of 40 peripheral

points of 15 grains per samples was done. The

digitization of p e r i p h e r a l points was car ri ed out at

reg ul ar intervals in a n t i c l o c k w i s e direction st ar ti ng

from a r b i t r a r y r e f e r e n c e point.

W it h the help of su cc e s s i v e pair of recorded

peripheral points, the c e n t r e of g r a v i t y of g rain is

c a l c u l a t e d in f o l l o w i n g steps.

1. C a l c u l a t i o n of area of j t r ap ez oi d

(Yj+1 + Yj) (Xj - Xj+1)

A j = -----------------------------------------------------------------
2

2. C a l c u l a t i o n of first m o m e n t about X axis for j

trapezoid
3-
[Yj+1 + (Yj+1) (Yj) + Yj ] (Xj - Xj+1)
MYj = --------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------
6

3. C a l c u l a t i o n of first m o m e n t about Y axis for j

trapezoid
2 - 2-
[Xj+1 + (Xj+1) (Xj) + Xj ] (Yj - Yj+1)
MXj = ----- ------ ------------------------------------
6

w here Xj, Yj and Xj+1 and Yj+1 are successive

p eri p h e r a l points.

4. The c o o r d i n a t e of the grain c e n t r o i d is given by

d iv i d i n g the a p p r o p r i a t e total m o m e n t by total area

 119

and can be c a l c u l a t e d as

L L
51- Aj
j = 1

5. W i t h the h e l p of the c o o r d i n a t e s of centroid, each

peripheral point can be expressed in polar

c o o r d i n a t e s about the c e n tr e of g r a v i t y as

_ a_ 2 -
Rj (Yj - Y) + (Xj - X)
\

-1 Yj - Y
0j = Tan ------
Xj - X

The F o u r i e r series of eq ua t i o n I is t r a n s fo rm ed to
OO oO

R(-0) = Ro + An cos n©- + SI Bn sin n&

n = 1 n = 1

w h e r e the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s are

An = Rn cos ®n

Bn = Rn sin ®n
 120

F i n a l l y the F ou r i e r series can be e v a l u a t e d as

1 L
Ro = --- + (Rj + 1 + Rj) (6j + l - 6j)
4 TT j = 1

1 (Rj+1 - Rj ) (cos n 9j+l - cos n6j )

An = -- +
TT j = 1 (0j + l - 6j) n ^

Rj + 1 sin n0j + l - Rj sin n0-j

1 L (Rj+1 - R j ) (sin n0j+l - sin n G j )

Bn = -- ----------------------------------------
TT j = 1 (6j + l - Oj) n*

Rj+1 cos n©j+l - Rj cos n9j

From the coefficients of F ou r i e r series the

roughness coefficient which corresponds to ze ro it h

h a r m o n i c was c a l c u l a t e d as
oO
P = 1/2 21 (An + Bn)
\ n = 1

oQ .

1 / 2 E : C n "

\l n = 1

Alongwith the r o u g h n e s s c oe f f i c i e n t , the modified

roughness coefficients spanning a s el e c t e d range of

harmonics from 1-5, 6-10, 11-15 and 16-20 were

 121

c a l c u l a t e d u si ng the f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a

K ^
PjK = \j 1 / 2 Cn
= j

This a na ly s is was c a r r i e d out by u s i n g a F O R T R A N - I V

p r o g r a m m e d e v e l o p e d by the author.

R es u l t s : The o b t a i n e d me an a m p l i t u d e v a lu e s (15 grains

/ sample) for the twenty h a r m o n i c s are given in Table

3.13 and the mean amplitude sp ec tr a are g iven in

F i g . 3.22, 3.23, 3.24, 3.25 and 3.26.

The m ea n a m p l i t u d e v a l u e s for 1st h a r m o n i c varies

from 0.0117 to 0.0460 and a v e r a g e s to 0.0280, w h il e for

20th harmonic it varies from 0.0 08 6 to 0.0319 with

a v e r a g e of 0.0200. In case of all the s amples analysed,

the m e a n a m p l i t u d e v a lu es show sharp d e c r e a s e from first

to third h a r m o n i c and t h e r e a f t e r d e c r e a s e s g r a d u a l l y or

r emains m o r e or less c o n s t a n t (Table 3.13, and F i g . 3.22^

to 3.26).

The obtained v al u e s of partitioned roughness

coefficients and r ou g h n e s s c o e f f i c i e n t s are g i v en in

T a bl e 3.14. In general, the p a r t i t i o n e d c o e f f i c i e n t FI

(1-5) v a r ie s from 0.0158 to 0 . 0 57 4 and a ve ra ge s to

0.0356, P2 (6-10) f ro m 0.01 39 to 0.0508 and av er a g e s to

0.0323, F3 (11-15) varie s from 0 .0 1 3 8 to 0 . 05 00 and

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FIG .3 22 : M E A N AMPLITUDE 5PECTRA5 OF
TA LCHIR FORMATION , KOCHI
LITHOSECTION,
FIG-3-23-. MEAN A M P L IT U D E SPECTRA OF TA L C H I R FORMATION,
KOCHI LITHO SE CTIO N-
 HARMONICS

FI G - 3 - 2A - MEAN A M PL IT U D E SP E C T R A OF TALCHIR FORMATION

FROM G H A N AD L IT H O S E C T IO N .
FIG.3 25 : M E A N AM PL IT U D E SPEC TR A OF
TALCHIR FORMATION FROM
BEI5ANI LITHOSECTION •
FIG-3 26 : MEAN AMPLITUDE S PE C TR A OF TALCHIR FORMATION
BELSANI LITHOSECTfON.
 123

Table 3.14 : Roughness coefficients of Talchir Sediments

Sample PI P2 P3 P4 P5
No. (1-5) (6-10) (11-15) (16-20) (1-20)

B14 0.0366 0.0294 0.0298 0.0295 0.0600

B13 0.0467 0.0456 0.0455 0.0457 0.0923

B12 0.0180 0.0172 0.0171 0.0168 0.0347

Average 0.0338 0.0307 0.0308 0.0307 0.0623

B5 0.0239 0.0228 0.0223 0.0223 0.0460

B1 0.0244 0.0252 0.0248 0.0249 0.0498

Average 0.0241 0.0240 0.0235 0.0236 0.0479

G5 0.0252 0.0230 0.0228 0.0227 0.0461

G4 0.0257 0.0255 0.0256 0.0257 0.0514

G3 0.0400 0.0353 0.0334 0.0316 0.0710

Average 0.0303 0.0279 0.0273 0.0267 0.0562

K7 0.0513 0.0441 0.0442 0.0442 0.0926

K6 0.0158 0.0139 0.0138 0.0136 0.0290

K5 0.0528 0.0461 0.0453 0.0448 0.0869

K4 0.0338 0.0329 0.0339 0.0327 0.0664

Average 0.0384 0.0342 0.0343 0.0338 0.0687

K2 0.0468 0.0401 0.0398 0.0398 0.0836

K1 0.0574 0.0508 0.0500 0.0503 0.1046

Average 0.0521 0.0454 0.0449 0.0450 0.0941

Gross
Average 0.0356 0.0323 0.0320 0.0317 0.0653
 124

averages to 0.0320, and P4 (16-20) from 0. 01 35 to

0.0503 w i t h an a v e r a g e of 0.0317. The o verall roughness

coefficient P5 (1-20) v ar i e s fr om 0 . 0 2 9 0 to 0.1046 and

a v e r a g e s to 0.0653.

In case of mass iv e d i a m i c t i t e s PI var ie s from

0.0468 to 0 . 05 74 and a v e r a g e s to 0.0521, P2 from 0.0401

to 0.0508 and av er a g e s to 0.0454, P3 from 0. 03 9 8 to

0 . 05 00 and a v e r a g e s to 0.0449, P4 from 0.0398 to 0.05 03

and a v e r a g e s to 0.04 5 0 and P5 from 0 . 0 8 3 6 to 0,1046 w i t h

an a v e r a g e of 0.0941.

In case of s t r a t i f i e d d i a m i c t i t e and s an d s t o n e s

(K4, K 5 , K6 and K 7 ), PI v a ri es from 0.01 58 to 0.0528 and

averag es to 0.0384, P2 from 0.0139 to 0.0461 and

a ve ra ge s to 0.0342, P3 from 0.0138 to 0.04 53 and

a ve ra ge s to 0.0343, P4 from 0.0136 to 0.04 48 and

a ve r a g e s to 0.0338, and P5 from 0 . 0 2 9 0 to 0.0926 w i t h an

a v e r a g e of 0.0687.

In c as e of fine g r a i n e d s an d s t o n e s (G3, G4 and G5),

PI vari es from 0.02 52 to 0 . 04 00 and av er a g e s to 0.0303,

P2 fr om 0 . 0 23 0 to 0.0353 and a v e r a g e s to 0.0279, P3 from

0.0228 to 0 . 0 3 34 and a v e r a g e s to 0.0273, P4 from 0.0227

to 0.031 6 and a v e r a g e s to 0.0267, and P5 from 0.0461 to

0 . 0 71 0 w i t h an a v e r a g e of 0.0562.
 125

In case of siltstone s amples (B1 and B5) of

i n t e r b e d d e d s i l t s t o n e and shales, PI vari es from 0.0239

to 0.0244 and av er a g e s to 0.0241, P2 from 0.0 22 8 to

0 . 02 52 and a v e r a g e s to 0.0240, P3 from 0.0 2 23 to 0.0248

and a v e r a g e s to 0.0235 and P4 from 0 . 0 2 2 3 to 0.0249 and

a ve ra g e s to 0.0236, and P5 from 0 . 0 4 6 0 to 0.0498 w i t h an

a v e r a g e of 0.0479.

In case of youn ge r stratified diamictite and

associated s an d s t o n e samples (B12, B13 and B14) PI

var ie s from 0 . 0 18 0 to 0.0467 and a v e r a g e s to 0.0338, P2

varies from 0.0172 to 0.0456 and a v e r a g e s to 0.0307, P3

from 0.0171 to 0.0455 and a v e r a g e s to 0.0308, P4 var ie s

from 0.0168 to 0.0457 and a v e r a g e s to 0.0307, and P5

var ie s from 0.0347 to 0 .0 9 2 3 w i t h an a v e r a g e of 0.0623.

From the Table 3.14, it can be seen that the

a v e r a g e v a l u e s of p a r t i t i o n e d r o u g h n e s s c o e f f i c i e n t and

rough ne ss c o e f f i c i e n t d ec r e a s e s from m a s s i v e diamictite

facies to si lt s t o n e s b e l o n g i n g to i n t e r b e d d e d s i lt st on e-

shale facies. The quar t z g r a i ns from m a s s i v e d i a m i c t i t e s

facies are c h a r a c t e r i s e d by h i g h e r ave r ag e valu es of

partitioned r o ug h n e s s c o e f f i c i e n t s (Pl = 0.0521, P2

0.0454, P3 = 0.0449, and P4 = 0.0450), and hence are

r ough textured. The quartz grains from stratified

d i a m i c t i t e and s an d s t o n e facies are less rough t ex tu r ed

as the p a r t i t i o n e d r o u g h n e s s c o e f f i c i e n t values are less

 126

(PI = 0.0384, P2 = 0.0342, P3 = 0 . 0 3 4 3 and P4 = 0.0338)

than that o bs e r v e d in m a s s i v e d i a m i c t i t e facies. The

quartz grai ns from fine gr ai n e d s a n d s t o n e facies are

comparatively less rough t ex tured than bo th massive

diamictite facies and stratified diamictite and

s an ds to ne facies as they ha ve low a v e r a g e values (Pl

0.0303, P2 = 0.0279, P3 = 0.027 3 and P4 = 0.0267) of

partitioned rough ne ss c o e f f i c i e n t s . The quartz grains

from s i l t s t o n e s of i n t e r b e d d e d si 1 t s t o n e - s h a l e facies

have very low values of partitioned r o ug hn es s

coefficients i.e. PI = 0.241, P2 = 0.0240, P3 =0.0235

and P4 = 0.0236, there these can be c o n s i d e r e d as m or e

c ir c u l a r and smoo th textured grains. The obtained

a ve r a g e value s of yo un g e r stratified diamictite and

s a n d s t o n e facies (PI = 0.0338, P2 = 0.0307, P3 = 0.0308

and P4 = 0.0307) are more or less s im i l a r to the basal

s tr a t i f i e d d i a m i c t i t e and s a n d s t o n e facies, and h e nc e

are r ough textured.

S ca n n i n g e l e c t r o n m i c r o s c o p i c studies

As the norm al microscope wi th its maximum

resolution of about 2000°A can no t r e s o l v e fine surface

de ta il s on g r a in s w h i c h are less than 1 m m in diameter,

the e l e c t r o n m i c r o s c o p e s e r ve d as a u s ef ul tool by w h i c h

fine det ai ls onsmall g r ai ns can be studied, as they

have r e s o l u t i o n upto 25 to 30°A ( Kr in sl ey and D o o r n k a m f ,

1973). The p i o n e e r i n g a r t i c l e s on e l e c t r o n microscopic

 127

examination of surface textures of sand grains were

published by B i e d e r m a n (1962), Krinsley and Takahashi

(1962), Ku en e n and Pedok (1962) and Port er (1962).

The SEM was used w i d e l y in s tudy of quartz sand

surface texture primarily for ide nt if yi ng and

cataloguing dignostic surface texture of different

sedimentary environ me nt . K r i n s l e y and c o w o r k e r s (1962-

1973) s y s t e m a t i c a l l y c o l l e c t e d the grains from v a r io us

environment and studied the characteristics s urface

features of each environ m en t. They also tried to

duplicate the f ea tures o b s e r v e d in the laboratory, and

st ud ie d k n ow n e n v i r o n m e n t s of past to see what effect

diagenesis had on sand g r a i n p a s s a g e through the time

diagenetic zone. With this w o r k and others such as

Krinsley and Don ah ue (1968), Whalley and Krinsley

(1974), Hodel ^ (1988), Setl ow and Karpowich

(1972), S a le h and Khalif (1982), Higgs (1979), D o w d s w e l l

(1982), and Sychanthavong and Merh (1990) the SEM

s tudies of quart z grains was used to characterise

u n k n o w n e n v i r o n m e n t s in the g e o l o g i c a l past.

M e t h o d of study : For SEM studies, two samples n a m e l y K1

and K4 r e p r e s e n t i n g m a s s i v e d i a m i c t i t e and stratified

diamictite r e s p e c t i v e l y we re selected. From these two

s amples quar tz grains and garnet g ra i n s were separated

for SEM studies. As m e n t i o n e d earlier, the h e a v y m i n e r a l

 128

separation of these two was c a r ri ed out by u sing

bromoform as a h e a v y Liquid. Fr om the ob tained heavy

residue, garnet grains w e r e s e pa ra te d by isodynamic

separator, and from the o b t a i n e d lighter crop qua rt z

grains were s e p a r a t e d u nd er the binocular m i cr o s c o p e .

T he se s e p a r a t e d q u ar t z and garn et g r a in s were b o i l e d in

concentrated hydrochloric acid for ten minutes and

washed t h o r o u g h l y w i t h d i s t i l l e d water. The q u a r t z and

garnet fr ac t i o n s were then boil ed in stannous chloride

s ol u t i o n for two m i n u t e s to remo ve iron oxide coating.

Following Me Intyre and Be (1967), the o rganic debris

was r e m o v e d by treating these fr ac t i o n s w i t h a strong

oxidising solut io n of 1.5 gm each of potassium

dichromate and p o t a s s i u m p e r m a n g a t e d i s s o l v e d in 15 ml

of concentrated s u lp hu r ic acid. The fractions were

washed t h o r o u g h l y w i t h d i s t i l l e d w a te r and dried. From

each fraction, f ifteen g r ai ns w e r e r a n d o m l y s el ec te d for

scanning e le c t r o n microscopic studies. The se l e c t e d

grains were m o u n t e d on stub by u s in g d o u b l e sticky tixo

tape. After m o u n t i n g the grains on the stubs in rows,

the stub was c o a te d w it h gold by gold suptter and then

fixed in C am b r i d g e s t e r o s c a n S 120 scanning e le ct r o n

m i c r o s c o p e for further viewing.

The sc an n i n g e le c t r o n microscopic studies w er e

carried out at Department of Geology, Maharashtra

 129

Association for C u l t i v a t i o n of Science, Pune. Each and

every i n d i v i d u a l grain was v i e w e d in different angles

and at d i f f e r e n t m a g n i f i c a t i o n s , and s e l e c t e d views w er e

photographed.

Res ul ts : P late 3.20, photo a to f e x h i b i t s the o b s e r v e d

q uart z su rf ac e textures and Plate 3.21, photo a to f

e xh ib it s su rf ac e textures of garnets. T hese s urface

texture s tudies of quar tz and g a rn et grains r e v e a l e d the

presence of po li s h e d surfaces, conchoidal breakage

pat te rn w i t h m i c r o b l o c k texture, arc-shaped semiparallel

steps, V - s h a p e d i n de n ta ti on s, s tr ia tions, gr o ov es and

p r e c i p i t a t e d silica.

Plate 3.20, photo a and b exhib it s subrounded

quart z grains with conchoidal breakage pattern,

m i c r o b l o c k t exture and p o l i s h e d surfaces. The c o n c h o i d a l

breakage p a t t e r n s are v a r i e d in size and shape and are

irregularly di st r ib ut ed . In some grains, the edges of

the quar tz grains are sh arp and they do not show any

sign of rounding. Plate 3.20, p hoto c ex hi b it s

conchoidal breakage p a t te rn with sharp edges and

semiparallel steps. The development of arc shaped

semiparallel steps is a c o mm on f eature (Plate 3.20,

photo d ) . In case of q ua r t z grains e x h i b i t i n g m i c r o b l o c k

texture, V sh ap e d i n d e n t a t i o n s are o b s e r v e d as shown in

P late 3.20, photo e. Some of q u ar t z grains e xh i b i t

 130

presence of p r e c i p i t a t e d silica. Plate 3.20, ph oto f

e xh i b i t s precipitation of sil ic a wi th parallel

disposition.

Plate 3.21, photo a e xh i b i t s s u b a n g u l a r gar n et w i t h

c o n c h o i d a l b r e a k a g e p a t t e r n with sharp edges and a n g u l a r

boarde rs . P late 3.21 b ex hi b i t s s u b r o u n d e d garnet with

c o n c h o i d a l b r e a k a g e w it h tnicroblock texture and p o l i s h e d

surfaces. On the surface of garnets development of

semiparallel steps is commonly observed. These

s e m i p a r a l l e l steps are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h striations, P late

3.21, photo c ex hi b i t s s e m i p a r a l l e l steps and s t r i a t i o n s

d e v e l o p e d at a h i g h a ngle to it. C o m m o n l y on the s ur f a c e

of g ar n e t s d e v e l o p m e n t of gro ov e s is observed. These

grooves are of v a r i o u s shape and are of v a r y i n g depth.

Plate 3.21, photo d r ep r e s e n t s the a n g u l a r garn et with

d e v e l o p m e n t of b r o a d V shaped grooves. P late 3.21, photo

e ex hi b it s the close up v i e w of deep, mo re or less

s tr aight groove, observed in the garnet. The small

p atches pr es e n t in the g r o o v e as well as on p ol is h e d

su rfaces are of s e c o n d a r y silica pr e c i p i t a t i o n . Co mm o n l y

in these g a r n e t s small sc ale i n d e n t a t i o n s are observed.

V t
These are of va ri ou s shapes, out of which V s h ap ed

indentations are more c o m m o n l y observed. Plate 3.21,

\
p hoto f ex hi bi t s small scale mechanically f o r me d V

shaped indentation d e v e l o p e d in the garnet. In this

V. I
photo, these V shaped i n d e n t a t i o n s e x h i b i t s a preferred
 131

o r i e n t a t i o n r e p r e s e n t i n g their d e v e l o p m e n t on p r o b a b l y a

c l e a v a g e plate.

Following Krinsley and Doornkamp (1973), and

W h a l l e y and K r i n s l e y (1974), all these surface textures

are considered to be i nd i c a t i v e of gla ci al and

s ub a q u e o u s o r i g i n of these sediments.

T alchir S e d i m e n t a t i o n

In the G o n d w a n a b a s in s of P e n i n s u l a r India, T a l c h i r

s ed i m e n t s (Sakmarian-Stephanian) defin e the base of

Gondwana s uccession. T h es e basi ns o r i g i n a t e d as slight

d e p r e s s i o n in the c r y s t a l l i n e bed rock of the c r a t o n and

witnessed widespread gla ci al a d v a n c e s from different

gathering g r o u nd s of ice. Only a f te r d e p o s i t i o n of the

gla ci al T a l c h i r sediments, norma l f a u l t i n g give rise to

" g r ab en b a s i n s ” (Frakes, 1979; R aj a R a o , 1982). Within

the Talchir sequences, v ar i o u s l i t h o f a c i e s ha ve been

identified by different workers. Niyogi (1961)

c o n s i d e r e d the T al c h i r s e di m e n t s of Burai b a si n of B i ha r

to r e p r e s e n t g l a c i o l a c u s t r i n e and g l a c i o f l u v i a l outwash

deposits. A c c o r d i n g to B a n e r j e e (1966), g l a c i o l a c u s t r i n e

shale-siltstone T alchir s e q u e n c e of Raniganj coalfield

is punctuated by slump generated t ur bi di ty current

d eposits. He postulated that oversteepening and

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o v e r l o a d i n g of d e l t a f r o n t built w i t h i n the gl ac ia l lake

c a u se d the slumping. G h o s h and M i t r a (1970) considered

Talchir diamictites to be representative of t illite

facies. Casshyap and Qidwai (1974) recognised three

d i s t i n c t d i a m i c t i t e units w i t h i n the T a l c h i r s e q u e n c e of

P en ch valley coalfield of Satp ur a basin. They have

postulated glaciomarine model for these sediments.

A c c o r d i n g to them, the ice sheets may have a d v a n c e d into

c en t r a l India from south s everal times, and the

overlying t ra n s i t i o n a l a s s e m b l a g e m ay be glaciofluvial

in origin. R a i v e r m a n (1986) c o n t r a d i c t e d the g l a ci al to

f l u v i o g l a c i a l origin for Ta lc h i r d i a m i c t i t e of P ra n h i t a -

G o d a v a r i basin. He has s u g g e s t e d mud flow ori gi n for

Talchir diamictites, and according to him Ta lc hi r

sedim en ts w e r e d e p o s i t e d in a s h a l l o w m a r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t

during E a r l y Permian. In S o n - M a h a n a d i Gondwana basin,

Casshyap and Srivastava (1987), h av e recognised two

d i s t i n c t group s of facies w i t h i n the T al c h i r ass em bl ag e,

namely pr ox i m a l facies represented by glacial,

g l a c i o f l u v i a l and g l a c i o l a c u s t r i n e sediments, and d is t a l

facies represented by d eltaic and tidal estuarine

sediments. According to Pand ya (1990), l i t h of ac ie s

association in Talchir s eq ue n ce of O r is sa su gg es t a

sequential c ha n g e of depositional environment from

a l l u v i a l fan to d e l t a a d v a n c e in lake b a s in fo ll o w e d by

s e d i m e n t a t i o n and p r e c i p i t a t i o n in d e e p lake basin.

 133

Here on the b a si s of field and la bo r a t o r y studies

detailed earlier, an a t t e m pt is m a d e to u n d e r s t a n d the

n a t u r e of T a l c h i r s ed i me n t a t i o n .

The b asal m a s s i v e d i a m i c t i t e s o c c u r i n g as l a t e r a l l y

d i s c o n t i n u o u s bodies h av e a r e s t r i c t e d thickness of 1 m

to 2.5 m, these structureless diamictites contain

is olated bo di e s of be tt e r sorted s t r a t i f i e d si lt s tones,

b ou ld er s in these d i a m i c t i t e s are f r e q u e n t l y striated,

these are derived from narrow local provenance of

felspathic gneiss, P e n g a n g a l i m e st on es and sandstones,

their clay size fr ac t i o n is d e f i c i e n t in cl ay minerals

relative to quartz, in these most of the c la s t s are

s u b r o u n d e d in nature, these are v er y p o o r l y sorted with

polymodal g rain size d i s t r i b u t i o n , and are o v e r l a i n by

stratified diamictites and sandstones. Hence by

following K a r r o w (1976), Bou lt on and Eyles (1979), and

Reading (1981) these are here in fe r r e d to represent

subglacially formed massive tillite deposited by

grounded ice d u r i n g ice retreat. A c c o r d i n g to Anderson

(1983), all these are the typical characters of

continental tills and these f ea tu re s are useful in

differentiating c o n t i n e n t a l tills from glac ia l marine

diamictites and debris flow deposits. The i so la te d

b e t te r sor te d s t r a t i f i e d s i lt s t o n e b o d ie s w i t h i n m a s s i v e

diamictite are c o n s i d e r e d to r e p r e s e n t subglacial or

 134

englacial str ea m dep os it (Frakes and Crowell, 1967;

Shaw, 1987). Thin section-, h e a v y mineral-, and X-ray

diffraction studies show that the o v e r l y i n g stratified

diamictites and a s s o c i a t e d s an d s t o n e s are sim il ar in

composition to that of basal massive diamictite

(tillite) s u g g e s t i n g that the s t r a t i f i e d d i a m i c t i t e and

s an d s t o n e s mi ght have been formed by the p ar t i a l

reworking of the basal till deposited by the same

glacier. In the s t r a t i f i e d d ia m i c t i t e s , r o u n de d pe bb le s

are aligned pa r al l e l to the s t r a ti fi ca ti o n, these

exh ib it g reat v a r i a t i o n in the m ea n size and sorting,

show d e v e l o p m e n t of v a r i e t y of s e d i m e n t a r y structures,

such as h o r i z o n t a l p a r a l l e l lamination, scour and fill

structure, cross stratification etc., and w it h i n

stratified d i a m i c t i t e s s l u m pe d d i a m i c t i t e h o r i z o n s are

recorded. The re fo re , by following Augustinus and

R e i z e b o s (1971), and R e i n e c k and Singh (1980), these are

s ug g e s t e d to be g l a c i o f l u v i a l outwash deposits. The

o bs e r v e d sl um pe d diamictite horizon formed due to

m e l t i n g of b u ri ed ice is c o n s i d e r e d as a distinguishing

fe at ur e of gla ci al o u t w a s h d e p o si t by R ea d i n g (1981).

F o l l o w i n g B o u l t o n and Eyles (1979), the i n t e r b e d d e d thin

d i a m i c t i t e s and sa n d s t o n e s p r e s e n t in the upper part of

this facies are c o n s i d e r e d to be r e l a t e d to se asonal

mass flows of till and c o ar s e sand due to h i g h d i s c h a r g e

of m e l t w a t e r streams in p r o g l a c i a l o u t w a s h plains.
 135

The p r e s e n c e of var ve s at the base, f ol lo we d u p w a r d

by d ra p e d lamination, r i p pl e marks and c l i m b i n g r ip p l e

l a m i na ti on gr ad i n g into large scale foreset beds w it h

high a n gl e dips and u p w a r d i n cr e a s e in m ea n g r a in size

observed in fine g r a i n e d s a n d s t o n e facies under study,

are the typical characteristics of glaciolacustrine

deltaic deposits ( G u st av so n e_t , 1975). The

interbedded s i l ts to n es and shales are overlained by

you ng er m a s s i v e d i a m i c t i t e horizo n. These si l t s t o n e s and

shales ex hi bi t loaded c ontacts, w at er escape structures,

soft s ed im en t m i c r o f a u l t i n g , h y d r o p l a s t i c slickensides ,

and n ap pe boudins. All these soft s e d i m e n t deformation

s tr u c t u r e s are h e r e c o n s i d e r e d to be r e l a t e d with the

loa di ng an d sp re a d i n g of the ice sheet which was

r e s p o n s i b l e for the d e p o s i t i o n of the o v e r l y i n g you ng er

massive di a m i c t i t e . The i n t e r b e d d e d nature of these

si lt s t o n e s and shales may be responsible for the

p r o n o u n c e d d e v e l o p m e n t of these s tructures. The o b s e r v e d

soft se diment m i c r o f a u l t i n g and a s s o c i a t e d w a te r esca pe

str uc tu re s are s i m il ar to those d e s c r i b e d by G u i r a u d and

Se gu re t (1987) from Late J ur a s s i c - E ar ly Cretaceous

s e di me nt s of the Soria b a s i n of N o r t h e r n Spain. Guiraud

and Seg ur et (1987) considered these soft s ed i m e n t

m i c r o f a u l t i n g and a s s o c i a t e d w at er es ca p e s t r uc tu re s to

be related to l oa d i n g and suggested these to be

i n d i c a t i v e of p r e l i t h i f i c a t i o n d ef o r m a t i o n . The o b s e r v e d
 136

hydroplastic sl i c k e n s i d e s show s i m i l a r i t i e s to those

d e s c r i b e d by Petit and L a v i l l e (1987) from the Triassic

sa nd s t o n e s of the High Atlas Mountains of Morocco.

According to them, hydroplastic sl i c k e n s i d e s are

developed due to f a u l t i n g in incompletely lithified

sediments, and the d e v e l o p m e n t of step- (Riedel type)

s t r u ct ur es can be e x p l a i n e d by grain b o u n d a r y sli di ng

controlled by the clay p ha se in water saturated

material. The n ap pe b o u di n s observed in these

interbedded siltstones and shales ex hi bi t gr eat

s i m i l a r i t y to the g r a v i t y s p r e a d i n g m e c h a n i s m generated

folds and d i s l o c a t i o n s t r u c t u r e s d e s c r i b e d by Pederson

(1987). A c c o r d i n g to him, these are characteristic of

g la c i a l tectonics, w he re the deformation is caused

thr ou gh loading by an o v e r l y i n g medium which d u r in g

spreading p ro du ce s a lateral stress component that

presses the u n d e r l y i n g b o d y fo rw a r d and u pw a r d s a l on g

listric r e v e s e thrust fault surface.

It is c o n c l u d e d that s u b g l a c i a l m a s s i v e d i a m ic ti te ,

glaciofluvial st ra t i f i e d diamictites and sandstones,

glaciolacustrine d e l t a i c fine g r a i n e d sandstones, and

glaciolacustrine i n t e r b e d d e d s i l t s t o n e s and shales of

Ta lc h i r s w e r e d e p o s i t e d d u r i n g g l a c i a l retreat, and the

d e p o s i t i o n of the y o u n g e r d i a m i c t i t e was r e s p o n s i b l e for

the g e n e r a t i o n of the v a r i o u s soft se d im en t deformation

structures.
 137

BARAKAR FORMATION

Field Studies

Near village Chandur located about 2 km north of

Ghugus in the N W - S E f l o w i n g p a r t of the Wardha r iv er ,

good continuous exposures of the s o u t h w e s t e r l y dipping

rocks belonging to Barakar Formation are observed

(Fig.1.2). These exposures were selected for detailed

field observations. Plate 3.22, photo 1 exhibit

e x p o s u r e s of r o c k s b e l o n g i n g to B a r a k a r F o r m a t i o n on the

banks of W a r d h a r i v e r n e a r C h a n d u r . In g e n e r a l Barakar

F o r m a t i o n is o b s e r v e d to be r e p r e s e n t e d by f i n i n g u p w a r d

cycles of sandstones, siltstones and s h al es . In the

W a r d h a r i v e r s e c t i o n u n d e r s t u d y lower, middle and upper

p a r t s of B a r a k a r F o r m a t i o n s h o w s o m e d i f f e r e n c e s in the

development of different lithofacies, and therefore

these ar e d e s c r i b e d s e p a r a t e l y . F i g . 3 . 2 7 a, 3 . 2 7 b an d

3. 27 c r e p r e s e n t s the l i t h o s e c t i o n s of the lower, m i d d l e

a n d u p p e r p a r t s of B a r a k a r F o r m a t i o n of thi s l o c a l i t y .

Lower Barakar sequence

In the l o w e r p a r t s of the B a r a k a r F o r m a t i o n , t h ree

different facies ar e r e c o g n i s e d . These are (i) Large

scale trough crossbedded sandstones, (ii) Large scale

tabular crossbedded sandstones, an d (iii) Low angle

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 138

stratified sandstones. The typical characteristics of

t h e s e a r e as f o l l o w s .

L a r g e s c a l e t r o u g h c r o s s b e d d e d sands t o ne s : As m e n t i o n e d

earlier in Chapter I, South of Belsani, Barakar

sandstones sh ow faulted contacts with the Talchir

diamictites ( F i g . 1.2). At the b a s e of the sequence,

Barakars are r e p r e s e n t e d by y e l l o w i s h , buff coloured

medium to coarse grained sandstones which show well

d e v e l o p e d set s of l a r g e s c a l e c r o s s b e d d i n g . M a n y of the

troughs are b r o a d , shallow and show asymmetric lateral

filling rather than s y m m e t r i c f i l l i n g . The trough depths

v a r i e s f r o m 30 cm to 2 m, a n d the m a x i m u m w i d t h o b s e r v e d

is of 3.5 m. Individual troughs are tracable in

d o w n c u r r e n t d i r e c t i o n for a d i s t a n c e u p t o 8 m. Th e wide

troughs have straight internal strata with curvature

o n l y at the t r o u g h m a r g i n , the s m a l l e r troughs have more

arcuate internal strata. These large scale crossbedded

sandstones are associated with erosional scoured

surfaces. Plate 3.22, photo 2, exhibit largescale

asymmetric trough bedded sandstones with scoured

surfaces. The troughs are ob s e r v e d to be regularly

stacked on top of e a c h o t h e r a n d in general upward

decrease in t r o u g h d e p t h is n o t i c e d w i t h n e a r l y p a r a l l e l

bedded surfaces at the top ( P l a t e 3.23, photo 1). At

places, the i n t e r n a l c r o s s laminations are observed to

 139

be a l m o s t s e m i c i r c u l a r ( L e f t c e n t r a l p a r t of P l a t e 3.23,

p h o t o 1).

Large scale tabular c r o s s b e d d e d sands tones : Large scale

tabular crossbedded sandstones are observed to be

developed on top of l a r g e scale trough crossbedded

sandstones (Plate 1.9, photo 1). These sets ar e

extensive having width upto eight meters, and ar e

persistent in d o w n c u r r e n t d i r e c t i o n for a distance of

m o r e tha n 10 m. Th e p l a n a r t a b u l a r sets o c c u r s i n g l y as

w e l l as in c o s e t s of 2 to 3 sets. T h e y v a r y in t h i c k n e s s

from 40 c m to 1.5 m. In v e r t i c a l section, parallel to

flow, the sets have straight foresets with sharply

angular bottom contacts, and the foreset geometry

remains constant in the d o w n s t r e a m d i r e c t i o n in a n y one

set. Th e inclined foresets becomes distinct by thin

p a r t i n g s of f i n e r s a n d or b e c a u s e of n o r m a l g r a d i n g f r o m

b o t t o m to top of i n d i v i d u a l i n c l i n e d layer. The azimuth

of the foresets of t h e s e large scale tabular beds

exhibit divergence with the b e a r i n g of the d i r e c t i o n of

plunge of the u n d e r l y i n g trough axes of the trough

crossbedded sandstones ( P l a t e 1.9, p h o t o 1). In c a s e of

Chandur l o c a l i t y u n d e r st ud y, the f o r e s e t of t h e s e l a r g e

scale planar t a b u l a r c r o s s b e d d e d sets a r e d i p p i n g by an

amount of 25° in 340° N d i r e c t i o n , and the a x e s of the

underlying trough c r o s s b e d d e d sets is p l u n g i n g by an

a m o u n t of 6° in 30°N d i r e c t i o n .
 140

Low a n g l e s t r a t i f i e d s a n d s t o ne s : Low angle stratified

sandstone sets r a n g e in t h i c k n e s s f r o m 40 cm to 1.8 m,

an d e x h i b i t in all c a s e s d i p s of less th an 10°. T h e sets

ar e c o m m o n l y c o n t i n u o u s a c r o s s the w i d t h of o u t c r o p , bu t

at places truncate each other vertically and laterally

( P l a t e 3.23, p h o t o 2), The set s c h a n g e l a t e r a l l y to m o r e

t r o u g h like s h a p e an d in d i f f e r e n t o c c u r r e n c e the s i n g l e

set resembles a very shallow trough crossbed. The

individual l a y e r s ar e w e l l d e f i n e d by a l t e r n a t i n g c o a r s e

grain a n d f i n e g r a i n size. Th e t h i c k n e s s of the layer

v a r i e s f r o m 0.5 c m to 4 cm.

Middle Barakar sequence

In the m i d d l e p a r t of the B a r a k a r Formation four

different facies are r e c o g n i s e d . These are (i) Large

scale crossbedded sandstones, (ii) Horizontal (flat)

bedded sandstones, (iii) R i p p l e laminated sandstones,

and (iv) Carbonaceous shales. The typical

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e s e a r e as f o l l o w s .

Large scale cr os s b e d d e d s a n d s to n e s : Large scale

crossbedded sandstones predominates in the m i d d l e part

of the B a r a k a r sequence. These are represented by rather

thick beds composed of one, a few or very many

s e d i m e n t a t i o n un i t s . In P l a t e 3.24, photo 1, a solitery

set of l a r g e s c a l e c r o s s b e d d e d u n i t is see n a n d in P l a t e
 141

3.2A, p h o t o 2, l a r g e n u m b e r of c r o s s b e d d e d sets stacked

over one another are seen. Th e thickness of the

individual set varies f r o m 20 cm to over 1 m. The

crossbeds in c o s e t s ar e i n c l i n e d in m o r e or less the

same d i r e c t i o n a n d ar e s e e n to be d i s c o r d a n t l y related

to the b o u n d i n g s u r f a c e s of se ts ( P l a t e 3.24, photo 2).

Th e i n d i v i d u a l set is u n d e r l a i n by an e s s e n t i a l l y p l a n a r

erosional s u r f a c e ( P l a t e 3.25, photo 1). T h e thickness

of the i n d i v i d u a l f o r e s e t be d v a r i e s from less than

centimeter to 6 cm. Th e f o r e s e t s a r e of c o m p o s i t e n a t u r e

an d within foresets crude gradation in g r a i n si ze is

seen ( P l a t e 3.25, photo 2). In m o s t ca s e s , the l o w e r an d

upper binding s u r f a c e s of the individual crossbedded

sets a r e o b s e r v e d to b e m o r e or less p a r a l l e l a n d hence

these can be d e s c r i b e d as large scale tabular cross

bedding. Laterally t a b u l a r c r o s s b e d d e d se ts a r e t r a c a b l e

on the outcrop f r o m a fe w m e t e r s to m o r e than 10 m

( P l a t e 3.26, photo 1). At p l a c e s , the f o r e s e t s of these

large scale t a b u l a r c r o s s b e d d i n g a r e se en to be thrown

into c o n v o l u t e b e d d i n g ( P l a t e 3.26, p h o t o 2). T h e s e are

observed to be p a s s i n g l a t e r a l l y as w e l l as vertically

in to current ripple laminations ( P l a t e 3.27, photo 1).

These l a r g e s c a l e c r o s s b e d d e d s a n d s t o n e s a r e of medium

to coarse s a n d size, rarely gr an ule size material is

also observed ( P l a t e 3.25, p h o t o 2). Frequently these

 142

sandstones contain elongated clay galls (Plate 1.7,

pho to 2 ) .

Horizontal (flat ) b e d d e d s a n d s tone : Coarse grained

s a n d s t o n e s w i t h f l a t p a r a l l e l b e d d i n g c o m m o n l y o c c u r s as

discontinuous lenticular units, b u t at p l a c e s t h e s e can

be laterally t r a c e d u p t o 3 m. The horizontal bedded

s a n d s t o n e s v a r y in t h i c k n e s s f r o m 15 c m to 80 c m a n d the

individual bed is on an a v e r a g e 2 cm thick. These

horizontally bedded sandstones are always observed to

be closely associated with large scale crossbedded

sandstones. These may occur between, above or below

la r g e scale crossbedded cosets. Plate 3.27, photo 2

exhibit fl at b e d d e d c o a r s e g r a i n e d s a n d s t o n e in between

large s c a l e c r o s s b e d d e d sets. In P l a t e 3.28, photo 1,

horizontal (flat) bedded sandstone is see n below the

large scale c r o s s b e d d e d sandstone.

Ripple laminated s a n ds t o ne s :R i p p l e laminated

sandstones occur as thi n b e d s on top of l a rge sc a l e

crossbedded sandstones ( P l a t e 3.26, photo 2 and Plate

3.27, photo 1). These are invariably fi ne grained

sandstones an d practically never medium grained or

coarser. T he sets of c r o s s laminae climb at shallow

angles relative to the g e n e r a l i s e d bedding and are

generally related erosively to each ot h e r . These

resemble the r i p p l e d r i f t l a m i n a t i o n of W a l k e r (1963).

 143

Some of the b o u n d i n g s u r f a c e s b e t w e e n successive sets

are probably n o n e r o s i o n a l as the f o r e s e t s of one set

extend d o w n w a r d int o the a d j o i n i n g set. The individual

cross l a m i n a t e d set v a r i e s in t h i c k n e s s f r o m 2 c m to 6

c m a n d g e n e r a l l y l a r g e n u m b e r of sets ar e o b s e r v e d to be

stacked on one a n o t h e r ( P l a t e 3.28, photo 2). Bedding

surfaces w i t h i n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of this f a c i e s commonly

displays small scale ripples. These ripples are

g e n e r a l l y s t r a i g h t or s i n o u s c r e s t e d , sometimes linguoid

ripples are also noticed. Plate 3.29, photo 1

represents small scale asymmetrical sinous crested

ripple m a r k s o b s e r v e d on the b e d d i n g p l a n e surface of

these ripple laminated sandstones.

Carbonaceous shales : Carbonaceous shales commonly occur

on top of r i p p l e l a m i n a t e d s a n d s t o n e s , at p l a c e s t he s e

ar e also observed to be o v e r l y i n g directly on lar ge

scale crossbedded sandstone. These are frequently

interbedded with carbonaceous siltstones which often

contains a p p r e c i a b l e a m o u n t of mi ca. The thickness of

carbonaceous shale varies from 50 cm to 3 m, the

interbedded micaceous s i l t s t o n e s a r e on an a v e r a g e 30 cm

to 40 c m thick. These shales are associated with coal

b e ds . Coal beds are ob s e r v e d above as well as in

between carbonaceous shales, rarely coal beds rest

directly on crossbedded sandstones. Many a times,

carbonaceous shale or s a n d s t o n e p a r t i n g s are noticed

 144

within the c o a l beds. In g e n e r a l , the t h i c k n e s s of coal

b e d s v a r y f r o m 2 m to 5 m, r a r e l y coal b e d of m o r e tha n

10 m thickness is n o t i c e d . Coal is black coloured

massive and exhibits vitreous lust re. Carbonaceous

shales and siltstones commonly exhibit horizontal

parallel lamination and small scale cross lamination.

The parallel lamination is marked by alternate

carbonaceous rich and c a r b o n ace ou s po or quartz rich

laminae. On an a v e r a g e , w i thin one c e n t i m e t e r 4 to 6

laminae are present. The cross l a m i n a t e d sets v a r i e s in

thickness from 2 cm to 5 cm. The foreset be ds are

commonly c o n c a v e in n a t u r e , showing tangential contact

w i t h lower b i n d i n g surface and m ore angular contact with

upper binding surface. Commonly carbonaceous material is

observed to be d e p o s i t e d a l o n g the f o r e s e t l a m i n a e . Th e

foreset l a m i n a e a r e v e r y thin, w i t h i n on e c e n t i m e t e r 8

to 12 foresets are present. Plate 3.29, photo 2

represents polished h a n d s p e c i m e n of the carbonaceous

siltstone, which in the lower part exhibit cross

lamination a n d in the u p p e r p a r t p a r a l l e l laminations,

the scale in the p h o t o r e p r e s e n t s 2 cm. Within th ese

carbonaceous shales and siltstones frequently convolute

l a m i n a t i o n is n o t i c e d ( P l a t e 3.30, photo 1).

 145

Upper Barakar sequence

T h e fo ur l i t h o f a c i e s r e c o g n i s e d in the m i d d l e pa rt

of the B a r a k a r F o r m a t i o n a r e a l s o o b s e r v e d in the upper

p a r t of the B a r a k a r F o r m a t i o n , e x c e p t in the u p p e r part

instead of c a r b o n a c e o u s sh ale, ferruginous shales are

present. These ferruginous s h a l e s ar e of comparatively

greater thickness than c a r b o n a c e o u s s h a l e s and these

also o c c u r m o r e f r e q u e n t l y in the s e q u e n c e s . At places

in the sandstones iron c o n c r e t i o n s ar e also noticed

(Plate 1.8, p h o t o 2). In the l o w e r p a r t of P l a t e 3.30,

photo 2 ferruginous s h a l e is seen, it is overlain by

coarse grained sandstones. The sandstone exhibit sharp

e r o s i o n a l c o n t a c t w i t h the u n d e r l y i n g f e r r u g i n o u s shale

an d c o n t a i n s c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e c o n c r e t i o n s .

From the a b o v e d e s c r i b e d lower, m i d d l e an d upper

parts of the B a r a k a r F o r m a t i o n , in al l 93 crossbedded

an d c r o s s l a m i n a t e d se ts f o r e s e t a z i m u t h s w e r e r e c o r d e d ,

th es e also i n c l u d e the d i r e c t i o n of p l u n g e of trough

crossbedded sets. These readings were correted for

tectonic tilt, g r o u p e d i n t o 10° a z i m u t h c l a s s interval,

paleocurrent r o s e t t e p r e p a r e d a n d a z i m u t h of resultant

vector (vector mean) wa s d e t e r m i n e d . F i g . 3.2 8 r e p r e s e n t s

the prepared paleocurrent rosette, which exhibits

bimodal p a l e o c u r r e n t p a t t e r n w i t h m o d e s at 90° to each

ot h e r . T h e d o m i n a n t m o d e of 1 8 . 2 8 % is in the 360° N to

10° N a z i m u t h c l a s s a n d the s u b o r d i n a t e m o d e of 5 . 3 8 % is
 N

n = 93

0 5
L. -j
•/.

F IG -3 -2 8 : PALEOCURRENT R OSE T T E DI AGRAM ( c r o s s beddi ng)

OF BARAKAR FORMATION.
 146

in the 280° N to 290° N a z i m u t h c la ss . The calculated

a z i m u t h of the r e s u l t a n t v e c t o r is N 13° E.

F r o m this W a r d h a r i v e r B a r a k a r s e c t i o n e x p o s e d w e s t

of C h a n d u r 23 r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a m p l e s w e r e c o l l e c t e d . Out

of t h es e 23 s a m p l e s , f o u r s a m p l e s n a m e l y Cll, C12, C13,

an d C14 represent the s a n d s t o n e s a m p l e s of the lo wer

Barakar sequence, six s a m p l e s n a m e l y Cml, Cm2, Cm3, Cm4,

Cm5 a n d Cm6 r e p r e s e n t the m i d d l e B a r a k a r seuence and 13

samples namely Cul, Cu2, Cu3, C u 4 , Cu5, C u 6 , Cu7, Cu8,

Cu9, CulO, Cull, C u l 2 a n d C u l 3 ar e of upper Barakar

sequence. Ou t of the six s a m p l e s of Middle Barakar

sequence sample Cm3, Cm4 and Cm5 represent the

carbonaceous shales / siltstones associated with c oa l

while the r e m a i n i n g t h r e e a r e of s a n d s t o n e s . Out of the

13 samples from u pper Barakar sequence, two samples

namely Cu5 an d C u l 3 r e p r e s e n t the f e r r u g i n o u s shales /

siltstone and the remaining 11 samples ar e of

sandstones. F r o m the R a j u r u n d e r g r o u n d c o a l mine five

samples namely R1, R 2 , R3, R4 and R5 were also

collected, of which the t h r e e s a m p l e s R2, R4 and R5

represents the c a r b o n a c e o u s s h a l e an d the r e m a i n i n g two

s a m p l e s a r e of s a n d s t o n e s .
 147

L a b o r a tory s t u d i e s

For understanding the n a t u r e of c y c l i c i t y of the

Barakar sediments, the t r a n s i t i o n d a t a of individual

states collected during the f i e l d w o r k was a n a l y s e d by

Markov chain analysis f o l l o w i n g the p r o c e d u r e g i v e n by

Miall ( 1 9 73 ). Th e c o l l e c t e d s a m p l e s r e p r e s e n t i n g Wardha

river s e c t i o n w e s t of C h a n d u r an d R a j u r c o a l m i n e were

subjected to thin section-, heavy mineral-, XRD-,

granulometric-, shape-, an d S E M s t u d i e s .

Markov chain analysis

Markov chain analysis is a comparatively simple

statistical t e c h n i q u e for the d e t e c t i o n of repetitive

process in s p a c e an d time. Coal me a s u r e cyclothems or

f l u v i a l f i n i n g u p w a r d c y c l e s are the v e r y g o o d examples

of s e d i m e n t a r y s u c c e s s i o n laid down under the c o n t r o l of

Markovian process (Miall, 1973). A M a r k o v p r o c e s s c a n be

defined as the on e in w h i c h the p r o b a b i l i t y of process

b e i n g in a g i v e n s t a t e at p a r t i c u l a r time m a y be d e d u c e d

from the k n o w l e d g e of immediately preceeding states

(Harbaugh a n d B o n h a m - C a r t e r , 19 70). In o t h e r words, a

Markov c h a i n is a p r o c e s s in w h i c h the probability of

t r a n s i t i o n f r o m on e d i s c r e t e s t a t e to a n o t h e r d e p e n d s on

on e or more previous states. There are two typ es of

chains :
 148

i) First order chain : If the n e x t s t a t e in the

chain depends o n l y u p o n one previous state

t he n it is c a l l e d as F i r s t o r d e r ch a i n ,

ii) Higher order chain : If the n e x t sat e in the

chain depends on more than one previous

st a t e s , th en it is c a l l e d as Higher order

chain.

M e t h o d of s t u d y : In the p r e s e n t st udy, the F i r s t order

Markov chain method (Miall, 1973) is used which

corresponds to the " e m b e d d e d " M a r k o v c h a i n method of

Krumbein and Dacey ( 1 9 69 ). For this m e t h o d , the s t a r t i n g

p o i n t is g e n e r a t i o n of transition count matrix, w h i c h is

c o n s t r u c t e d by m e a s u r i n g the t r a n s i t i o n s f r o m on e state

to another immediately succeeding the first state

regardless of its t h i c k n e s s .F o r the Markov chain

analysis, sequences representing the c o a l b e a r i n g m i d d l e

p a r t of the B a r a k a r F o r m a t i o n w e r e o n l y c o n s i d e r e d . The

different lithofacies i d e n t i f i e d in t h ese m i d d l e B a r a k a r

sequences are d e s c r i b e d in the field studies, th ese

lithofacies are d e s i g n a t e d as s t a t e s in Markov chain

analysis. The five d i f ferent states recognised are :

A) Horizontal (f l a t ) b e d d e d s a n d s t o n e s ,

B) Large scale crossbedded sandstones,

C) Ripple laminated sandstones,

D) Carbonaceous sha le s,

E) Coal.
 149

The t r a n s i t i o n s of a b o v e m e n t i o n e d s t a t e s f r o m one

to a n o t h e r w e r e r e c o r d e d f r o m s u r f a c e o u t c r o p s a n d mine

sections around Chandur, Belura and Rajur an d the

t r a n s i t i o n c o u n t m a t r i x is c o n s t r u c t e d . A tot al of s i x t y

five transitions were recorded. From the transition

count matrix two p r o b a b i l i t y m a t r i c e s n a m e l y i n d e p e n d e n t

trials probability m a t r i x an d transition probability

m a t r i x ar e d e r i v e d as

rij = sj /t

where, sj = sum of fij for j t h c o l u m n of t r a n s i t i o n

count matrix,

n
t = t o ta l n u m b e r of b e d s = fij
ij
n = r a n k of m a t r i x .

This matrix represents the p r o b a b i l i t y of the given

state occuring randomly. For the e m b e d d e d c h a i n m e t h o d i

= j t r a n s i t i o n s a r e n o t p e r m i t t e d so the f o r m u l a b e c o m e s

rij = sj / (t - si)

The second matrix contains the e l e m e n t of actual

t r a n s i t i o n s o c c u r i n g a n d c a n be d e r i v e d as

pij = fij / sj
 150

w h e r e fij = e l e m e n t s of transition count matrix,

si = sum of i t h row.

From these two m a t r i c e s , a difference matrix is

c a l c u l a t e d as

dij = pij - rij

The positive values in d i f f e r e n c e m a t r i x s e r v e s to

emphasize the p r e s e n c e of M a r k o v p r o p e r t y by indicating

which transitions have occurred w i t h g r e a t e r th an r a n d o m

frequency. Th e d i f f e r e n c e s in p matrix and r matrix may

be d u e to r a n d o m n e s s of d a t a , so a test of significance

was applied to t h e s e r e s u l t s . F o r this purpose, Chi-

square t e s t s g i v e n by B i l l i n g s l e y (1961) an d Gingerich

(19 6 9 ) is use d . Th e f o r m u l a for w h i c h is

2 n 2
X =21! (fij - si rij) / si - r i j (1)
ij

T h e n u m b e r of d e g r e e s of f r e e d o m is g i v e n by n

2 n . A c c o r d i n g to M i a l l (1 97 3) this e q u a t i o n ca n be used

where each value of fij exceeds 5. Therefore, an

alternative test g i v e n by A n d e r s o n an d Goodman (1957)

and Harbaugh and Bonh a m - C a r t e r (1 970) was used. The

f o r m u l a for this test is

2 n
X = 2 XI fij.log (pij / [sj / fij] ) (2)
ij
 151

Th e n u m b e r of d e g r e s s of f r e e d o m is g i v e n by (n
2-
1) - n.

Th e a n a l y s i s wa s c a r r i e d o u t by u s i n g a FORTRAN-IV

p r o g r a m c o m p a t i b l e on I B M - P C , d e v e l o p e d by the a u t h o r .

Results : The i n t i a l transition count matrix an d the

obtained independent trials p r o b a b i l i t y matrix (rij),

transitoin probability matrix (Pij) a n d the difference

matrix (dij) a r e g i v e n in T a b l e 3.15, 3.16, 3.17 an d

3.18 respectively.

The o b t a i n e d v a l u e s of pij m a t r i x a n d rij matrix

sums to u n i t y a l o n g e a c h r o w an d h e n c e r e f l e c t s p r e s e n c e

of Markovian dependency relationship, but these values

themselves cannot prove the presence of Markovian

process t h e r e f o r e the o b t a i n e d d i f f e r e n c e m a t r i x (dij)

was s c a n n e d for p o s i t i v e v a l u e s . P r e s e n c e of positive

values in the d i f f e r e n c e m a t r i x s u g g e s t s presence of

Markov property by i n d i c a t i n g w h i c h transitions have

occured with greater th an random frequency. The

obtained d i f f e r e n c e m a t r i x w a s s c a n n e d r o w by row for

positive values and with the h e l p of the se v a l u e s a tree

d i a g r a m is c o n s t r u c t e d ( F i g . 3. 29) .

F r o m the c o n s t r u c t e d t re e d i a g r a m f o l l o w i n g cycles

ar e d e t e c t e d .
 152

Table 3.15. Transition count matrix (fij).

A B C D E

A 0 8 1 0 0

B 10 0 9 3 0

C 0 4 0 9 0

D 0 6 2 0 6

E 0 1 2 4 0

Table 3.16. Independent trials probability matrix (rij)

A B C D E

A 0.000 0.339 0.250 0.236 0.107

B 0.233 0.000 0.326 0.372 0.140

C 0.192 0.365 0.000 0.308 0.115

D 0.196 9.373 0.275 0.000 0.118

E 0.172 0.328 0.241 0.276 0.000

 153

Table 3.17. Transition probability matrix (pij).

A B C D E

A 0.000 0.889 0.111 0.000 0.000

B 0.455 0.000 0.409 0.136 0.000

C 0.000 0.308 0.000 0.692 0.000

D 0.000 0.429 0.143 0.000 0.429

E 0.000 0.143 0.286 0.571 0.000

Table 3.18. Difference matrix (dij).

A B C D E

A 0.000 0.550 - 0.139 - 0.286 - 0.107

B 0.222 0.000 0.084 - 0.236 - 0.140

C - 0.192 - 0.058 0.000 0.385 - 0.115

D - 0.196 0.056 - 0.132 0.000 0.311

E - 0.172 0.185 0.044 0.296 0.000

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 154

i) A -- B - C - D - E : C o m p l e t e cy c l e .

ii) A -- B - A

iii) A -- B - C - D - B - A : Truncated cycles

iv) C -■ D - E - C

The o b t a i n e d r e s u l t s of the C h i - s q u a r e t e st s are

'iven b e l o w :

Equation X d.f Limiting value

1 53.5605 15.00 24.996

2 213.9536 9.00 15 . 5 0 7

L i m i t i n g v a l u e s a r e at 95 % c o n f i d e n c e level.

3—
The obtained X v a l u e s at correct degrees of

freedom exceeds the l i m i t i n g v a l u e thereby indicating

presence of Markov propertyand cyclic nature of the

B a r a k a r F o r m a t i o n r o c k s u n d e r st ud y.

Thin section studies

T h e m o d a l a n a l y s i s of s e l e c t e d 23 th in s e c t i o n s w a s

carried ou t and the obtained volume percentage

composition of the d i f f e r e n t c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e g i v e n in

T a b l e 3.19. Out of the s e l e c t e d 23 th in s e c t i o n , 19 thin

sections represents Chandurlocality and four thin

sections ar e of the s a m p l e s c o l l e c t e d f r o m Rajur co al

mine .
 Table 3.19. Volume percent£ige composition of Barakar Fonnation.

Sample Matrix Cement Quartz Felspars Mica Un- Clay Accesso-

No. stable pellets ries
Monocrystalline Poly- Total K-fel- Plagio- Total rock
--------------- crysta- spars clase frag­
Non- Undu- Total lline ments
undu- lose
lose

R4 2A.72 8.28* 38.63 2.18 40.81 7.22 48.03 14.60 0.92 15.52 1.26 2.18

R3 19.60 30.00 1.83 31.83 1.11 32.94 4.35 0.60 4.95 30.81 11.67

R2 15.88 38.00 0.99 38.99 1.66 40.65 8.24 1.83 10.07 27.13 6.27

R1 17.18 40.43 1.45 41.88 2.16 44.04 7.02 1.26 8.26 24.24 5.87 0.38

O j13 30.40 39.98 0.95 40.93 5.55 46.48 16.23 3.33 19.56 - • 3.17

Cul2 8.98 16.95* 37.02 2.63 39.65 10.26 49.91 9.49 0.56 10.05 9.02 5.05

CulO 52.79*^ 36.90 36.90 0.64 37.54 3.48 0.44 4.02 5.28 0.24 0.12
Cu8 51.16 32.43 32.43 1.15 33.58 4.94 1.50 6.44 0.16 9.06

Cu6 24.62 12.57’V* 35.54 1.05 36.59 7.16 43.75 12.66 3.04 15.70 3.35

Cu4 9.02 30.55* 40.42 0.83 41.35 6.83 48.08 4.69 0.42 5.11 0.55 6.66
Cu3 32.68 15.12^v,v 32.44 1.22 33.66 13.05 46.70 4.63 0.12 4.75 0.73 0.80

Cu2 42.05 34.23 0.59 34.82 1.75 36.57 5.48 5.48 7.34 8.56

Cul 31.32 50.20 0.66 50.86 7.66 58.52 0.73 0.73 0.44 9.00

Cm6 12.36 30.33^- 31.86 2.20 34.06 5.35 39.41 11.58 1.62 13.20 3.73 1.00
Cm5 46.68 17.98 17.98 17.98 5.93 5.83 7.46 22.01
CmA 19.86 41.39 4.20 45.59 0.60 46.19 4.62 0.12 4.74 9.54 1.68 17.99

Qn3 45.28 33.13 33.13 0.72 33.85 16.27 0.43 16.70 4.17

Cm2 41.98 35.08 0.97 36.05 14.75 50.80 4.91 0.48 5.39 0.85 0.97

Qnl 32.60 44.03 0.90 44.93 14.58 59.51 5.16 5.16 2.44 0.27

C14 19.19 31.12 1.92 33.04 2.58 35.62 11.51 2.56 14.07 18.32 12.79

C13 32.00>v 34.91 1.61 36.52 8.27 44.79 18.00 2.60 20.60 0.87 1.74

C12 32.45* 34.45 2.10 36.55 15.69 52.24 12.97 2.34 15.31

Cll 45.99^- 29.54 2.51 32.05 3.57 35.62 16.55 1.06 17.61 0.78

Average 22.85 12.04 35.64 1.34 36.98 5.75 42.73 8.87 1.10 9.97 6.72 0.16 5.42 0.13

* : Calcareous cement. vrf: ; Ferruginous cement.

 156

In g e n e r a l , matrix is p r e s e n t in a p p r e c i a b l e a m o u n t

(av 2 2 . 8 5 % ) a l o n g w i t h s u b o r d i n a t e a m o u n t of c e m e n t (av

12.04%). The framework constituents p r e s e n t ar e quartz

(av 42.73%), felspar (av 9.97%), mica (av 6.72%),

unstable rock fragments (av 0 . 1 6 % ) , clay pellets (av

5.42%) and accessories (av 0 . 1 3 % ) . Amongst the f r a m e w o r k

constituents clay p e l l e t s a n d m i c a ar e grouped along

with unstable rock fragments for classifying the se

sandstones. The plots of t h es e samples on O k a d a 's

(1971) classification t r i a n g l e s ar e g i v e n in F i g . 3.30.

Out of 23 t h i n s e c t i o n s , 8 are lithic wacke (C14, Cm4,

Cm5, Cu2, Cu8, R 1 , R2 a n d R3), six are in the f i e l d of

felspathic wacke (Cll, C13, Cm3, C u 6 , C u l 3 an d R4), six

in the f i e l d of q u a r t z o s e w a c k e (C12, Cml, Cm2, Cul, Cu4

and CulO) a n d on e e a c h is in the f i e l d of l i t h i c a r e n i t e

(C ul 2) , felspathic arenite (Cm6) an d q u a r t z o s e arenite

(Cu4). In general the sandstones and siltstones

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c o a l be d c o n t a i n s a p p r e c i a b l e a m o u n t of

mica and clay pellets; a n d h e n c e are in the field of

lithic wacke while the remaining sandstones and

s i l t s t o n e s a r e e i t h e r f e l s p a t h i c or q u a r t z o s e wa cke.

In general matrix is r e p r e s e n t e d by carbonaceous

clay and fine grained quartz. As the m a t r i x is present

in a p p r e c i a b l e a m o u n t , the f r a m e w o r k g r a i n s ar e o b s e r v e d

to be f l o a t i n g in the m a t r i x a n d h e n c e exhibit wacke

 QUARTZ

FELSPAR ROCK FRAGMENT

QUARTZ

W1 : QUARTZ WACKE W2 0UARTZO5E WACKE

W3 • PEL SPATHIC WACKE \N U LITHC WACKE
A1 ; QUARTZ ARENITE A2 QUARTZOSE ARENITE
A3 = FELSPATHIC ARENITE AA;LITHIC ARENITE
F I G - 3-30 •- T R I A N GU L A R DIAGRAM S H O W I N G COMPOSITION
OF ROCKS BELONGING TO B A R A K A R FORMATION
( a fte r Okada,197] )
 157

framework ( P l a t e 3.31, photo 1). In s o m e thin sections

(Cll, C12), c^areous c e m e n t is p r e s e n t in appreciable

amount while in thin s e c t i o n s r e p r e s e n t i n g the upper

p a r t s of B a r a k a r s e q u e n c e ( C u 3 , C u 6 a n d Cul O) ferruginous

cement is present in large amount, in such cases

framework grains ar e floating in calcareous cement

(Plate 3.31, p h o t o 2) or in f e r r u g i n o u s cement (Plate

3.32, photo 1). In c a s e of s a m p l e s exhibiting arenite

texture (Cm6, Cu4, an d C u l 2 ) po i n t , long and tangential

contacts of the framework grains are noticed. In

gener*al, framework grains show appreciable variation in

g r a i n s i z e f r o m silt to m e d i u m s a n d a nd h e n c e are poorly-

sorted ( P l a t e 3.32, p h o t o 2). In c a s e of s i l t s t o n e thin

sections carbonaceous clay rich and quartz rich bands

are noticed ( P l a t e 3.33, photo 1).

In th in s e c t i o n s of t h e s e ro cks , q u a r t z is the m o s t

dominant mineral. It v a r i e s f r o m 1 7 , 9 8 % to 59.517o an d

averages to 4 2 . 7 3 % . Within quartz, both monocrystalline

and polycrystalline quartz varieties are present.

Monocrystalline quartz varies f r o m 1 7 . 9 8 % to 5 0 . 8 6 % and

averages to 3 6 . 9 8 % . It d o m i n a t e s o ve r polycrystalline

quartz which varies f r o m 0 . 6 0 % to 1 5 . 6 9 % w i t h an a v e r a g e

of 5.75%. Within monocrystalline quartz nonundulatory

quartz well dominates over the undulatory quartz.

Nonundulatory quartz varies f r o m 1 7 . 9 8 % to 44.03% an d

averages to 3 4 . 6 4 % , while the u n d u l a t o r y q u a r t z varies

 158

from 0 . 5 9 % to 4 . 2 0 % a n d a v e r a g e s to 1.34%. Commonly in

q u a r t z g r a i n s c r a c k s a r e o b s e r v e d w h i c h ar e f i l l e d u p by

d u s t or clay . I n c l u s i o n s of mic a , clay, i ro n o x i d e are

commonly o b s e r v e d in these quartz grains. P l a t e 3.33,

photo 2 e xhibit coarse sand sized quartz grains which

contain inclusions of m i c a an d iron ox id e. At places

along the c r a c k s f e r r u g i n o u s c e m e n t is o b s e r v e d (Plate

3.32, photo 1). S o m e of the q u a r t z g r a i n s h a v e corroded

borders, b e c a u s e of e a t i n g of q u a r t z g r a i n s by calcium

carbonate cement (Plate 3.31, photo 2). Different

varieties of polycrystalline quartz present ar e fine

grained chert, f r a g m e n t c o n s i s t i n g of l a r g e number of

quartz grains of varying sizes , quartzite fragment

showing ribboned structure an d brecciated quartzite

fragment. P l a t e 3.34, photo 1 exhibits polycrystalline

quartz fragments which c o n s i s t s of large number of

quartz grains of v a r y i n g sizes. P l a t e 3.34, photo 2

exhibits quartzite fragment consisting of elongated

bladed quartz showing ribbon structure. The grains have

sutured c o n t a c t s w i t h e a c h oth er . P l a t e 3.35, photo 1

exhibits brecc i a t e d quartzite fragment.

Felspars v a r i e s f r o m 0 . 7 3 % to 2 0 . 6 0 % a n d averages

to 9. 9 7 % . Within the f e l s p a r s , both K-felspars and

plagioclases ar e p r e s e n t . K-felspars varies from 0.73%

to 18.00% and averages to 8 .8 7% . Plagioclases varies

 159

from 0.12% to 2.60% and averages to 1.10%. W i t h i n K-

f e l s p a r s m i c r o c l i n e d o m i n a t e s o v e r the o r t h o c l a s e . Most

of the f e l s p a r s are s u b r o u n d e d a n d h a v e c o r r o d e d b o r d e r s

due to eating by c a l c i u m carbonate cement. Calcium

carbonate is also observed along the cracks and

cleavages of the f e l s p a r g r a i n s . P l a t e 3.35, photo 2

exhibits coarse sa nd s i z e d microcline grain showing

typical cross hatch twinning. In this photo corroded

borders due to e a t i n g by c a l c i u m carbonate is seen.

Calcium carbonate is a l s o o b s e r v e d a l o n g the cleavages

an d cracks in the gr a i n . P l a t e 3.36, photo 1 exhibits

coarse sand sized subrounded plagioclase and orthoclase

f l o a t i n g in f e r r u g i n o u s c e m e n t . P r e s e n c e of ferruginous

cement a l o n g the c r a c k s of o r t h o c l a s e is a l s o seen in

this ph o t o .

Mica varies f r o m 0 . 1 6 % to 3 0 . 8 1 % a n d averages to

6. 72%. Mica is present in two varieties namely'

colourless m u s covite and brow n i s h biotite. Biotite is

observed to be w e l l d o m i n a t i n g o v e r the m u s c o v i t e . Mica

occurs as flakes of varying si zes an d show well

developed one set of c l e a v a g e . T h e y o c c u r as a single

f l a k e as w e l l as they a r e o b s e r v e d to be d e p o s i t e d a l o n g

the l a m i n a t i o n . P l a t e 3.36, photo 2 exhibits a muscovite

flake wi t h typical Ilnd order interference colours. In

this ph o t o , the f l a k e is o b s e r v e d to be bended around

the microcline gr ai n. In s o m e of the fin e grained

 160

sandstones and siltstones the m i c a f l a k e s s h o w p r e f e r r e d

orientation and ar e c o n c e n t r a t e d in the l a m i n a e . Plate

3.37, photo 1 exhibit colourless muscovite and pale

brownish biotite flakes showing concentration and

preferred orientation. T h e s e m i c a f l a k e s a re associated

with carbonaceous streaks, w h i c h are a l s o s e e n in this

pho t o .

U n s t a b l e r o c k f r a g m e n t s v a r i e s f r o m 0 . 2 4 % to 1.68%

an d averages to 0. 16%. Unstable rock fragments are

r e p r e s e n t e d by l i m e s t o n e , s i l t s t o n e an d g r a n i t e s . Plate

3.37, photo 2 exhibits limestone fragments. In upper

left and lower right part fine grained micritic

limestone a n d in c e n t r a l p a r t of this p h o t o lime flake

conglomerate fragments are seen. P l a t e 3.38, photo 1

exhibits a granitic rock fragment s h o w i n g i n t e r g r o w t h of

quartz and felspar.

Clay pellets varies from 0.97% to 22.01% and

averages to 5.42%. The clay pellets ar e dominantly

constituted by fin e grained carbonaceous an d pale

brownish clay. These commonly exhibit ovoidal outline.

Plate 3.38, photo 2 exhibits carbonaceous clay pellets

f l o a t i n g in c a l c a r e o u s c e m e n t .

Accessories present varies f r o m 0 . 3 8 % to 1 . 7 4 % an d

averages to 0.13%. Th e commonly observed accessory

 161

minerals are g a r n e t , z i r con, tourmaline in that o r d e r of

descending abundance. Plate 3.38, photo 2 exhibits

colourless subangular to subrounded garnets

concentrations.

Al l the a b o v e d e s c r i b e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the thin

sections of Barakar Formation suggest that t h es e

sediments are t e x t u r a l l y as well as mineralogically

immature. The presence of appreciable amount of

felspars is s u g g e s t i v e of t h e i r n e a r s o u r c e deposition

derived f r o m g r a n i t i c a r e a s of h i g h relief undergoing

rapid erosion. Th e d o m i n a n c e of altered felspars /

r e p l a c e d f e l s p a r s are s u g g e s t i v e of w a r m c l i m a t e during

the d e p o s i t i o n of the s e d i m e n t s (Pettijohn, 1984). The

presence of p o l y c r y s t a l l i n e q u a r t z c o n s i s t i n g of l a rg e

number of different siz e grains is suggestive of

gneissic provenance. F o l l o w i n g B o r r a d a i l e e ^ a l . (1982),

the observed polycrystalline grain consisting of

elongated flattened quartz grains showing ribbon

structure is inferred to be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of highly

deformed higher temperature z o nes close to the

o r t h o g n e i s s core. T h e p r e s e n c e of a p p r e c i a b l e a m o u n t of

mica alongwith unstable rock fragments such as

limestone, siltstone and granites suggest the

mineralogical i m m a t u r i t y of t h e s e roc ks. According to

Pettijohn (19 84), the d e t r i t a l m i c a s a r e derived from

mica b ea r i n g granites and gneisses and e s pe ci al ly from

 162

mica schists an d are particularly abundant in

phyllarenites. Therefore, the p r e s e n c e of l i t h i c wacke

and lithic arenite containing appreciable amount of

d e t r i t a l m u s c o v i t e and b i o t i t e s u g g e s t th e i r derivation

from Precambrian mica schist, gneiss and granites.

According to Lahee ( 1 9 4 1 ) ^the presence of mica is

considered as on e of criterion of continental or

littoral sedimentation, b e c a u s e a l l u v i u m of l a r g e r i v e r s

and t h ei r d e l t a i c d e p o s i t s are m a i n l y l i t h i c sandstones

of mixed sedimentary and metamorphic provenance. Th e

presence of l i m e s t o n e , s iltstone and granite fragments

suggest e x p o s u r e of P r e c a m b r i a n g r a n i t e s and Penganga

limestones and siltstone in the s o u r c e r e g i o n d u r i n g the

d e p o s i t i o n of t h e s e s e d i m e n t s .

Heavy mineral studies

In al l 18 s a m p l e s of sandstones and siltstones

belonging to B a r a k a r F o r m a t i o n w e r e s e l e c t e d for heavy

mineral studies. O u t of 18 s a m p l e s , 16 samples (Cll,

C12, C13, C14, Cml, Cm2, C m 4 , C m 5 , Cu3, Cu6, Cu7, Cu8,

Cu9, Cull, Cul2 and C ul 3 ) represents Wardha river

section w e s t of C h a n d u r a n d r e m a i n i n g two samples (R1

a n d R4) ar e f r o m R a j u r c o a l min e. The gravity separation

method followed for the h e a v y mineral separation of

Talchir samples, was also followed for the Barakar

 163

s a m p l e s u n d e r s tud y, the d e t a i l s of the m e t h o d followed

for the h e a v y m i n e r a l s e p a r a t i o n are g i v e n on p a g e

Results : The o b t a i n e d f r e q u e n c y percentages of the

transparent heavy mineral s p e c i e s ar e g i v e n in Table

3.20. In a l l e l e v a n transparent heavy mineral species

namely zircon, tourmaline, rutile, garnet, epidote,

staurolite, monazite, sillimanite, s p he ne, zoisite an d

kyanite are recorded. Zircon varies from 0.35% to

75.38% and averages to 2 7 . 4 5% . Tourmaline varies from

0 . 1 4 % to 7 . 2 1 % a n d a v e r a g e s to 2.17%. Rutile varies from

0.42% to 1 1 . 3 7 % a n d a v e r a g e s to 3.89%. Garnet varies

from 1.35% to 9 9 . 1 2 % a n d a v e r a g e s to 47.16%. Epidote

varies from 0.88% to 2 9 . 5 6 % an d averages to 5.53%.

Staurolite v a r i e s f r o m 0 . 4 4 % to 1 2 . 8 1 % a n d a v e r a g e s to

4 .60 %. Monazite, sillimanite, sphene, zoisite, an d

kyanite ar e no t p r e s e n t in all the 18 s a m p l e s studied,

the average f r e q u e n c y p e r c e n t a g e s of t h es e are 5.43,

0.60 , 2.20, 0.82 and 0.12 respectively. Th e ZT R index

(combined zircon, tourmaline and rutile percentage)

varies f r o m 0 . 5 2 % to 8 0 . 0 0 % a n d a v e r a g e s to 33 .5 2% .

There is no s y s t e m a t i c c h a n g e in the number, as

w e l l as in the a b u n d a n c e of the h e a v y m i n e r a l species in

different lithosections studied. In g e n e r a l , as c o m p a r e d

to the s e q u e n c e s r e p r e s e n t i n g lo w e r (Cll, C12, C1 3 and

C14; an d u p p e r (Cu3, C u 6 , C u 7 , C u 8 , C u 9 , Cull, Cul2 and

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 165

C u l3) parts of the Barakar Formation the combined

zi r c o n , t o u r m a l i n e an d r u t i l e p e r c e n t a g e is m u c h higher

in the s a m p l e s r e p r e s e n t i n g c o a l b e a r i n g m i d d l e p a r t of

Barakar-Formation (Cml, Cm2, Cm4 a n d Cm5).

Except kyanite, a ll o t h e r ten h e a v y m i n e r a l species

recorded in samples of B a r a k a r Formation, ar e also

present in T a l c h i r F o r m a t i o n r o cks and these species

show m o r e or less s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s e x h i b i t e d by

those present in the T a l c h i r F o r m a t i o n i.e. t h re e c o l o u r

varieties namely colourless, p i n k an d y e l l o w of zircons

w i t h d o m i n a n c e of c o l o u r l e s s zirc on , d o m i n a n c e of brown

tourmaline over blue tourmaline, d o m i n a n c e of w i n e red

rutile over yellow rutile, dominance of colourless

garnet over pink garnet, within individual species

dominance of r o u n d e d g r a i n s o v e r s u b h e d r a l an d euhedral

g r a i n s o b s e r v e d in T a l c h i r F o r m a t i o n are a l s o n o t i c e d in

the s a m p l e s of B a r a k a r F o r m a t i o n . K y a n i t e is p r e s e n t in

small amount in only four samples of the Barakar

Formation (C14, Cm3, Cu8 a n d Cull ). It sho w s elongated

bladed form, moderate relief an d well developed

cleavages. It is s u g g e s t e d that like T a l c h i r sediments,

Barakar sediments ar e a l s o derived from Frecambrian

g r a n i t i c a n d m e t a m o r p h i c s o u rc e.

The Barakar samples exhibit comparatively much

higher ZTR index values (av 33.527o) than those of

 166

Talchir samples (av 9 . 1 4 % ) , an d in the B a r a k a r samples

garnet is p r e s e n t in c o m p a r a t i v e l y l e s s e r p r o p o r t i o n (av

47.16%) than t h os e of T a l c h i r samples (av 8 5 . 6 5 % ) which

suggest that as c o m p a r e d to T a l c h i r s e d i m e n t s , Barakar

sediments ar e comparatively mineralogically less

immature.

X -ray diffraction studies

X-ray d i f f r a c t i o n s t u d i e s of s e p a r a t e d c l a y s from

10 representative samples of Barakar Formation wa s

c a r r i e d out. Ou t of the 10 s a m p l e s , five samples (Cll,

C13, Cm2, Cm6 a n d Rl) r e p r e s e n t the m a t r i x of s a n d s t o n e ,

three samples (Cm3, Cm5, an d R4) represents the

carbonaceous shales and s i l t s t o n e s an d two s a m p l e s (Cu5,

a n d Cu l 3 ) a r e of f e r r u g i n o u s sha l es . The details of the

p r o c e d u r e f o l l o w e d a r e g i v e n in C h a p t e r II.

Results : The obtained X-ray diffractograms of the

clays separated f r o m a b o v e m e n t i o n e d s a m p l e s ar e given

in F i g . 3 . 3 1 a n d 3.32. Th e c a l c u l a t e d 'd' s p a c i n g a n d l/l

max ratios of t h e s e s a m p l e s a r e g i v e n in Table 3.21,

3.22, 3.23, 3.24 and 3.25. From th ese figures and

ta b l e s , it is s e e n that the X - r a y d i f f r a c t o g r a m s of the

m a t r i x of s a n d s t o n e s , c a r b o n a c e o u s s h a l e and f e r r u g i n o u s

shales are similar. The X-ray diffraction results of

these samples suggests that Kaolinite is the most

dominant clay mineral present. Th e d o m i n a n t peaks of

F1G-3-31-. X - R A Y DIFFRACTOGRAMS OF CLAYS FROM ROCKS OF
BARAK A R F O R M A T I O N , K-- K A O L I N I T E , M L L I T E
BARAKAR f o r m a t io n . K 'K A O L IN IT E , I : illite
 167

Table 3.21. X-ray diffraction results of clays from

Barakar Formation

Sample No.Cll Sample No.Cl3

Peak 20 d-spa- Il/I max Peak 20 d-spa- Il/I max

No. cing No. cing

1. 12.26 7.22 100.00 1. 12.35 7.19 84.42

2. 19.83 4.48 16.16 2. 19.83 4.48 21.60

3. 20.27 4.38 22.22 3. 20.30 4.37 30.86

4. 21.30 4.17 22.22 4. 21.20 4.19 26.54

5. 23.20 3.83 38.38 5. 23.20 3.83 24.69

6. 24.79 3.60 84.85 6. 23.80 3.74 19.75

7. 26.55 3.36 25.25 7. 24.85 3.59 100.00

8. 27.40 3.25 18.18 8. 26.50 3.36 25.31

9. 31.62 2.83 22.22 9. 35.00 2.56 20.99

10. 37.61 2.39 14.14 10. 35.92 2.50 24.69

11. 38.50 2.34 16.16 11. 37.60 2.39 19.75

12. 39.40 2.29 14.14 12. 38.50 2.34 32.09

13. 45.50 1.99 16.16 13. 39.40 2.29 22.84

14. 45.40 1.99 17.28

15. 51.20 1.78 12.34

16. 55.20 1.66 18.51

17. 56.50 1.63 13.58

18. 60.20 1.54 12.34

19. 62.50 1.49 20.99

 168

Tab Le 3.22. X - r a y d i f f r a c t i o n r e s u l t s of c l a y s from

Barakar Formation

Sample N o . Cm2 Sample No.Cm3

Peak 2&- d-spa- 1/1 max Peak 26.- d-spa- I/I max
No. cing No. cing

1. 8. 85 10. 05 3 . 77 1. 8 . 84 10. 05 4. 17

2. 12.49 7 . 14 100.00 2. 12. 37 7. 19 100.00

3. 19.80 4 . 48 4.27 3. 17. 50 5.07 1.98

4. 20. 30 4 . 37 6.03 4. 19. 50 4.55 2. 98

5. 20.80 4.27 6.03 5. 20. 25 4.39 3.97

6. 21. 30 4.17 5.53 6. 20 . 85 4.27 3. 57

7. 24. 90 3.57- 81.90 7. 21 . 28 4.19 5. 16

8. 26. 50 3.36 18 . 09 8. 23 . 11 3. 85 3.57

9. 31. 50 2. 84 6.03 9. 24.90 3. 57 86.90

10. 34. 90 2. 57 3.52 10. 26.63 3. 35 13.09

11. 36. 00 2.49 4.27 11. 31.73 2. 82 7. 14

12. 37. 50 2.40 10.55 12. 34 . 90 2. 57 2. 98

13. 38.50 2.34 6.53 13. 35.20 2. 55 2. 78

14. 39. 40 2. 29 5.02 14. 35.80 2.50 3. 77

15. 45. 40 1. 99 5.02 15. 37 . 7 5 2 . 39 3. 37

16. 50.20 1.82 3.77 16. 38.20 2. 35 5. 16

17. 51. 00 1. 79 6.03 17. 39.20 2. 29 2. 98

18. • 55.00 1.67 4.27 18. 42.00 2. 15 1.78

19. 59. 75 1. 55 3.27 19. 45.30 2.00 3. 97

20. 62. 40 1. 49 4.02 20. 50. 12 1.82 2.38

21. 50.80 1.80 4.76

22. 54.70 1. 68 3.17

23. 55.20 1.66 3.17

24. 60.10 1.54 2. 38

25. 62.30 1. 49 2. 38
 169

T a b l e 3.23. X - r a y d i f f r a c t i o n r e s u l t s of c l a y s f ro m

Barakar Formation

Sample No.Cm5 Sample No.Cm6

Peak 2&- d-spa- I / l max Peak 2S- d-spa- 1/1 max

No. cing No. cing

1. 11.97 7. 39 100.00 1. 6 . 35 14 . 03 4.80

2. 19. 45 4. 57 12.96 2. 12.34 7.19 95. 20

3. 19. 75 4. 51 16.67 3. 20.00 4 . 44 2. 40

4. 20 . 2 5 4. 39 21. 30 4. 20. 40 4.35 3. 20

5. 20.80 4. 27 14.81 5. 21. 23 4. 19 4 . 80

6. 22. 75 3. 92 14.81 6. 22 . 7 0 3. 92 2 . 40

7. 23.40 3. 80 12.04 7. 24.87 3.59 100.00

8. 24.50 3. 63 77.78 8. 26.62 3.35 4. 80

9. 26.00 3.43 13.89 9. 31. 72 2 . 82 4 . 80

10. 26 . 25 3 . 40 18.52 10 . 37. 70 2 . 39 12.00

11. 27 . 0 5 3 . 30 18.52 11. 38. 34 2.35 2. 40

12. 31. 00 2.88 12.04 12. 39. 30 2 . 29 2. 40

13. 32.00 2. 79 9. 26 13. 45 . 60 1. 99 2.40

14. 33.50 2. 67 11.11 14. 51. 10 1. 79 5. 60

15. 34.60 2.60 12.04

16. 35 . 0 0 2 . 56 12.04

17. 35.50 2. 53 14.81

18. 37.40 2. 40 17. 59

19. 38.00 2. 37 21. 30

20. 38 . 85 2. 32 19.44

21. 40.85 2.21 6. 94

22. 45.00 2.01 32. 87

23. 49.75 1.83 6. 48

24. 62.00 1.50 9. 26

 170

T a b l e 3.2A. X - r a y d i f f r a c t i o n r e s ul ts of c l a y s fr om

B a r a k a r For m a t i o n

Sample No.Cu5 Sample No.Cul3

Peak 28- d-spa- I / I max Peak 2&- d-spa- I/I max

No. cing No. cing

1. 11.00 8.04 26.47 1. 11.58 7. 64 12.21

2. 11. 23 7.90 6. 4 9 2. 12. 38 7. 14 87.78

3. 12. 16 7. 31 100.00 3. 19.89 4.46 14.50

A. 19. 40 4. 57 9. 46 4. 20. 42 4.35 25.19

5. 20. 15 4.41 6.21 5. 20. 92 4.25 19.85

6. 20.50 4.33 15.94 6. 21. 30 4.17 31.30

7. 21.90 4.05 7.57 7. 23. 00 3. 87 17.56

8. 21.80 3.90 10.50 8. 23. 12 3. 85 15. 27

9. 22 . 92 3. 88 12.43 9. 23. 50 3. 78 12.21
10. 23.40 3.80 8. 38 10. 24 . 9 1 3. 57 100. 00
11. 24 . 68 3.62 98. 38 11. 26 . 6 5 3 . 34 45.80
12. 26.42 3. 37 18.12 12 . 27 . 4 4 3 . 25 13.74
13. 28.77 3.11 11.08 13. 29 . 3 5 3 . 04 10.69
14. 31 . 4 9 2.85 21.62 14. 31 . 7 5 2 . 82 18.32
15. 34.65 2.59 9. 46 15. 34.80 2. 58 14.50
16. 35.00 2 . 56 8. 11 16. 35 . 7 5 2. 51 16.79
17. 35.70 2. 51 10.27 17. 37.50 2 . 39 13.74

18. 37.50 2 . 39 14.59 18. 38.38 2 . 34 20 . 6 1

19. 38.29 2 . 35 14.05 19. 38.50 2. 34 24.43

20. 39.07 2.30 11.08 20. 39 . 20 2. 3 0 17. 17

2 1. 41.00 2.20 4. 32 21 . 45.49 1.99 17.55
22. 45.23 2.00 14.86 22. 49.95 1.82 9. 16

23. 50.70 1. 80 6. 47 23. 50 . 9 0 1. 79 9.54

24. 54.50 1. 68 8. 64 24. 55.20 1.66 13. 74

25. 56.00 1.64 6. 48 25. 56 . 75 1.62 9.54

26. 59.50 1.55 5. 40 26. 59 . 50 1. 55 9.16

27. 62.00 1.49 8.11 27. 62. 10 1. 49 12 . 5 9

 171

T a b l e 3.25. X - r a y d i f f r a c t i o n r e s u l t s of c l a y s from

Barakar Formation

Sample No.Rl Sample No.R4

Peak 26. d-spa- I/I max Peak 2®.- d-spa- l/ l max

No. cing No. cing

1. 7.20 12. 28 30. 30 1. 12.12 7. 30 8 8. 00

2. 12. 83 6.90 80. 30 2. 19. 50 4. 5 5 3 2 . 00

3. 20 . 5 0 4.33 40.90 3. 20.12 4. 41 44.00

4. 21. 50 4.13 42.42 4. 21.00 4.23 40 . 00

5. 23 . 15 3.85 33.33 5. 22. 60 3. 90 32 . 0 0

6. 23 . 90 3. 7 2 33.33 6. 23 . 00 3. 86 32.00

7. 25. 21 3.53 100.00 7. 23. 40 3. 80 27.00

8. 26 . 70 3.34 42.42 8. 23. 75 3. 75 26 . 0 0

9. 26 . 9 0 3 . 31 42.42 9. 24. 65 3.61 100.0 0

10. 27.43 3.25 51 . 51 10. 26.50 3.36 48 . 00

11. 33.20 2.69 54. 54 11. 30. 50 2. 93 24 . 0 0

12. 35.10 2.55 30.33 12. 31 . 4 5 2. 85 24. 00

13. 35.40 2.53 30. 30 13. 34.80 2.58 27.00

14. 37.20 2.41 .45.45 14. 35 . 8 0 2.50 28 . 00

15. 38.50 2.34 42.42 15. 36 . 5 0 2. 46 18. 00

16. 39.40 2 . 29 30.30 16. 37.40 2 . 40 24. 00

17. 41.00 2.20 33.33 17. 38 . 3 0 2. 35 34 . 00

18. 45.60 1. 99 22.72 18. 39 . 0 0 2.31 24 . 0 0

19. 47.60 1.91 37.88 19. 45.20 2. 01 20 . 00

20. 55.20 1.66 30.30 20. 50.80 1.79 16. 00

21. 56.30 1.63 60 . 6 1 21. 55.10 1.67 20. 00

22. 62.50 1. 49 27.27 22. 56 . 30 1.63 17. 00

23. 59.50 - 1.55 16. 00

24. 62.00 1. 49 22 . 00
 172

kaolinite o b s e r v e d ar e at 7 . 1 8 dA° - 80% to 100%, 3.35

dA° - 80% to 100%, 1 .4 9 dA° - u p t o 27%, 4. 48 dA° - upto

22%. In s o m e s a m p l e s a l o n g w i t h k a o l i n i t e s m a l l amount

of i l l i t e is a l s o o b s e r v e d w h i c h shows p e a k at 10.1 dA°,

1.95 dA°, and 1.68 dA°.

According to K e l l e r (19 70), k a o l i n i t e m a y be f o r m e d

by w e a t h e r i n g of a l u m i n i u m s i l i c a t e p a r e n t m a t e r i a l by

r e m o v a l of K, N a , C a , Mg a n d f e r r o u s ion d u r i n g leaching

a n d a d d i t i o n of h y d r o g e n . According to P e t t i j o h n (1984),

kaolinite is readily formed from granites and

kaolinitization is p r o m o t e d in an 'acid' realm, w h i c h is

a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of f r e s h w a t e r e n v i r o n m e n t s . According

to Weaver (1 98 9) , kaolinite is formed under humid

tropical and subtropical conditions where chemical

weathering will be more effective, under t h ese

conditions virtually any rock type ca n alter to

kaolinite, granitic rocks weather more rapidly into

kaolinite th an the o t h e r r o c k types. Following Weaver

(19 89), the o b s e r v e d illite is c o n s i d e r e d to be derived

f r o m P r e c a m b r i a n m e t a p e l i t e s a nd sha les.

G r a n u l o m e t r i c s tu d i e s

In all 27 s a m p l e s w e r e s e l e c t e d for grain si ze

studies. Out of t h e s e 27 s a m p l e s , 22 s a m p l e s represents

Wardha river s e c t i o n n e a r C h a n d u r an d f i v e s a m p l e s (Rl,

R2, R 3 , R4 a n d R5) repr e s e n t s coal b e aring m i d d l e par t

 173

of the B a r a k a r F o r m a t ion f r o m R a j u r c o a l m i n e . Out of

the 22 s a m p l e s of C h a n d u r s e c t i o n , four samples (Cll,

C12, C1 3 a n d C14) r e p r e s e n t s l o wer part, six samples

(Cml, Cm2, C m 3 , C m 4 , Cm5 a n d Cm6) represents middle

part, and 12 s a m p l e s (Cul, C u 2 , Cu3, Cu4, Cu5, Cu6, Cu7,

C u 8 , Cu9, Cull, Cu l2 a n d C u l 3 ) b e l o n g s to the u p p e r part

of B a r a k a r F o r m a t i o n . Ou t of the s t u d i e d 27 s a m p l e s , six

samples (Cm3, Cm4,Cm5, R2, R4, a n d R5) are of

carbonaceous shales and siltstones, two samples (Cu5,

and C u l3 ) a r e of f e r r u g i n o u s shales and remaining 19

samples are of the s a n d s t o n e s . As t h es e s a m p l e s a re

friable a n d c a n be d i s a g g r i g a t e d w i t h o u t altering the

constituent grain size, the g r a i n size a n a l y s i s was

c a r r i e d ou t by s i e v e a n d p i p e t t e m e t h o d s , the d e t a i l s of

t h e s e p r o c e d u r e s are g i v e n on P a g e l O 0 •

Res tuls : The o b tained grain size frequency percentages

are given in Table 3.26, 3.27, an d 3.28, and the

prepared grain si ze frequency c u r v e s a re s h o w n in

F i g . 3.33 to 3.39. In g e n e r a l the s a m p l e s under study

show the p r e s e n c e of w i d e r a n g e of g r a i n size classes

from -2 ph i to 10 phi a n d e x h i b i t p o l y m o d a l g r a i n si ze

distribution. In c a s e of s a n d s t o n e s a m p l e s d o m i n a n t m o d e

of 15% to 257o is o b s e r v e d in the c o a r s e to m e d i u m sa nd

si ze g r a d e (o phi to 2 phi) a n d s u b o r d i n a t e m o d e s of 5%

to 15% are in the silt size gr a d e . In case of

 Table 3.26. Grain size frequency percentages of Barakar sediments.

On6 Cul
On2 Cm3 Cm4 Cm5
Cll C12 C13 C14 Cml

0.78
0.43
0.27
0.26
0.61 0.22
0.15 0.27
0.56
0.81 0.23
0.19 0.19 1.53
0.45 0.16
0.82 0.79
0.18 0.19 2.19 1.53
0.13 0.61
1.74 2.56
0.60 0.17 5.69 4.85
0.19 1.65
1.54 2.50
0.05 3.09 3.28
0.43 0.74 0.49
4.74 10.81
2.07. 0.53 10.53 12.05
1.74 2.26
0.59 0.93
0.29 0.08 1.15 1.26
0.45 0.29
1.46 3.72
0.60 1.09 0.20 2.31 3.64
1.16
4.43 9.53
6.04 1.83 3.58 1.08 4.91 11.55

5.98 7.24 5.05 9.02

9.53 2.15 3.62 1.40

8.42 15.56 0.04 11.89 16.47

28.43 7.51 11.04 3.30

1.29 3.73 4.38 0.19 0.50 4.54 6.17

8.23 3.92 4.51

11.52 17.65 12.29 4.63 7.92 8.30 1.36 1.88 2.24 16.71 9.76

1.34 2.59 1.70 1.24 0 . ”30 0.69 0.42 0.85 0.59 2.45 1.04

2.75 9.70 9.55 13.07 4.03 2.00 1.40 1.19 2.37 8.49 2.65

1.23 3.46 4.15 11.77 2.44 0.99 1.13 1.06 2.18 3.17 1.10
0.82 2.02 2.67 6.12 1.43 0.64 1.04 0.80 1.74 1.67 0.72
1.59 3.75 4.60 11.48 2.17 1.27 3.38 2.82 7.81 2.93 1.41
1.14 2.84 2.70 4.67 1.01 1.03 4.16 6.04 10.03 1.51 1.32
0.73 1.89 2.31 3.48 0.47 0.75 8.06 13.43 8.88 0.81 0.96
0.24 0.21 0.36 0.32 0.13 0.06 1.61 0.89 0.84 0.15 0.24
0.85 1.66 2.08 2.66 2.53 1.00 14.75 11.53 15.01 1.08 1.04
0.21 0.49 0.45 0.45 0.14 0.11 3.53 3.41 6.71 0.18 0.48
5.02 7.79 6.24 1.27 18.14 3.83 11.59 7.98 11.38 5.82 1.12
1.77 0.44 0.47 2.86 1.47 0.60 7.62 2.00 2.25 2.03 0.88
0.16 1.23 1.56 1.91 2.10 0.72 4.83 1.60 6.67 0.34 1.33
2.89 4.63 4.37 2.07 1.36 1.26 4.83 0.40 3.61 0.57 0.88
5.62 0.15 5.00 7.47 1.89 0.18 11.07 1.20 3.06 0.57 2.21
4.98 4.93 1.72 0.32 1.89 2.71 1.70 8.42 5.84 0.34 2.06
0.48 0.15 0.78 1.27 0.73 1.45 4.54 11.62 1.39 2.53 5.30
0.32 0.15 0.16 0.79 2.40 1.80 11.36 22.85 6.95 9.99 0.29
11.41 9.21 13.51 0.10 1.42 2.21
 Table 3.27. Grain size frequency distribution of Barakar sediments.

Cu4 Cu5 Cu6 Cu7 Cu8

in Cu2 Cu3

- - - - -
: -2.00 _ - - - -

- - - - - - —
X3— 1.75 - - 0.31 -

- - - - - 0.40 - -
75— 1.50 - 0.09 -

- 0.08 - - - 0.25 - -
30— 1.25 - 0.07 -

- 0.05 0.38 - 0.13 - 0.13 - 0.23 - -

25— 1.00

X)—0.75 0.10 0.06 0.39 - 0.22 - 0.15 - 0.71 - -

75—0.50 0.05 0.14 0.37 - 0.19 - 0.23 - 1.22 - -

50—0.25 0.39 1.22 1.33 - 1.42 - 1.67 - .3.93 - -

25- 0.00 0.05 0.22 0.10 - 0.09 - 0.28 0.34 0.71 - -

00- 0.25 0.40 0.59 0.48 - 0.70 - 0.99 0.84 1.75 - -

25- 0.50 1.25 2.88 1.97 - 2.31 0.81 3.81 2.09 3.40 0.33 -

50- 0.75 1.83 5.78 2.31 - 3.42 1.84 6.64 2.23 7.02 0.34 0.57

75- 1.00 6.98 25.28 8.15 - 8.69 4.89 21.56 7.02 14.52 0.91 1.45

00- 1.25 5.44 11.85 5.74 0.63 5.73 5.14 10.51 3.60 4.13 1.48 0.65
25- 1.50 20.23 14.58 24.31 4.46 16.87 26.82 12.88 14.52 12.73 9.71 2.29
50- 1.75 2.22 1.18 2.22 0.57 3.38 3.81 1.35 3.00 2.17 1.75 0.71
75- 2.00 15.90 2.38 11.26 3.22 14.86 18.16 5.55 12.86 6.38 9.24 3.21
GO- 2.25 5.79 1.45 3.55 1.65 6.97 5.02 2.01 8.73 2.16 8.68 2.98
25- 2.50 3.37 1.09 1.57 1.41 2.68 2.00 0.93 3.87 0.85 6.20 3.29
50- 2.75 4.57 2.19 2.64 2.83 3.63 2.25 1.45 5.54 1.75 13.89 5.72
75- 3.00 1.82 1.16 1.86 2.87 1.59 1.26 1.02 3.28 1.26 8.37 3.03
00- 3.25 1.77 0.80 0.63 3.02 0.91 0.82 0.44 1.55 2.57 4.81 1.45
25- 3.50 0.11 0.G6 0.38 0.37 0.17 0.13 0.97 0.30 0.57 0.73 0.44
50- 3.75 1.61 0.96 1.39 4.12 1.57 1.24 0.97 1.75 0.74 5.23 1.35
75- 4.00 0.41 0.24 0.26 1.51 0.46 0.24 0.25 0.72 0.22 0.81 0.54
GO- 4.50 1.32 3.91 4.35 1.54 0.89 3.35 7.42 5.17 1.69 3.13 5.69
5G- 5. GO 0.35 1.43 1.10 7,11 2.38 2.23 0.78 5.92 10.42 3.06 8.39
GO- 5.50 3.02 7.01 1.73 20.70 1.04 G.14 3.38 1.97 0.44 0.49 1.25
50- 6.00 2.49 2.58 0.78 2.59 3.86 0.84 2.43 5.64 O.GO 1.24 3.33
GO- 7.00 4.08 0.43 8.32 12.28 3.86 7.38 1.35 1.13 1.77 7.68 2.91
00- 8.00 1.06 0.57 5.03 1.94 2.08 G.29 1.89 5.64 0.44 1.73 12.89
GO- 9.00 1.73 0.14 0.31 16.81 1.34 0.70 3.38 2.25 1.11 0.49 1.66
GO-IG.OO 2.49 5.15 6.28 10.34 4.60 5.85 5.55 - 14.47 4.96 9.15
10.00 8.88 4.44 0.47 - 3.86 5.43 - - - 4.71 27.03
Table 3 . 28. Grain size f requency distri buti on of Barakar

sediments.

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5

- - - -
<1 -2 . 0 0 -

- - - - -
-2.00-- 1. 75
- - - -
-1.75-- 1. 50 -

- - - - -
-1.50-- 1. 25
- - - - -
-1 . 25--■1.00

- - - - -
-1.00--■0.75

-0.75--■0.50 - - - - -

-0.50---0.25 - - - - -

-0.25- 0 . 0 0 - - - - -

0.00- 0 . 2 5 - - - - -

0.25- 0 . 5 0 - - - - -

0. 50- 0 . 7 5 0.18 - - - -

0.75- 1.00 0.72 2. 24 - 1. 13 -

1.00- 1.25 0.60 0.72 0. 74 0.83 1.66

1.25- 1. 50 2. 60 1.81 4.34 2.82 5. 43

1.50- 1.75 0.66 0. 53 1.11 0.82 1.68

1.75- 2 . 0 0 4. 41 1.72 7.60 3. 8 6 5. 45

2.00- 2.25 5. 82 1. 18 8. 3 5 4.18 3. 66

2.25- 2. 50 8. 54 1 .00 10. 04 5. 7 7 2. 9 3
2.50- 2 . 7 5 18. 98 1.42 17. 12 14. 06 6. 6 7
2.75- 3. 0 0 15. 19 3.33 8. 73 8. 7 9 6. 61

3.00- 3. 25 4.17 0.75 4.50 4.56 7. 14

3.25- 3 . 5 0 0.64 0.40 0.83 0.92 1. 03

3.50- 3. 75 4.15 1. 32 4. 72 3. 94 9. 87
3.75- 4 . 0 0 1.21 0. 54 0.82 0.56 2. 95
4.00- 4. 50 9.36 4.16 2. 37 5. 27 7.62
4. 50- 5. 00 2. 59 46 . 7 8 1. 57 10. 79 10.34
5.00- 5. 50 4. 81 2 . 95 5. 33 11 . 05 0. 9 4
5.50- 6 . 0 0 0. 39 1. 27 4.67 2. 9 9 2 . 50
6.00- 7. 0 0 0.65 0.42 2. 57 0.60 5. 95
7.00- 8 . 0 0 0.78 2. 95 4. 67 0.30 8. 14

8.00- 9 . 0 0 0.78 2. 53 0. 38 6. 57 0. 31

9.00- 10. 00 12. 09 21. 94 7.81 10. 16 9. 08

> 10 . 0 0 0.65 - 1.71 - -

Ft G 3 33: G R A I N SIZE FREQUENCY CURVES OF ROCK OF
b a r a k a r f o r m a t io n .
FIG 3 3 ^: GRA IN S I Z E FREQUENCY CURVES OF ROCKS OF
BARAKAR FORMATION.
 S IZ E IN 0
FI G. 3 - 3 S : G R A I N S IZ E FREQUENCY CURVES OF ROCKS
OF BARAKAR FORMATION
 S i z e in <P

FIG 3 36. GRAIN S IZ6 FREQUENCY CURVES OF

ROCKS OF BARAKAR FORMATION.
FIG-3-37'. GRAIN SIZE FREQUENCY CURVES OF
ROCKS OF BARAKAR FORMATION.
FIG.3-38: GRAIN SIZ6 FREQUENCY CURVES OF
ROCKS OF BARAKAR FORMATION
 Size in ^

FIG 3 -3 9 GRAIN SIZE FREQUENCY CURVES OF

ROCKS OF BARAKAR FORMATION.
 177

carbonaceous s h a l e an d s i l t s t o n e s a m p l e s (Cm3, Cm4, an d

Cm5) mode of u p t o 15X is in the v e r y fin e sand size

grade (3 phi to 4 phi) a n d m o r e or less e q u a l l y d o m i n a n t

modes are present in the sil t an d clay size grade

( F i g . 3. 3 4 ) . The ferruginous shale samples (Cu5 a n d Cul3)

shows the d o m i n a n t as w e l l as s u b o r d i n a t e m o d e s in silt

and clay size g r a d e s ( F i g . 3 . 3 6 a n d 3.37).

The c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s of F o l k an d Ward's graphic

measures of t h e s e s a m p l e s a r e g i v e n in T a b l e 3.29. In

case of s a n d s t o n e s u n d e r s t u d y m e a n g r a i n size varies

f r o m 1.02 phi to 3.79 ph i a n d h e n c e t h ese ar e described

as medium to f i n e g r a i n e d s a n d s t o n e s . The mean grain

size of c a r b o n a c e o u s shale and siltstone samples (Cm3,

Cm4, C m 5 , R 2 , R4 a n d R5) v a r i e s f r o m 4 . 2 7 phi to 5.82

phi a n d h e n c e t h ese r e p r e s e n t s c o a r s e to m e d i u m grained

siltstones. In c a s e of two f e r r u g i n o u s shale samples

n a m e l y C u5 a n d C u l 3 m e a n g r a i n si ze v a l u e s a r e 5 . 6 2 phi

an d 6 . 5 2 p h i a n d a r e m e d i u m g r a i n e d s i l t s t o n e an d fine

grained siltstone respectively. Th e s t a n d a r d deviation

v a l u e s of the s a n d s t o n e s a n d s h a l e s u n d e r s t u d y are m o r e

or less similar. In b o t h the case s, high standard

deviation values are observed. These values vary from

1.99 p h i to 3 . 5 0 p h i a n d a v e r a g e s to 2. 48 phi. Following

F o l k ( 1 966), the s a m p l e s u n d e r s t u d y ar e i n f e r r e d to be

poorly sorted to v e r y p o o r l y s o r t e d sediments. Except

 178

T a b l e 3.29. G r a p h i c a l parameters for B a r a k a r S e d i m e n t s .

Sample Mean Standard Skewness KurtOS is

No. (Mz) deviation (Ski) (Kg)
( S ' i)

R5 4. 39 2. 34 0. 30 1.16

R4 4 . 68 2. 55 0. 50 1.14

R3 3.76 2. 31 0 . 68 1.15

R2 5. 82 2. 45 0 . 35 0. 92

R1 3. 56 2.00 0 . 67 1.72

Cul3 6.52 ■ 3. 15 - 0. 25 0. 51
Cul2 3. 6 3 2.43 0.63 1.24
Cull 3.03 3 . 00 0. 67 1. 00
Cu9 2. 83 2.01 0. 57 0.98
Cu8 2. 38 2 . 38 0.76 1. 25
Cu7 3. 18 2. 67 0 . 78 1.36
Cu6 2.78 2. 44 0.55 1. 52
Cu5 5. 62 2. 59 0.05 0.71
CuA 3 . 11 2. 72 0. 71 1.17
Cu3 2.47 2. 52 0. 81 1.21
Cu2 3.23 2 . 73 0.75 1.34
Cul 1.59 2 . 49 0.60 2 . 46
Cm6 2. 15 2.50 0 . 55 1.89
Cm5 4.27 1. 99 0 . 47 1.29
Cm4 5.47 2.51 0 . 46 0 . 49
Cm3 5. 26 2. 04 0 . 47 1. 03
Cm2 1.02 2. 06 0 . 42 2. 08
Cml 1.76 2. 39 0. 38 0 . 82
C14 3. 79 2. 69 0 . 65 1.03
C13 3.00 2.80 0. 61 1.23
C12 3. 32 3 . 13 0. 61 1.38
Cll 2. 07 1.99 0. 78 1.56

Ave rage 3. 51 2 . 48 0. 54 1. . 24
 179

s a m p l e Cul3, al l o t h e r 26 s a m p l e s show positive skewness

values, which vary from 0 . 0 5 ph i to 0.81 phi and

averages to 0 . 5 4 ph i suggesting their strongly fine

s k e w e d n a t u r e a n d the d o m i n a n c e of fin e r a d m i x t u r e over

the coarser. For s a m p l e C u l 3 s k e w n e s s v a l u e is - 0. 25

phi i n d i c a t i n g d o m i n a n c e of c o a r s e r a d m i x t u r e o v e r the

f ine r. In m o s t of the s a m p l e s k u r t o s i s v a l u e s a r e n e a r e r

to 1 phi. Kurtosis varies f r o m 0 . 4 9 ph i to 2. 46 ph i and

averages to 1.24 ph i which indicates pla|ykurtic

distribution with mixing of two or more subequal

populations.

The p r e p a r e d g r a i n s i z e log p r o b a b i l i t y p l o t s for

the samples u n d e r s t u d y ar e p r e s e n t e d in F i g . 3.40 to

3.47. Th e obtained percentages of the recognised

populations i.e. surface creep, s a l t a t i o n an d s u s p e n s i o n

along w i t h t h ei r t r u n c a t i o n p o i n t s are g i v e n in Table

3.30. The l og probability plots of the sandstones,

carbonaceous shales and ferruginous shales under study

show similar characteristic features. In m o s t of the

samples studied two w e l l d e v e l o p e d populations namely

s a l t a t i o n a n d s u s p e n s i o n ar e p r e s e n t . Out of 27 samples

only in five samples surface creep population is

observed. A m on g these five samples, fou r s a m p l e s (C14,

C m l , Cu3 a n d Cu4) a r e of s a n d s t o n e s and one s a m p l e (R2)

is of c a r b o n a c e o u s siltstone. The s a l t a t i o n population

F IG -3 '^0 :L O G PROBABILITY PLOTS OF ROCKS OF B A R A K A R FORMATION
F IG '3 -^1 :L 0 G PROBABILITY PLOTS OF ROCKS OF BARAKAR FORMATION
 Size in S i z o in ^
F I G - 3 - ^ 2 : LOG PROBABILfTY PLOTS OF ROCKS OF BARAKAR FORMATION
 S i z e in (f) S i z e in 0

FIG-3-43.LO G P R O B A B IL I T Y PLOTS OF ROCKS OF BARAKAR FORMATION

 S i ze in p

Si ze in (j>

F1 G- 3 A^ LOG P R O B A B IL I T Y PLOTS OF ROCKS OF B A R A K A R FORMATION

99-99
C u 11 C u 13

90 -

50
V.

10 - / /

1 - / /

1 1 1 1 I I 1 1 .. 1 J L. 1.

-2 2 A 6
S i z e in 0

Si ze in

FIG-3-4S-.LOG P R O B A B IL I T Y PLOTS OF ROCKS OF B A R A K A R F O RM AT IO N

 2 0 2 A 6 8
S i z e in ^

FIG-3 ^6-. LOG PROBABILITY PLOTS OF ROCKS OF

barakar fo r m atio n
 size in <P

Si ze in 0
FIG.3 ^7. L O G P ROBABILITY P L OTS O F R O C K S OF BARAKAR FORMATION
 180

Table 3.30. P e r c e n t a g e s of d i f f e re n t p o p u l a t i o n w i t h their

truncation p oi nt s of Barakar s ed im e n t s.

Sample Surface Saltation Suspension T1 T2

No. creep 7. 1 %

R5 - 62. 50 37.50 - ... 50

R4 - 46.00 54.00 - 3.00

R3 - 69.00 31.00 - 2.90

R2 12.00 53.00 35.00 4.25 4.75

R1 - 75.00 25.00 - 3.50

Cul3 - 20.00 80.00 - 3.10

Cul2 - 60.00 40.00 - 3. 10

Cull - 55.00 45.00 - 1 .85

Cu9 - 55.00 45.00 - 2.40

Cu8 - 50.00 50.00 - 1.35
Cu7 - 59.00 41.00 - 2. 10
Cu6 - 62.00 38.00 - 2.20
Cu5 - 64.00 36.00 - 6.25
Cu4 1.25 53. 75 45.00 0.25 1.85
Cu3 0.70 55.30 44.00 - 0.30 1.40
Cu2 - 64.00 36.00 - 2.50
Cul - 74.00 26.00 - 1.40
Cm6 - 68.00 32.00 - 2.25
Cm 5 - 65.00 35.00 - 4.15
CmA - 47.00 53.00 - 3.90
Cm 3 - 50.10 49.90 - 4.55
Cm2 - 78.00 22.00 - 1.50
Cml 12.00 46.00 42.00 - 0.75 1.75
C14 1.85 57. 15 41.00 0.45 2.90
C13 - 58.00 42.00 - 1.95
C12 - 48 .00 52.00 - 1.95
Cll - 67.00 33.00 - 1.20

Ave rag,e 1.03 57.84 41.11

T1 ; T r unca t ion point between surface creep popula t ion and

s altation population.
T2 : Trun c a t ion point between saltation population and
suspension population.
 181

is observed to be b e t t e r s o r t e d w i t h s l o p e s of 60° to

70° a n d is the m o s t d o m i n a n t a m o n g the t h r e e p o p u l a t i o n .

It varies f r o m 20% to 78 % a n d a v e r a g e s to 5 7 . 84 %. The

suspension population is c o m p a r a t i v e l y poorer sorted

w i t h s l o p e s of 10° to 20°. It v a r i e s f r o m 2 2% to 8 0 % a n d

averages to 4 1 . 1 1 % . In c a s e of s a n d s t o n e samples, the

truncation point between saltation and susp e n si o n (T2)

is c o m p a r a t i v e l y at the c o a r s e r end than t h o s e observed

in the s h a l e s a m p l e s . In c a s e of s a n d s t o n e samples T2

varies f r o m 1. 50 p h i to 3 . 5 0 p h i a n d for s h a l e samples

in general, it is b e t w e e n 4 phi to 5 phi. The surface

creep population wherever present is comparatively

insignificant and forms less than 12% of the t o ta l

sediment. It s h ow s b e t t e r s o r t i n g (Cml) as well as

poorer s o r t i n g (C14, Cu3, a n d Cu4) than the saltation

population. In c a s e of s a n d s t o n e samples (Cml, Cu3 and

Cu4) the truncation point between surface creep an d

saltation population (Tl) is o b s e r v e d to be varying

between - 0.75 phi to 0 . 4 5 p hi a nd in carbonaceous

siltstone sample ( R 2 ) , it is at 4 . 2 5 phi.

According to Visher (1965, 1969)^ g r a i n si ze log

probability plots of fluvial sediments show well

developed better sorted saltation and poorly sorted

suspension populations, a n d in t h e s e if surface creep

p o p u l a t i o n is p r e s e n t it is s u b o r d i n a t e . From the above

 182

description, it is s e e n that B a r a k a r s a m p l e s u n d e r s t u d y

also show well d e v e l o p e d (57.84%) better sorted (slopes

of 60° to 70°) s a l t a t i o n p o p u l a t i o n a n d n e a r l y equally

developed (41.11%) poorly sorted ( s l o p e s of 10° to 20°)

suspension population, and in t h ese surface creep

population wherever present is s u b o r d i n a t e . The shapes

of the log p r o b a b i l i t y c u r v e s for th ese s a m p l e s a r e a l s o

similar to t h o s e of f l u v i a l sediments given by Visher

(1965, 1969), t h e r e f o r e it is s u g g e s t e d that these were

deposited in f l u v i a l e n v i r o n m e n t .

Shape analysis

In al l seven representative samples of Barakar

Formation were subjected to F o u r i e r g r a i n s h a p e s t u d i e s .

Out of seven samples, two s a m p l e s (Cll and C12)

represents the l o w e r part, three samples (Cm2, Cm3 and

Cm4) represents the m i d d l e p a r t a n d two samples ( Cu l 2

and C u l3 ) are from upper part of Barakar sequence

exposed in W a r d h a r i v e r b e d w e s t of Chandur. O ut of

these seven samples, two samples (Cm3 and Cm4)

represents carbonaceous s i l t s t o n e and s ha le , one sample

Cul3 represent ferruginous shale and remaining four

samples (Cll, C12, Cm2 a n d C u l 2 ) a r e of s a n d s t o n e s . The

procedure f o l l o w e d for F o u r i e r s h a p e a n a l y s i s is given

on P a g e 116.
 183

Results : The obtained mean amplitude values (15

grains/sample) for the t w e n t y h a r m o n i c s a r e given in

T a b l e 3 .3 1 a n d the m e a n a m p l i t u d e s p e c t r a are exhibited

in F i g . 3 . 4 8 a n d 3.49.

The mean a m p l i t u d e v a l u e of 1st harmonic varies

f r o m 0 . 0 2 3 3 to 0 . 0 4 2 4 a n d a v e r a g e s to 0 . 0 3 3 2 , while for

20th harmonic it varies from 0.0185 to 0.0317 and

averages to 0 . 0 2 4 2 . In g e n e r a l , in all the s e v e n s a m p l e s

studied, the mean amplitude value decreases suddenly

from 1st harmonic to 2nd harmonic a nd thereafter

decreases gradually or r e m a i n s m o r e or less constant

upto 20th harmonic. Except sample Cul3, the mean

a m p l i t u d e s p e c t r a s of r e m a i n i n g six s a m p l e s a r e smoo th .

T h e m e a n a m p l i t u d e s p e c t r a of s a m p l e C u l 3 e x h i b i t a low

of 7t h h a r m o n i c ( F i g . 3. 4 9) .

The calculated partitioned roughness coefficients

and roughnesscoefficient values are g i v e n in Table

3.32. Except sample Cul3, in all the remaining six

samples decrease in p a r t i t i o n e d roughness coefficient

values f r o m PI to P4 is o b s e r v e d . In c a s e of s a m p l e C u l 3

partitioned roughness coefficients value decreases from

PI (0.0490) to P3 ( 0 . 0 4 4 0 ) a n d for P4 it is 0 . 0 4 4 3 . In

general, the p a r t i t i o n e d r o u g h n e s s c o e f f i c i e n t PI v a r i e s

f r o m 0 . 0 3 0 6 to 0 . 0 5 3 0 a n d a v e r a g e s to 0 . 0 4 2 4 , P2 varies

f r o m 0 . 0 2 9 4 to 0 . 0 4 7 6 a n d a v e r a g e s to 0 . 0 3 8 8 , P3 varies
 184

Table 3.31. Grain shape mean amplitude values of Barakar Sediments.

Sample Cll C12 Cm2 Cm3 Cm4 Cul2 Oil3 Average

No.

1. 0.0350 0.0424 0.0325 0.0233 0.0289 0.0340 0.0369 0.0332

2. 0.0264 0.0318 0.0243 0.0179 0.0223 0.0250 0.0291 0.0252

3. 0.0252 0.0320 0.0230 0.0173 0.0221 0.0243 0.0288 0.0247

4. 0.0253 0.0331 0.0222 0.0181 0.0228 0.0254 0.0295 0.0252

5. 0.0250 0.0323 0.0223 0.0187 0.0230 0.0257 0.0291 0.0251

6. 0.0245 0.0312 0.0223 0.0185 0.0224 0.0256 0.0281 0.0246

7. 0.0242 0.0311 0.0224 0.0184 0.0222 0.0249 0.0247 0.0239

8. 0.0242 0.0311 0.0227 0.0186 0.0224 0.0260 0.0255 0.0243

9. 0.0243 0.0309 0.0227 0.0187 0.0224 0.0243 0.0278 0.0244

10. 0.0240 0.0307 0.0226 0.0187 0.0225 0.0263 0.0277 0.0246

11. 0.0238 0.0308 0.0225 0.0186 0.0225 0.0263 0.0259 0.0243

12 . 0.0238 0.0309 0.0225 0.0186 0.0224 0.0263 0.0278 0.0246

13. 0.0233 0.0309 0.0224 0.0186 0.0225 0.0272 0.0278 0.0246

14. 0.0236 0.0309 0.0224 0.0186 0.0223 0.0265 0.0278 0.0245

15. 0.0237 0.0308 0.0222 0.0187 0.0222 0.0262 0.0280 0.0245

16. 0.0237 0.0308 0.0222 0.0187 0.0222 0.0179 0.0281 0.0234

17. 0.0237 0.0306 0.0222 0.0187 0.0222 0.0263 0.0281 0.0245

18. 0.0236 0.0317 0.0221 0.0185 0.0222 0.0262 0.0281 0.0246

19. 0.0236 0.0317 0.0221 0.0186 0.0222 0.0261 0.0277 0.0246

20 . 0.0238 0.0317 0.0221 0.0185 0.0228 0.0260 0.0246 0.0242

FIG. 3 A3 : M E A N AMPLITUDE SPECTRAS OF BARAKAR FORMATION
 -
0-09
Cm A Cul3
007
LU
Q 005
3
-
a. V
< 0 03

< 0-02
UJ
2

0-01 1 1 I 1 1 1 _ 1 _ J----- 1 1 1 1 1----- 1 1 L -L . J-----

A 6 8 10 12 U 16 18 20
HARMONIC

FIG. 3-49: M E A N AMPLITUDE SPECTRA OF BARAKAR FORMATION

 185

Table 3.32. Roughness coefficients of Barakar sediments.

Sample PI P2 P3 P4 P5
No. (1-5) (6-10) (11-15) (16-20) (1-20)

Cul3 0.0490 0.0441 0.0440 0.0443 0.0673

Cul2 0.0429 0.0410 0.0415 0.0414 0.0836

Cm4 0.0380 0.0354 0.0353 0.0351 0.0721

Cm3 0.0306 0.0294 0.0308 0.0307 0.0596

Cm2 0.0401 0.0356 0.0354 0.0350 0.0734

C12 0.0530 0.0476 0.0474 0.0468 0.1017

Cll 0.0436 0.0383 0.0376 0.0374 0.0788

Average 0.0424 0.0388 0.0388 0.0387 0.0766

 186

from 0.0308 to 0 . 0 4 7 4 a n d a v e r a g e s to 0.0388 and P4

varies from 0.0307 to 0 . 0 4 6 8 a n d a v e r a g e s to 0.0387.

The roughness coefficient P5 varies from 0.0596 to

0.1017 and averages to 0 . 0 7 6 6 .

In case of sandstones the average values of

partitioned r o u g h n e s s c o e f f i c i e n t s are PI - 0 . 0 4 4 9 , P2 -

0.0406, P3 - 0.0405 a n d P4 - 0.0401. The average

roughness coefficient P5 is 0.0844. In case of

silts t o n e s and shales, the a v e r a g e v a l u e s of p a r t i t i o n e d

roughness coefficients a r e PI - 0 . 0 39 2 , P2 - 0 . 0 3 6 3 , P3

0.0367 and P4 - 0.0367. The average roughness

c o e f f i c i e n t P5 is 0 . 0 6 6 3 . Therefore, in c o m p a r i s o n with

the g r a i n s f r o m s a n d s t o n e s , the g r a i n s of s i l t s t o n e s and

s h a l e s a r e r e l a t i v e l y m o r e c i r c u l a r and s m o o t h t e x t u r e d .

Scanning electron microscope studies

For SEM studies two s a m p l e s n a m e l y Cm2 and Cm3

representing sandstone and carbonaceous siltstone from

middle part of B a r a k a r F o r m a t i o n were selected, the

procedure f o l l o w e d for SEM s t u d i e s is a l r e a d y g i v e n on

P a g e [Z-f,

Plate 3.39, photo 1 shows quartz grain which

e x h i b i t s c o n c h o i d a l b r e a k a g e p a t t e r n w i t h r o u n d e d edges.

Commonly on the s u r f a c e of q u a r t z g r o o v e s of varying

sizes are also noticed. These grooves occur singularly

 187

or in sets w h i c h are o b l i q u e to e a c h o ther. Plate 3.39,

photo 2 exhibits two sets of g r o o v e s w h i c h a r e at an

high angle to e a c h o t h e r . In the u p p e r c e n t r a l p a r t of

the photo small scale 'V' s h a p e d i n d e n t a t i o n s are also

seen. T h e c o n c h o i d a l b r e a k a g e of q u a r t z g r a i n s may be

inherited character, b u t r o u n d i n g of e dg es , presence of

grooves a l o n g w ith small 'V' s h a p e d i n d e n t a t i o n s m a y be

indicative of s u b a q u e o u s transportation (Krinsley and

Doornkamp, 1973). Sychanthavong and Merh (1988)

considered t h e s e to be f o r m e d by c o l l i s i o n a n d grinding

of various sized grains which caused splitting and

chipping due to c o m p r e s s i o n a l st r e s s e s .

T h e o b s e r v e d f a c e t e d g a r n e t s a re e x h i b i t e d in P l a t e

3.40, photo 1 a n d 2. W e l l r o u n d e d g a r n e t w i t h hummocky

smooth faceted surface is s h o w n in P l a t e 3.40, photo 1,

while regularly patterned sharply facetedgarnet grain

is exhibited in P l a t e 3.40, p h o t o 2. The facets a re

observed to be large positive features which are

distributed in a r e g u l a r p a t t e r n on g a r n e t surfaces and

these positive features more or less confirm to

crystallographic planes (cubic and oct a h e d r a l ) in the

garnet structure. Commonly these facets are considered

to be the r e s u l t s of c h e m i c a l etching during burial

diagenesis (Smithson, 1941 R a h m a n y , 1973; G r a v e n o r and

Leavitt, 1 981). Similar t yp e s of f a c e t e d garnets are

described by H a n s l e y ( 1 9 8 7 ) from Morrison Formation of

 188

New Mexico. According to him, thes e are formed by

etching caused by o r g a n i c acids g e n e r a t e d during the

maturation of organic matter (predominantly Type-Ill

Kerogen) in the M o r r i s o n F o r m a t i o n . He h a s corroborated

this hypothesis by e x p e r i m e n t s in which dicarboxylic

acid s o l u t i o n s c r e a t e d f a c e t s on g a r n e t s identical to

those developed on naturally etched garnets. The

observed faceted garnet in the middle Barakar are

therefore suggested to be f o r m e d by o r g a n i c a c i d e t c h i n g

during burial diagenesis.

Barakar sedimentation

For more than a c e n t u r y B a r a k a r F o r m a t i o n is known

as the p r i n c i p a l r e p o s i t o r y of bituminous c oal, and

therefore it has a t t r a c t e d a g r e a t de al of a t t e n t i o n of

the geologists. According to Laskar (1977),

intracratonic graben type c o a l basins of Peninsular

India display a p a t t e r n of sedimentation coupled by

localised intermittent tectonism, and h ence in th e s e

b a s i n s a w i d e v a r i e t y of c o a l typ es f r o m v i t r i n i t e rich

to inertinite rich were formed. In c a s e of Godavari-

Pranhita basin majority of the coal seams show a

d o m i n a n c e of i n e r t i n i t e r i c h v a r i e t i e s w h i c h is related

to the i n t e r m i t t e n t e x p o s u r e of c o a l s w a m p s to aerobic
 189

conditions and to the c o m p a r a t i v e l y l o we r geothermic

gradient (Raja R a o , 1982). According to Singh etjal.

(1982), in G h u g u s c o a l f i e l d of M a h a r a s h t r a c o a l s e a m is

associated with carbonaceous shale, and in the co al

fusain and durain bands are conspicuous; v i t ra in bands

are very thin. A c c o r d i n g to them, inertinite forms major

p o r t i o n of G h u g u s coal.

Coal is commonly at the top of upward fining

sequences deposited by mixed l oa d r i v e r s , accumulating

in backswamps adjacent to migrating channel tra ct s.

These fine grained meander belt deposits may be

laterally e x t e n s i v e as a r e s u l t of persistent channel

migration a nd point bar accretion. These composite

fluvial sands commonly show thicknesses in m u l t i p l e s of

5 m to 15 m, m o s t t y p i c a l of i n d i v i d u a l channel fill

(Galloway and Hobday, 1983). According to generalised

view, Ba r a k ar coal mea s ur e s is l a r g e l y of c y c l i c nature

a n d the a s s o c i a t e d l i t h o f a c i e s s u g g e s t an a l l u v i a l p l a i n

e n v i r o n m e n t of d e p o s i t i o n ( C h a k r a b o r t i , 1991). According

to Casshyap ( 1970) as a deposition of a cyclothem

proceeded, the f l o w i n t e n s i t y p r o g r e s s i v e l y decreased,

and was perhaps considerably reduced during the

deposition of c a r b o n a c e o u s siltstones and shales, the

overlying coal seam in the cyclothem may suggest

stagnation of the d e p o s i t i o n a l a r e a allowing vegetal

accumulation. T he different aspects of the Barakar

 190

sediments s u c h as l i t h o f a c i e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and n a t u r e

of cyclicity, paleocurrent patterns, heavy mineral

contents, grain size and shape c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s etc. h a v e

been d e a l t w i t h by m a n y w o r k e r s such as R o y a n d Sharma

(19 36 ), Rao (1957), Banerjee (196 0) , Ganguli (1960),

Niyogi ( 1 96 6 ), Biswas (19 67 ), C a s s h y a p and Jain (197 0) ,

Sirin i v a s a Rao ( 1 9 77 ) , Sengupta ^ (1977), Casshyap

( 1 9 7 7) , Vijayam and Deshpande ( 1 9 7 7 ), Ramanamurty

( 198 5) , Raiverman (198 6 ), Singh and S i n g h (198 7 ), Ghosh

and Bhowmick (198 7) , Reddy and Prasad ( 1 9 88 ), Gupta and

Nandgaonkar ( 1 9 91 ) , S i n g h an d S i n g h (1 99 1 ) etc.

The present knowledge of sedimentary

characteristics of the f l o o d p l a i n d e p o s i t s is largely

based on the w o r k of J a h n s ( 1 9 47 ) , W o l m a n and Leopold

(19 57 ), Doeglas (1962), Harms ^ ( 1 96 2) etc.

According to Wolman an d L e o p o l d ( 19 57 ) river flows

through alluvial deposits under two distinct

circumstances : within the c o n f i n e s of the channel at

ordinary river s t a g e s an d on the f l o o d p l a i n topstratum,

in addition to within the c h a n n e l at high or flood

stages. T h e d e p o s i t e d s t r e a m load b e c o m e s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d

texturaly. T h e r e l a t i v e l y c o a r s e m a t e r i a l s c a r r i e d on or

close to the b e d r e m a i n w i t h i n the c h a n n e l , while the

t
relatively f i n e m a t e r i a l s m a i n a i n in s u s p e n s i o n b y the

turbulent m o t i o n of the w a t e r a r e d e p o s i t e d b e y o n d the

 191

channel banks on the floodplain top stratum. Our

understanding of m o d e r n fluvial p r o c e s s e s has improved

f u r t h e r by S c h u m m ' s (1 96 3) c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of r i v e r s into

suspended load, m i x e d l o a d a n d be d load rivers with

corresponding variation in c h a n n e l types, a n d by Rust's

( 19 78 ) q u a n t i t a t i v e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of c h a n n e l t y p es as

braided, meandering, straight and anastomosed. Schumm

( 19 81 ) illustrated the g r a d a t i o n a l variations between

these channel types. A c c o r d i n g to R e a d i n g (1981) in m o s t

fluvial sequences two major facies association can

generally be distinguished. T h e s e a r e the coarse a nd

fine members, u s u a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d as l a t e r a l l y accreted

channel d e posits and v e r t i c a l l y accreted interchannel

deposits respectively. A c c o r d i n g to M i a l l ( 1 9 84 ), the

r o l e p l a y e d by l a t e r a l a c c r e t i o n or v e r t i c a l a g g r a d a t i o n

in the f o r m a t i o n of c o a r s e r m e m b e r is c o n t r o v e r s i a l .

The p e t r o g r a p h i c s t u d i e s of the B a r a k a r sediments

under study indicates that, these sediments are

texturally, as w e l l as mineralogically immature. In

these comparatively l a r ge proportion of moderately

stable to u n s t a b l e h e a v y m i n e r a l s p e c i e s an d a p p r e c i a b l e

amount of detrital mica flakes is observed. These

exhibit low ZTR in dex of 3 3 . 52 % . This observed

mineralogical immaturity is suggestive of the

comparatively n e a r n e s s of the s o u r c e r e g i o n . In t h e se

sediments matrix is p r e s e n t in a p p r e c i a b l e q u a n t i t y a nd
 192

t h e s e s h o w p r e s e n c e of l a r g e n u m b e r of size g r a d e s with

related poor sorting. Their grain size log probability

plots show presence of o n l y two populations namely

saltation and suspension, a n d the s h a p e s of the log

probability curves also show simil ari ty to those of

fluvial sediments.

In general, the Barakar sediments under study

exhibits f i n i n g u p w a r d c y c l e s of sandstone, siltstone

and shale and the lower, m i d d l e and upper parts of

Barakar Formation show the differences in the

d e v e l o p m e n t a n d a s s o c i a t i o n of l i t h o f a c i e s .

The lower parts of the Barakar Formation is

characterised by a s a n d s t o n e s e q u e n c e w h i c h dominantly

exhibit large scale trough c r o ssbedding, within th ese

trough crossbedded sandstone isolated large planar

tabular crossbedded sets showing high paleocurrent

d i v e r g e n c e f r o m the t r o u g h c r o s s b e d d i n g a re n o t i c e d . The

trough crossbedded sandstones exhibit erosional scoured

surfaces of l a r g e d i m e n s i o n s a n d in t h e s e the troughs

are s t a c k e d on top of e a c h o t h e r w i t h upward decrease

in the t r o u g h d e p t h a n d a r e t o p e d by l a r g e scale low

angle stratification. In these, vertical accretion

deposits s u c h as s h a l e s a n d s i l t s t o n e s a r e n o t present.

All th e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e s i m i l a r to th o s e observed

by Cant and W a l k e r (1976) in the L o w e r D e v o n i a n Battery

 193

Point Sandstone of Q u e b e c , and to those of Campbell

( 19 76 ) f r o m the W e s t w a t e r C a n y o n M e m b e r of N e w Mexico.

Westwater Canyon M e m b e r , as well as Battery Point

Sandstone are c o n s i d e r e d by them as d-eposited by

aggrading and coalescing braided fluvial systems. In

general trough c r o s s b e d d e d s a n dstones are c o n s i d e r e d to

be formed b y the m i g r a t i o n of sinuous crested dunes

generated in the r i v e r c h a n n e l , while large scale planar

t a b u l a r c r o s s b e d s h o w i n g d i v e r g e n c e in p a l e o c u r r e n t from

the trough crossbed is c o n s i d e r e d to be r e l a t e d to the

migration of mid-channel transverse bars. Low angle

stratified sandstones ar e c o n s i d e r e d to be produced

during severe flooding. C a n t and W a l k e r (1976) envisaged

the initial f o r m a t i o n of a n e w s c o u r a n d the l i n i n g of

the s c o u r w i t h thin m a s s i v e s a n d s t o n e , with aggradation

c o a r s e r m a t e r i a l c e a s e to m o v e a n d d u n e s a d v a n c e s l o wl y,

and the trough crossbedded s a n d s t o n e s are f o rm ed . At

places, within the s t r e a m l a r g e transverse bars were

formed w h i c h m i g r a t e d both d o w n s t r e a m and l a terally to

form planar t a b u l a r sets of c r o s s b e d d i n g . When these

bars became inactive, f u r t h e r a g g r a d a t i o n led to their

b u r i a l by m o r e trough crossbedding. At p l a c e s w i t h i n the

channels unusually deep isolated scour were c ut and

filled and after extensive aggradation straight crested

dunes and s a ndwaves m i g r a t e d across the sa n d flat.

 194

The middle parts of Barakar Form a t i o n show

development of four lithofacies namely l a r ge scale

crossbedded sandstones, horizontal (flat) bedded

sandstones, ripple laminated sandstones and ca r b o n a c e o u s

shales. Horizontal ( flat) b e d d e d s a n d s t o n e s a r e closely

associated with large scale c r o s s b e d d e d sandstones and

they a r e o b s e r v e d to be o c c u r i n g a b o v e as w e l l as b e l o w

the large scale c r o s s b e d d e d sets, which many a ti mes

p a s s u p w a r d i nt o r i p p l e l a m i n a t e d s a n d s t o n e s , on top of

which commonly carbonaceous shales are present. The

carbonaceous shales are interbedded wit h carbonaceous,

micaceous s i l t s t o n e s an d a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c o a l beds.

This type of a s s o c i a t i o n of l i t h o f a c i e s is c o n s i d e r e d b y

many workers s u c h as A l l e n (1964, 1965, 1970), Reineck

and Singh (1980), Davis ( 1 9 83 ), Miall (1 98 4) etc. to be

typical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of m e a n d e r i n g stream deposits.

According to Allen (1965) large scale crossbedded

sandstones, horizontal (flat) bedded sandstones and

ripple laminated sandstones a re f o r m e d in the p o i n t b a r s

of meandering rivers, and these result from lateral

accretion of s t r e a m b e d l o a d on s i d e w a r d migration of

meandering channels. The parallel laminated carbonaceous

shale and c o a l are i n d i c a t i v e of overbank vertically

accretionary deposition under lower flow regime

conditions and may represent flood plain backswamp

deposits. T h e c a r r i e d out M a r k o v c h a i n a n a l y s i s indicate

 195

the p r e s e n c e of t r u n c a t e d as w e l l as complete cycles,

and these r e s u l t s are s i m i l a r to those described by

Allen ( 19 65 ) f r o m O l d Red S a n d s t o n e a n d C a s s h y a p (1970)

f r o m B a r a k a r c o a l m e a s u r e s of L o w e r G o n d w a n a . Following

the h y p o t h e s i s of i n t e r m i t t e n t subsidence and sediment

wandering (Wanless and Weller, 1932 a n d W e l l e r , 1956),

the c o a l b e a r i n g c y c l e c a n be e x p l a i n e d to be f o r m e d by

intermittent s u b s i d e n c e w h i c h t r a n s f o r m e d the alluvial

flood plains in to s t a g n a n t b o d i e s of w a t e r . The stagnant

bodies of water would have received drifted vegetal

debris besides the fine clastics and produced the

conditions favourable for c o a l f o r m i n g e n v i r o n m e n t . With

the regaining of s t a b i l i t y of the b a s i n or uplift of

basin and source landmass, the river systems got

rejuvenated an d the a l l u v i a l p l a n e s r e c e i v e d sediments

to f o r m n e x t c yc le .

The u p p e r p a r t s of B a r a k a r F o r m a t ion exhibit the

same l i t h o f a c i e s a s s o c i a t i o n as th ose o b s e r v e d in the

m i d d l e p a r t of the B a r a k a r F o r m a t i o n a n d h e n c e th e s e are

also inferred to be d e p o s i t e d in the m e a n d e r i n g s t r e a m s .

In the upper pa rt instead of carbonaceous s h a le s ,

ferruginous shales are present. The associated

sandstones commonly contain calcium carbonate

concretions, a n d in t h e s e at p l a c e s i r o n c o n c r e t i o n s are

also noticed. All these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s indicate the

change in the c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s . Th e co al bearing

 196

middle Barakar humid flood basins appears to be changed

into semiarid flood basins during upper Barakar

sedimentation.

It is c o n c l u d e d that B a r a k a r s e d i m e n t s are related

to a b e d load to m i x e d lo ad s t r e a m m o d e l . In the i n i t i a l

stages the sediments were deposited mainly in the

braided streams which gradually evolved i nt o m i x e d load

meandering streams, in w h i c h u n d e r h u m i d climate co al

bearing strata were deposited. In the latter period

h u m i d c l i m a t e was ch a ng e d into semiarid climate.

KAMTHI FORMATION

Field Studies

As mentioned in Chapter I, rocks belongong to

Kamthi Formation rests unconformably over those of

Barakar Formation. Kamthi Formation is mainly

r e p r e s e n t e d b y y e l l o w i s h b r o w n s a n d s t o n e s an d v a r i e g a t e d

shales which often contains ferruginous bands. The

sandstones a re p r o f u s e l y c r o s s b e d d e d a n d m a n y a times

b e c o m e s c o a r s e g r a i n e d s h o w i n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of g r a n u l e

and pebble size material. On the basis of thes e

characteristics Kamthi F o r m at io n rocks under study are

considered to b e e q u i v a l e n t of U p p e r K a m t h i Member of

Ramanamurty (1987 ) . These rocks exposed in the Nirguda

 197

river n e a r W a n i and in the S i r n a i n a l a n e a r M a j r i were

s e l e c t e d for d e t a i l e d o b s e r v a t i o n s . F i g , 3 . 50a a n d 3.50b

represents the l i t h o s e c t i o n s of t h e se near Wani and

Majri locality respectively.

Similar to the m i d d l e a n d u p p e r p a r t s of Barakar

Formation, the K a m t h i F o r m a t ion a l s o s h o w s development

of four distinct facies namely (i) Large scale

crossbedded sandstones, (ii) H o r i z o n t a l (flat) bedded

sandstones, (iii) R i p p l e l a m i n a t e d s a n d s t o n e s , and (iv)

V a r i e g a t e d shales. Commonly these exhibits fining upward

sequences. Large scale crossbedded sandstones a nd

horizontal (flat) b e d d e d sandstones are intimately

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e a c h ot h e r . T h e s e are o v e r l a i n by r i p p l e

laminated sandstones which in turn passes into

v a r i e g a t e d s h a le s. These contain ferruginous concretions

and bands. Therefore, similar to upper Barakar

sediments, K a m t h i s e d i m e n t s a r e al so inferred to be

deposited under semi — a r i d climatic conditions in

m e a n d e r i n g streams.

Plate 3.41, photo 1 represents closely associated

horizo^ntal (flat) b e d d i n g , contorted bedding and l a r ge

scale c r o s s b e d d i n g observed near Majri. The composite

n a t u r e of the f o r e s e t b e d s h o w i n g i n t e r n a l c r u d e g r a d i n g

is shown in P l a t e 3.41, p h o t o 2. P l a t e 3.42, photo 1

represents crossbedded granule conglomerate observed

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 198

near Wani, a n d P l a t e 3.42, photo 2 exhibits large scale

trough crossbedded sandstone showing erosional contact

with the underlying large scale planar tabular

crossbedded sandstones of the s am e locality. These

c r o s s b e d d e d sets a r e at p l a c e s o b s e r v e d to be laterally

continuous for fi v e m e t e r s . P l a t e 3.43, photo 1 shows

c r o s s b e d d e d set w i t h s i g m o i d a l f o r e s e t h a v i n g erosional

lower contact. These foresets are marked by alternate

c o a r s e a n d f i n e s an d si z e m a t e r i a l a n d s h o w s similarity

to the " e p s i l o n c r o s s b e d d i n g " d e s c r i b e d by A l l e n (1965).

These f o r e s e t s di p s at r i g h t a n g l e s to the f o r e s e t s of

overlying ripple laminations. The horizontally (flat)

bedded and crossbedded sandstone often contains clay

galls, which occasionally show parallel alignment (Plate

3.43, p h o t o 2), P l a t e 3.44, photo 1 represents ripple

laminated sandstones overlying the crossbedded

sandstones observed near Wani. These ripple laminated

sandstones are c o m m o n l y o v e r l a i n e d by 2 to 4 m thick

parallel laminated ferruginous shales ( P l a t e 3.44, photo

2), w h i c h m a n y a t i m es c o n t a i n s thin f e r r u g i n o u s bands

(Plate 3.45, photo 1). In t h e s e s h a l e s development of

mudcracks of various dimensions and shapes are

frequently observed ( P l a t e 3.45, p h o t o 2 a n d P l a t e 3.46,

photo 1) .

From the Wani and M ajri localities in all 75

crossbedded and cross l a m i n a t e d sets foreset azimuths

 199

were recorded. T h e s e w e r e c o r r e c t e d for t e c t o n i c tilt,

grouped i n t o 10° a z i m u t h c l a s s interval, paleocurrent

r o s e t t e p r e p a r e d and a z i m u t h of r e s u l t a n t v e c t o r (vector

mean) was calculated. F i g . 3 .5 1 r e p r e s e n t s the prepared

paleocurrent rosette, which exhibits dominant modes of

167o in 10°N to 20°N a z i m u t h c l a s s a nd 1 4 . 5 6 % in 40°N to

50°N a z i m u t h c l a s s . T h e c a l c u l a t e d a z i m u t h of resultant

v e c t o r is N 15° E.

In all 26 representative samples of Kamthi

Formation were collected. Out of t h e s e 26 samples, 15

(W1 to W15) ar e f r o m W a n i locality, six (Mjl to Mj6)

represent Majri l o c a l i t y a n d fi ve (Bhl to B h 5 ) a r e from

Bhadravati locality. Out of t h e se 26 samples sample.s,

t h r e e s a m p l e s f r o m W a n i l o c a l i t y n a m e l y W6, W 1 2 a n d W14

represents the s h al es , the r e m a i n i n g 23 s a m p l e s a r e of

sands t o n e s .

L a bo ra to ry studies

The c o l l e c t ed samples r e p r e s e n t i n g Wani, Majri and

L
Bhadravati ^ocalities were subjected to thin section-,

heavy mineral-, XR D-, granulometric-, a n d s h a p e st ud i e s .

T h e r e s u l t s of t h e s e s t u d i e s a re g i v e n b e l o w .

Thin section studies

T h e m o d a l a n a l y s i s of s e l e c t e d 23 thin s e c t i o n s of

K a m t h i F o r m a t i o n w a s c a r r i e d out a n d the o b t a i n e d v o l u m e
 N
A

V.

F I G - 3-51.• PALEOCURRENT ROSETTE DIAGRAM

{ cross bedding ) OF KAMTHl FORMATION
 200

p e r c e n t a g e c o m p o s i t i o n of the c o n s t i t u e n t s p r e s e n t , a re

g i v e n in T a b l e 3.33. Ou t of t h es e 23 th in s e c t i o n s , f ou r

(Bhl, Bh2, Bh3 and Bh5) represents the Bhadravati

section, six (Mjl, M j 2, Mj3, Mj4, M j 5 a n d M j 6 ) a r e f ro m

Majri s e c t i o n , a n d 13 (W2, W3, W4, W6, W7, W8, W9, WIO,

Wll, W12, W13, W14 and W15) r e presents Wani section.

O ut of the 23 thin s e c t i o n s u n d e r study, matrix is

p r e s e n t o n l y in s e v e n thin s e c t i o n s . O u t of t h e s e seven

t hi n s e c t i o n s , in two thin s e c t i o n s (Bhl a n d Bh2) it is

present in s m a l l e r a m o u n t (l e s s than 1 5 Z ) , and in the

r e m ai ni ng five thin s e c t i o n s (Mj2, Mj6, W6, W 1 2 a n d W 14 )

it is p r e s e n t in a p p r e c i a b l e a m o u n t (greater t ha n 15%).

In m o s t thin sections cement is p r e s e n t in significant

amount. It v a r i e s f r o m 1 9 . 4 7 % to 7 0 . 1 4 % a n d a v e r a g e s to

25.37%. In m a j o r i t y of the c a s e s ferruginous cement is

observed, in so m e cases calcareous cement is a ls o

noticed. The framework constituents present includes

quartz (av 5 0 . 4 0 % ) , felspar (av 1 1 . 0 6 % ) , unstable rock

fragments (av 1 . 19 % ), mica (av 0 . 5 9 % ) , clay pellets (av

4.14%), and a c c es s o r i e s (av 0 . 0 2 % ) . A m o n g the framework

constituents clay pellets and mica are grouped along

with unstable rock fragments for classifying these

sediments. T h e p l o t s of t h e s e s a m p l e s on O k a d a 's (1971)

classification triangle; ^ ven in F i g . 3.52. Out of

23 thin sections 18 r e p r e s e n t s a r e n i t e s a n d f iv e are

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 QUARTZ

FELSPAR ROCK FRAGMENT

QUARTZ

FELSPAR ROCK FRAGMENT

Wl: QUARTZ W A C K E , W 2: Q U A R T 2 0 S E W A C K E
W2 F EL S PA T H I C W A C K E ,W/. l LITHIC W A C K E
Al: Q U A R T Z ARENITE . A 2'•Q U A R T Z O S E A RE N I T E
A3: FELSPATHIC ARENITE, A ^ a i T H I G A R E N I T E

RG-3-52; T R IAN G U LAR D IA G R A M SHOWING COMPOSITION

OF ROCKS BELONGING TO KAMTHI FORMATION
( after Okada,1971 )
 Table 3.33. Volune percentage composition of Kamthi Formation.

Sample Matrix Cement Quartz Felspars Un- Mica Clay Accesso-

No. s table pellets ries
Monocrystalline Poly- Total K-fel- Plagio- Total rock
spars clase frag­
Non- Undu- Total lline ments
undu- lose
lose

WI5 55.02 25.26 2.56 27.82 1.76 29.58 10.79 2.12 12.91 0.21 2.28
W14 - 30.91 32.59 2.99 35.58 2.62 38.20 19.31 0.51 19.82 1.73 0.33 9.00
W13 41.78 31.70 3.00 34.70 7.81 42.51 14.40 0.60 15.00 0.21 0.48

U12 5.56 31.69 38.70 3.62 42.32 I.72 44.04 15.66 1.36 17.02 0.64 1.03
Wll 36.47 51.50 2.28 53.78 2.71 56.49 5.15 1.16 6.31 0.59 0.14

WIO 46.80 31.78 0.95 32.73 1.18 33.91 15.92 1.14 17.06 1.47 0.76
W9 22.63 67.41 4.80 72.21 4.05 76.26 0.11 0.11 0.99
W8 33.41 60.12 2.38 62.50 2.10 64.60 1.70 1.70 0.28
W7 20.47 75.60 2.63 78.23 0.45 78.68 0.52 0.52 0.12 0.21
W6 5.83 35.25 38.04 1.15 39.19 3.64 42.83 11.42 3.01 14.43 1.33 0.33
W4 38.13 42.26 6.50 48.76 , 3.25 52.01 5.57 0.35 5.92 0.32 0.67 2.94
W3 70.14 21.26 21.26 21.26 8.00 0.60 8.60
W2 28.14 60.99 6.58 67.57 0.88 68.45 1.50 0.19 1.69 0.80 0.91
Mj6 - 26.73 35.50 1.36 36.86 7.71 44.57 12.89 0.50 13.39 1.39 0.50 13.38
Mj5 32.95 40.82 1.17 41.99 4.86 46.85 17.43 0.78 18.21 0.69 1.29
Mj4 20.00 42.33 2.54 44.87 7.42 52.29 14.26 1.18 15.44 2.70 1.28 8.28
Mj3 23.39 37.89 2.16 40.05 6.86 46.91 14.38 3.10 17.48 1.66 0.55 13.19
Mj2 - 26.46 36.87 2.26 39.13 8.06 47.19 17.08 4.89 21.97 2.90 0.87 0.41 0.19
Mjl 44.48 31.67 1.93 33.60 2.99 36.59 15.83 1.27 17.10 0.55 1.27
Bh5 19.47 51.94 6.25 58.19 6.83 65.62 2.55 12.96
Bh3 38.97 36.81 3,68 40.49 3.19 43.68 12.39 2.62 15.01 0.19 0.65 1.49
A
Bh2 12.19 42.94 5.47 48.41 7.24 55.65 7.83 1.47 10.45 1.61 1.14 20.10

Bhl _ 6.96 49.76 10.08 59.84 II.87 71.71 4.33 4.33 4.99 0.41 11.59

Average 25.37 7.40 42.77 3.32 46.09 4.31 50.40 9.85 1.17 11.06 1.19 0.59 4.14 0.02
 qUARTZ

FELSPAR ROCK FRAGMENT

QUARTZ

W1: QUARTZ W A C K E , W 2: Q U A R T 2 0 5 E W A C K E
W 2 •F E L5 P AT H IC W A C K E ,WZ. i LITHIC W A C K E
A1; Q U A R T Z ARENITE . A 2'•Q U A R T Z O S E A R E N I T E
A3: FEL5PATHIC ARENITE, A A a i T H I G A R E N I T E

RG-3-52: T R IAN G U LAR D IAG R A M SHOWING COMPOSITION

OF ROCKS BELONGING TO KAMTHl FORMATION
( after Okada,1971 )
 202

wackes. Within arenites, nine thin s e c t i o n s (Bh3, M j 1,

Mj3, Mj4, Mj5, W3, WIO, W 1 3 an d W 15 ) a r e of felspathic

arenite, f ou r e a c h r e p r e s e n t s q u a r t z a r e n i t e (W2, W 7 , W8

and W9) and q u a r t z o s e a r e n i t e (Bhl, B h 5 , W4 and Wll),

and o ne is of l i t h i c a r e n i t e (Bh2). Out of the f iv e

wackes, four represent f elspathic wacke (Mj2, W6, W12

a n d W1 4 ) a n d o ne is of l i t h i c w a c k e (Mj6).

In c a s e of thin s e c t i o n s s h o w i n g a r e n i t e f r a m e w o r k ,

framework grains a r e in c o n t a c t w i t h each other, in

these mostly long and concavoconvex contacts are

observed (Plate 3.46, p h o t o 2). In c a s e of f iv e thin

sections containing a p p r e c i a b l e a m o u n t of matrix the

framework c o n s t i t u e n t s are o b s e r v e d to b e floating in

the y e l l o w i s h b r o w n c o l o u r e d c l a y e y m a t r i x (Plate 3.47,

photo 1). As ferruginous cement is present in

significant amount, in m o s t c a s e s f r a m e w o r k c o n s t i t u e n t s

are o bserved to be f l o a t i n g in r e d c o l o u r e d ferruginous

cement (Plate 3.47, photo 2). In general framework

constituents s h o w v a r i a t i o n in s iz e f r o m c o a r s e s a n d to

fine sand and h ence these are poorly sorted ( P l a t e 3.46,

p h o t o 2).

In thin sections of t h es e r o c k s quartz is the

dominant mineral present which varies from 29.58% to

78.687o and averages to 50.407o. W i t h i n the q u a r t z , both

m o n o c r y s t a l l i n e an d p o l y c r y s t a l l i n e q u a r t z v a r i e t i e s are
 203

present. Monocrystalline quartz varies from 27.32% to

78.23% and averages to 4 6 . 0 9 % a n d w e l l dominates the

polycrystalline quartz, which varies from 0.45% to

1 1 . 8 7 % w i t h an a v e r a g e of 4 . 3 1 % . W i t h i n monocrystalline

quartz nonundulatory quartz we ll dominates ov er

un du l a t o r y quartz. Nonundulose quartz varies from 25.26%

to 75.60% and averages to 42.77%, while undulatory

quartz varies from 0 . 9 5 % to 1 0 . 0 8 % and averages to

3 .32%. Occasionally quartz grains exhibit outgrowth

( P l a t e 3.48, photo 1). W i t h i n q u a r t z , i n c l u s i o n s of m i c a

and ir on o x i d e are a l s o n o t i c e d ( P l a t e 3.48, photo 1).

In Plate 3.48, photo 1 coarse s an d sized quartz

exhibiting outgrowth is s e e n in c e n t r a l part, a n d in the

lower p a rt the quartz with mica an d iron oxide

inclusions is exhibited. Different varieties of

polycrystalline q u a r t z p r e s e n t a r e s h o w n in P l t e 3.49,
A**.
photo 4 to 10. Plate 3.49, photo 4 exhibit

polycrystalline quartz grain consisting of only two

grains, polycrystalline quartz grains consisting of

l a r g e n u m b e r of v a r y i n g s i z e d q u a r t z g r a i n s a r e s h o w n in

Plate 3.49, p h o t o 5 a n d 6. In P l a t e 3.49, p h o t o 5, the

quartz grains exhibit sutured contacts and in Plate

3.49, p h o t o 6, they a r e s h o w i n g parallel preferential

alignment. Following Blatt ^ ( 1972) p o l y c r y s t a l l i n e

q u a r t z e x h i b i t e d in P l a t e 3.49, p h o t o 4 is c o n s i d e r e d to

be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of g r a n i t i c q u a r t z , while t h os e shown
 204

in Plate 3.49, photo 5 and 6 are suggested to be

representative of gneissic s o u rc e . The brecciated

q u a r t z i t e f r a g m e n t s ar e s h o w n in P l a t e 3.49, photo 7 and

8. Th e o b s e r v e d fine g r a i n e d c h e r t f r a g m e n t a n d oolitic

chert f r a g m e n t s are s ee n in P l a t e 3.49, photo 9 and 10

respectively.

Felspars varies f r o m 0 . 1 1 ^ to 2 1 . 9 7 % a n d averages

to 11.0 6 %. W i t h i n f e l s p a r s , K - f e l s p a r s an d plagioclases

are present. K - f e l s p a r s v a r i e s f r o m 0 . 1 1 % to 1 9 . 3 1 % an d

averages to 9. 8 5 % . It d o m i n a t e s the p l a g i o c l a s e s which

varies f r o m 0 . 1 9 % to 4 . 8 9 % a n d a v e r a g e s to 1.17%. Within

K-felspars both m i c r o c l i n e and o r t h o c l a s e s are present

of which microcline is m o s t dominant. Most of the

felspars are s u b r o u n d e d . P l a t e 3.48, photo 2 exhibits

subrounded microcline grain with typical cross hatch

twinning. Occasionally the felspars have corroded

b o r d e r s d u e to e a t i n g b y c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e c e m e n t . Plate

3.50, photo 1 exhibits corroded borders and embayed

calcium carbonate cement in cracks of microcline.

Plagioclase is present as l at h shaped grains and

exhibits lamellar t w i n n i n g .O r t h o c l a s e occurs as

subrounded grains which are often clouded with dusty

inclusions.

U n s t a b l e r o c k f r a g m e n t s v a r i e s f r o m 0 . 1 2 % to 4.99%

and averages to 1.19%. The observed unstable rock

 205

fragments ar e exhibited in P l a t e 3.49, photo 1 to 3.

Plate 3.49, photo 1 exhibits pelmicritic limestone

fragment consisting of pale brownish pellets and

micritic calcite. Plate 3.49, photo 2 exhibits micaceous

siltstone fragment consisting of mi c a , quartz and

streaks of carbonaceous clay. Plate 3.49, photo 3

e x h i b i t s a g r a n i t i c r o c k f r a g m e n t w h i c h sh ow i n t e r g r o w t h

of q u a r t z a n d f e l s p a r . P l a t e 3.50, photo 2 is the close

u p v i e w of the s am e g r a n i t i c f r a g m e n t .

Mica varies f r o m 0 , 2 4 % to 2 . 8 8 % a n d averages to

0.59%. M i c a is d o m i n a n t l y r e p r e s e n t e d by m u s c o v i t e . It

occurs as detrital f l a k e s of v a r y i n g length and show

well developed one set of c l e a v a g e , and Ilnd order

interference colours ( P l a t e 3.49, p h o t o 2). Bending of

muscovite flakes around the c o m p e t e n t q u a r t z g r a i n s is

a l s o n ot u n c o m m o n .

Clay pellets varies from 0.41% to 20.10% and

averages to 4 .14%. The c l a y pellets are dominantly

c o n s t i t u t e d by p a l e b r o w n i s h and c a r b o n a c e o u s c lay.

Accessories a r e p r e s e n t o n l y in two samples (Mj2

a n d W 7 ). T h e y a re r e p r e s e n t e d by g a r n e t a nd z i r c o n .

In comparison w i t h the thin s e c t i o n s of Barakar

Formation (Table 3.19), the above described Kamthi

Formation thin s e c t i o n s ( T a b l e 3.33) show decrease in

 206

the matrix (Barakar - 22.85%, Kamthi - 7.407o) and

detrital mica content (Bara k a r - 6.72%, Kamthi - 0.59%),

a n d i n c r e a s e in the q u a r t z p e r c e n t a g e (Barakar - 42.73%,

Kamthi - 50.40%), as w e l l as in Kamthi comparatively

m o r e n u m b e r of thin s e c t i o n s e x h i b i t a r e n i t e framework,

therefore in comparison with Barakar t h e se are

t e x t u r a l l y as w e l l as m i n e r a l o g i c a l l y a p p e a r s to be m o r e

mature. The a b o v e d e s c r i b e d thin s e c t i o n s t u d i e s s u g g e s t

that like B a r a k a r s e d i m e n t s , t h e s e are a l s o d e r i v e d f r o m

Precambrian granites, metasediments and Pakhal

sediments. The presence of carbonaceous siltstone

containing mica indicates that during Kamthi

sedimentation, pa rt of the B a r a k a r s e q u e n c e s w e r e also

exposed in the s o u r c e r e g i o n .

Heavy mineral studies

In all 18 s a m p l e s of sandstones a nd siltstones

belonging to K a m t h i F o r m a t i o n w e r e s e l e c t e d f or heavy

mineral studies. O u t of 18 s a m p l e s , four samples (Bhl,

Bh2, Bh3 a n d B h4 ) r e p r e s e n t s B h a d r a v a t i locality, seven

samples (Mjl, M j 2, Mj3, Mj4, Mj 5 , Mj 6 a n d M j 7 ) a r e from

Majri locality and seven samples (Wl, W 2 , W3, W4, W5,W7

and Wll) rep r e s e n t the W a n i locality. T h e d e t a i l s of the

method followed for the h e a v y m i n e r a l separation are

g i v e n on P a g e .
 207

Results : The o b t a i n e d f r e q u e n c y percentages of the

transparent heavy mineral species are given in Table

3.34, In all 12 t r a n s p a r e n t h e a v y m i n e r a l species namely

zircon, tourmaline, rutile, garnet, epidote, staurolite,

monazite, sillimanite, sphen e, spinel, zoisite and

k y a n i t e ar e r e c o r d e d . Z i r c o n v a r i e s f r o m 9 . 1 4 % to 7 9 . 2 5 %

and averages to 4 9 . 8 9 % . Tourmaline varies from 0 . 4 2 % to

22.41% and averages to 7 .8 9% . Rutile varies from 1.50%

to 11.70% and a verages to 5.37%. Garnet varies from

0.68% to 8 1 . 1 2 % a n d a v e r a g e s to 18.7 7 %. Epidote varies

from 0 . 8 3 % to 1 3 . 0 9 % an d a v e r a g e s to 6 .0 8% . Staurolite

varies from 0.53% to 9 . 9 5 % and averages to 4.07%.

Monazite varies f r o m 0 . 4 1 % to 1 2 . 9 2 % and averages to

6 .11%. Sillimanite, sphene, spinel, zoisite and kyanite

are not p r e s e n t in a l l the 18 s a m p l e s studied and the

average frequency of t h e s e are 0.23%, 0.85%, 0.25%,

0.08% and 0.40% respectively. The ZTR index (combined

zircon, tourmaline and rutile percentage) varies from

1 2 . 0 6 % to 9 4 . 2 1 % a n d a v e r a g e s to 6 3 .1 5% .

Except s p i n e l all o t h e r 11 h e a v y mineral species

r e c o r d e d in s a m p l e s of K a m t h i F o r m a t i o n are a l s o p r e s e n t

in the r o c k s b e l o n g i n g to B a r a k a r F o r m a t i o n a n d Talchir

Formation and t hese s p e c i e s s h o w m o r e or less s i m i l a r

characteritstics exhibited by those present in Barakar

Formation and Talc h i r F o rmat i o n . S p i n e l is p r e s e n t in

small a m o u n t a n d is o b s e r v e d in six s a m p l e s o n l y (Bh3,

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 209

M j 1, Mj2, Mj3, Mj7 a n d W3). It v a r i e s f r o m 0.21% to

1.59%. It o c c u r s as y e l l o w i s h r e d c o l o u r e d , subangular

grains with high relief and exhibits isotropism.

The samples belonging to K a m t h i F o r m a t ion exhibit

comparatively much higher ZTR index values (av 63.15%)

than t h o se of B a r a k a r samples (av 3 3 . 5 2 % ) and in the

Kamthi samples garnet is p r e s e n t in l es s p r o p o r t i o n (av

18.77%) t h an t h o s e of B a r a k a r s ( av 4 7 . 1 6 % ) w h i c h s u g g e s t

that as c o m p a r e d to B a r a k a r s e d i m e n t s , Kamthi sediments

are m i n e r a l o g i c a l l y more mature.

X-ray diffraction studies

The clay si ze fraction of three samples was

subjected to X-ray d i f f r a c t i o n studies. Out of these

three samples, one s a m p l e (Mj2) r e p r e s e n t s matrix of

sandstone from Majri l o c a l i t y a n d two s a m p l e s (W6 and

W IO ) r e p r e s e n t the f e r r u g i n o u s s i l t s t o n e and shales from

Wan i. The procedure followed for X-ray diffraction

s t u d i e s is g i v e n on P a g e

Results : The obtained X-ray diffractograms are shown in

F i g . 3.53 and the c a l c u l a t e d 'd' s p a c i n g an d 1/I max

ratios are given in T a b l e 3.35 and 3.36. The X-ray

diffraction results reveal the p r e s e n c e of K a o l i n i t e an d

I l l i t e in t h e s e s a m p l e s . T h e d o m i n a n t p e a k s of K a o l i n i t e

observed, a r e at 7 . 1 8 dA° - 11% to 69%, 3. 5 8 dA° - 15%

 Mj 2

“T “ I I I
60 50 AO 30 20 10
20

FIG 3.53;X‘R A Y Dl F F R A C T O G R A M S OF CLAYS FROM ROCKS OF

KAMTHI FORMATION-
k ;k a o l i n i t e , i .i l l i t e
 210

Table 3.35. X-ray diffraction results of clays from rocks of

Kamthi Formation

Sample No.Mj2

Peak 26 d-spacing l/l max

No.

1. 12.42 7.12 86.05

2. 20.42 4.35 41.86

3. 21.30 4.17 37.21

4. 22.23 3.99 27.91

5. 24.96 3.57 100.00

6. 26.40 3.37 40.69

7. 27.50 3.24 43.02

8. 30.09 2.96 32.55

9. 31.50 2.84 48.83

10. 34.90 2.57 26.74

11. 37.60 2.39 22.09

12. 38.45 2.34 30.23

13. 39.30 2.29 27.91

14. 49.56 1.99 56.97

15. 53.60 1.70 25.58

 211

Table 3.36. X - r a y d i f f r a c t i o n r e s u l t s of c l a ys from rocks of

Kamthi Formation

Sample N 0 .W 6 Sampl e No.WlO

Peak 20- d-spa- I/I max Peak 2 e- d-spa- I/l max
No. cing No. cing

1. 10.27 8.62 54.35 1. 7.38 11.98 8.33

2. 11.36 7.79 100.0 0 2. 10.18 8.69 12.70
3. 11.58 7.64 65.22 3. 12.26 7.22 11.11
4. 12.26 7.22 69.56 4. 15.45 5.75 3.97
5. 2 0 .00 4.44 32.61 5. 17.99 4.93 6.75
6. 20.39 4.35 36.96 6. 19.75 4.50 3.17
7. 20.90 4.25 52.17 7. 19.90 4.46 4.36
8. 22.87 3.89 34. 78 8. 20.30 4.37 13.89
9. 23.40 3. 80 16.30 9. 20.60 4.31 3.97
10. 24.83 3. 57 90.22 10. 21. 25 4.19 5.55
11. 26.59 3.35 41.30 11. 22.76 3.91 21.43
12. 27.24 3. 27 86.96 12. 23.98 3.71 19.05
13. 29.20 3.05 46. 74 13. 24.78 3.59 16.67
14. 29.50 3.02 . 28.26 14. 26.51 3.36 15.48
15. 30.47 2.93 26.09 15. 27. 18 3.29 23.41
16. 31.17 2. 8 6 36.96 16. 27.80 3.21 3.57
17. 31.73 21.81 65.22 17. 28.85 3.09 3.17
18. 33.40 2.6 8 20.65 18. 29.73 3.00 11.90
19. 34.00 2.63 23. 91 19. 30. 13 2.96 5.95
20. 34.42 2.60 34.78 20. 31.25 2.87 5.16
21. 35.35 2.54 21.74 21. 31.44 2.84 6.75
22. 35.80 2.51 21.74 22. 33.48 2.68 11.11
23. 37.60 2.39 13.04 23. 34.88 2.57 5.75
24. 38.30 2.35 26.09 24 . 38.40 2.34 5.16
25. 39.20 2.29 30.43 25. 39.40 2.29 7.94
26. 40. 80 2.21 17.39 26. 45.39 1.99 100.00
27. 42 .70 2.11 18.48 27. 52.90 1.73 3.97
28. 45. 10 2.01 19. 56 28. 59.80 1.54 3.57
29. 47.20 1.92 18.44 29. 62.50 1.58 2.98
 212

to 1007o, 3 . 3 5 dA° - 15% to 4 0 % a n d 1.49 dA° - u p t o 16%.

T h e d o m i n a n t p e a k s of I l l i t e o b s e r v e d a r e at 1. 9 9 dA°

40% to 100%, 3 . 3 5 dA° - u p t o 58%, 1 0 . 1 0 dA° - u p t o 54%

a n d 2 . 6 0 dA° - u p t o 13%.

As in case of B a r a k a r here also Kaolinite is

considered to be i n d i c a t i v e of t r o p i c a l c l i m a t e of the

source a nd Illite to be derived from Precambrian

m e t a p e l i t e s a n d sha le s.

Granulometric studies

Method of study : In all 15 representative sandstone

s a m p l e s w e r e s e l e c t e d for g r a i n si ze s t u d i e s . Out of the

15 samples, five samples (Bhl, Bh2, Bh3, B h 4 a nd Bh5)

represent Bhadravati localty, six s a m p l e s ( M j 1, M j 2,

M j 3, M j 4, M j 5 a n d Mj6) are from Majri locality, and four

s a m p l e s (Wl, W2, W 3 a n d W4) represent Wani locality. As

these samples are hard and compact, it w as n o t possible

to disaggrigate them w i t h o u t alt e r in g the constituent

grain size and h ence the g r a i n s i z e a n a l y s i s w a s c a r r i e d

out by "thin section" method, following the procedure

given by F r i e d m a n (1962, 1967).

For g r a i n s i z e a n a l y s i s by thin s e c t i o n m e t h o d the

grain m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e c a r r i e d out by u s i n g m e c h a n i c a l

stage mounted on m i c r o s c o p e an d g r a d u a t e d eye piece,

keeping 1 mm spacing between successive traverses. The

 213

l o n g e s t a x i s of the g r a i n e n c o u n t e r e d a l o n g the t r a v e r s e

w as recorded. D u r i n g this, the d i a g e n i t i c c h a n g e s were

also taken into account and overgr o w t h s and outgrowths

of g r a i n s w e r e o m i t t e d f r o m m e a s u r e m e n t s . On an a v e r a g e ,

l o n g e s t a x i s of a b o u t 700 to 800 g r a i n s per thin s e c t i o n

were measured. Th e r e c o r d e d m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e converted

i nt o microns, a n d the d a t a o b t a i n e d w a s grouped into

classes of 0.25 phi si ze interval and from this

frequency and cumu l a t i v e perce n t ag e s were calculated.

F r o m t h e s e c u m u l a t i v e p e r c e n t a g e s F o l k and W a r d ' s ( 19 57 )

graphic measures were c a lc ul at ed and log probability

plots were prepared.

Results : The obtained grain si ze f r e q u e n c y percentages

are given in T a b l e 3 .3 7 a n d the prepared grain s i ze

frequency curves a re p r e s e n t e d in F i g . 3.54, 3.55 and

3.56. These samples exhibit polymodal grain size

distribution with d o m i n a n t m o d e of 10% to 15% in the

c o a r s e to m e d i u m s a n d s i z e g r a d e a n d s u b o r d i n a t e m o d e of

u p t o 5% in the f i n e s a n d a n d c o a r s e s i l t size gr ad e.

The calculated v a l u e s of F o l k a n d Ward's (1957)

graphic measures ar e g i v e n in T a b l e 3.38. In case of

sandstones u n d e r s t u d y the m e a n g r a i n size v a r i e s from

1.77 phi to 3 . 7 3 phi a n d h e n c e t h es e a r e described as

m e d i u m to f i n e g r a i n e d s a n d s t o n e s . E x c e p t s a m p l e Mj4, in

all other 14 s a m p l e the s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n values a re

 2-1^

Table 3.37. Grain size frequency percentages of Katnthi sedimenLs.

Size in Mj2 Mj3 Mj4 Mj5 Mj6 W1 W2 W3 W4

phi

-1.25 - - - - - - - - 0.15

-1.25-1.00 0.15 - 0.36 0.35 0.59 - - - 0.15

-1.00— 0.75 0.48 0.17 1.69 - 1.43 0.69 0.89 - - - 0.59

-0.75— 0.50 0.67 0.17 0.32 3.05 0.65 3.74 1.91 2.97 0.14 - - 0.59

-0.50-0.25 3.15 0.86 0.17 1.94 3.89 0.98 4.99 3.12 5.94 0.27 0.19 - 1.78

-0.25- 0.00 2.86 0.54 0.11 1.62 1.69 1.47 3.74 2.08 5.35 0.27 0.19 0.17 0.89

0.00- 0.25 6.39 1.94 0.33 0.21 3.08 5.42 4.07 6.96 3.81 11.00 2.06 0.39 0.33 2.52

0.25- 0.50 7.83 4.10 1.67 0.53 6.32 5.59 7.01 6.24 4.16 8.02 3.58 1.17 0.50 2.66

0.50- 0.75 8.11 4.86 5.03 1.07 7.29 3.89 8.47 4.82 3.47 8.02 4.13 1.37 3.82 6.22

0.75- 1.00 8.49 7.12 6.03 3.84 6.96 5.08 12.38 2.67 2.77 6.84 8.95 5.28 5.98 7.11

1.00- 1.25 3.82 7.01 9.55 5.02 4.86 4.23 6.52 3.39 4.51 6.84 6.89 4.89 7.97 6.22

1.25- 1.50 5.92 9.28 12.23 10.46 6.15 5.59 7.66 3.57 2.77 5.35 6.20 7.63 10.46 6.22

1.50- 1.75 5.63 10.57 15.08 13.77 0.23 5.02 7.96 4.89 4.46 5.03 4.16 6.20 10.76 11.95 9.77

1.75- 2.00 3.53 6.91 7.71 14.20 0.93 3.40 4.74 3.91 3.39 7.28 4.46 6.33 15.46 14.11 9.18

2.00- 2.25 3.63 8.63 7.88 12.60 6.60 2.91 5.25 5.05 4.99 5.90 2.38 5.10 11.15 12.28 8.14

2.25- 2.50 2.67 6.26 5.03 5.12 9.62 1.62 4.52 1.47 3.21 4.33 2.08 3.30 8.81 5.31 5.03

2.50- 2.75 1.43 2.80 2.51 3.63 10.08 1.94 1.77 1.63 3.03 5.20 1.49 2.75 3.91 2.82 3.40

2.75- 3.00 1.34 3.02 3.02 1.92 8.34 1.62 2.37 1.30 1.25 3..29 0.59 0.96 2.35 1.49 4.00

3.00- 3.25 1.43 1.94 3.18 2.56 6.95 1.46 1.52 1.47 1.96 4.68 1.19 1.93 2.54 1.83 2.81

3.25- 3.50 2.48 2.80 2.68 2.56 6.83 1.46 2.03 2.12 2.50 4.68 0.30 2.48 3.13 2.82 2.52

3.50- 3.75 2.67 1.51 1.67 1.28 5.91 1.78 2.54 i;79 1.78 3.47 0.89 2.89 1.96 1.83 1.78

3.75- 4.00 2.29 3.02 3.69 1.49 5.10 2.43 1.86 1.63 2.14 4.51 1.19 2.62 1.37 1.00 2.81

4.00- 4.50 2.19 2.70 1.67 2.03 4.29 3.24 2.54 1.79 1.43 5.20 1.19 4.96 1.37 1.49 2.52

4.25- 4.50 4.58 3.88 3.35 1.60 5.44 5.18 3.21 2.77 3.74 6.06 3.27 7.85 1.76 2.82 2.81

4.50- 4.75 5.53 4.21 4.19 1.60 7.53 5.02 3.89 2.77 4.46 5.90 2.08 7.99 0.98 2.49 2.66

4.75- 5.00 4.68 1.29 1.34 0.85 4.40 3.08 2.20 18.20 1.07 2.43 0.59 4.41 0.59 1.66 2.07

5.00 8.18 4.71 1.63 13.53 17.74 21.28 13.83 _ 18.66 2.36 12.31 7.72 12.71 6.86 5.40
 •
/.

•
/.

S ize in 0

FIG-3-5^: G R A I N SIZE F R E Q U E N C Y CURVES OF

KAMTHI FORMATION.
 •
/.

V.

Si ze in 0
FIG-3 S5: G R A I N SIZE F R E Q U E N C Y CURVES OF
KA M T H I F O R M A T I O N
 V.

V.

S i z e in 0
FIG 3-56: G RAIN SIZE F R E Q U E N C Y C U R V E S OF
KAMTHI FORMATION .
 216

between 0 . 9 9 phi to 2 .0 0 phi a n d h e n c e the se r e p r e s e n t s

poorly sorted sediments. In c a s e of sample Mj4 the

standard deviation value is 2 . 1 3 phi a n d h e n c e is very-

p o o r l y s o r t e d in n a t u r e . T h e s k e w n e s s v a l u e s of a l l the

analysed s a m p l e s a r e p o s i t i v e a n d th ey vary from 0.10

p hi to 0.54 phi and averages to 0 . 3 5 phi, suggesting

th e i r fi ne s k e w e d n a t u r e a n d the dominance of finer

admixture over the c o a r s e r . The ku rt o s i s value varies

%
from 0.54 phi to 1.37 phi an d a v e r a g e s to 0.88 phi

indicating m i x i n g of two or m o r e s u b e q u a l populations.

The p r e p a r e d log p r o b a b i l i t y p l o t s of t h e s e s a m p l e s

are e x h i b i t e d in F i g . 3.57, 3.58, 3.59, 3. 6 0 and 3.61.

The obtained percentages of the r e c o g n i s e d populations

i.e. surface creep, saltation and suspension along with

their t r u n c a t i o n p o i n t s a r e g i v e n in T a b l e 3.39. T h e log

probability plots of t h e s e s a m p l e s under study show

similar characteristics. In t h e s e samples, two well

developed populations namely saltation an d suspension

are present. O u t of 15 s a m p l e s , o n l y in one s a m p l e (Mj2)

surface creep population is present. T he saltation

population is o b s e r v e d to b e b e t t e r s o r t e d w i t h slopes

of 60° to 80° a n d is the m o s t d o m i n a n t a m o n g the three

populations. The saltation population varies from 8.50%

to 73.50% and averages to 50.37%. The suspension

p o p u l a t i o n is c o m p a r a t i v e l y p o o r e r s o r t e d w i t h s l o p e s of
 -2-1 0 1 2 3 4

F I G - 3 - 5 7 : LOG PR O B A B IL ITY PLOTS OF KAMTHI FORMATION

 Size in 0
FIG-3-56:LOG PROBABILITY PLOTS OF KAMTHI
FORMATION .
 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 A
Size in 0 S i z e in 0

FIG'3-59-. LOG PROBABILITY PLOTS OF KAM TH I FORMATION

 Size in 0
FlG -3-60: LOG P R O B A B IL IT Y PLOTS OF
KAMTHI FORMATION
 -2-1 0 1 2 3 A
Siz e in 0 S iz e in 0

F IG - 3-61: LOG PROBABILITY PLOTS OF KAMTHl FORMATlOh

 Ill

Table 3.39. Percentages of different populations and their

truncation points of Kamthi Sediments.

Sample Surface Saltation Suspension T1 T2

No. creep % 7o 1

W4 - 62.50 37.50 - 2.20

W3 - 67.50 32.50 - 2.20

W2 - 73.50 26.50 - 2.50

W1 - 43.00 57.00 - 1.60

Mj6 - 59.00 41.00 - 0.90

Mj5 - 8.50 91.50 - 0.50

Mj4 - 30.00 70.00 - 0.50

Mj3 - 53.50 46.50 - 1.25

Mj2 5.00 55.00 40.00 0.75 2.12

Mjl - 46.00 54.00 - 1.40

Bh5 - 24.00 76.00 - 2.40

Bh4 - 65.00 35.00 - 2.25

Bh3 - 68.00 42,00 - 1.75

Bh2 - 60.00 40.00 - 1.90

Bhl - 40.00 60.00 - 0.80

Average 0.33 50.37 49.96

T1 : Truncation point between surface creep population and

saltation population.

T2 : Truncation point between saltation population and

suspension population.
 218

10° to 20°. It v a r i e s f r o m 2 6 . 5 0 % to 9 1 . 5 0 % a n d a v e r a g e s

to 49.96%. The truncation point be t we e n saltation and

suspension population (T2) li es in b e t w e e n 0 . 8 0 p h i to

2.50 phi i.e. towards the c o a r s e r end, between coarse

s a n d to f i n e s a n d part. T h e s u r f a c e c r e e p is p r e s e n t in

o n l y one s a m p l e s (Mj2) w i t h c o m p a r a t i v e l y insignificant

value of 5.00% of the t o t a l distribution. It s h o ws

better s o r t i n g than the s a l t a t i o n p o p u l a t i o n . In this

sample, the t r u n c a t i o n p o i n t b e t w e e n s u r f a c e c r e e p and

saltation population (Tl) l ie s at - 0 . 7 5 phi i.e. in

c o a r s e s a n d s i z e grade.

The above described characteritstics of log

probability plots and the s h a p e s of curves of these

Kamthi s a m p l e s are s i m i l a r to t h o s e of B a r a k a r samples

and therefore it is s u g g e s t e d that similar to the

Barakars these were also deposited in fluvial

environment.

Shape analysis

In all six r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sandstones of Kamthi

Formation were subjected to F o u r i e r s h a p e a n a l y s i s . Out

of t h e s e six s a m p l e s , two s a m p l e s (Bhl a n d Bh2) a r e f r o m

Bhadravati locality, two s a m p l e s (Mjl a n d M j 2 ) represent

Majri l o c a l i t y a n d two s a m p l e s (W2 a n d W5) a r e f r o m W a n i

locality. The procedure followed f or Fourier shape

 219

analysis is d e t a i l e d in the e a r l i e r p a r t of this C h a p t e r

on Page .

Results : The ob t a i ne d m ean ampl i t u d e values (15 grains

per sample) f or t w e n t y h a r m o n i c of the a n a l y s e d samples

a r e g i v e n in T a b l e 3 .4 0 a n d the p r e p a r e d m e a n amplitude

s p e c t r a s a r e g i v e n in F i g . 3.62, 3 .6 3 a n d 3.64.

In general, the mean amplitude value for 1st

harmonic varies from 0.0293 to 0 . 0 3 5 3 a n d a v e r a g e s to

0.0284, w h i l e for 2 0t h h a r m o n i c it varies from 0.0213

to 0.0270 and averages to 0 . 0 2 4 1 . In all the samples

studied, sudden decrease in m e a n a m p l i t u d e value from

first to s e c o n d h a r m o n i c is o b s e r v e d a n d t h e r e a f t e r it

goes on d e c r e a s i n g s t e a d i l y or r e m a i n s more or less

cons t a n t .

The obtained values of partitioned roughness

c o e f f i c i e n t a n d r o u g h n e s s c o e f f i c i e n t a r e g i v e n in T a b l e

3.41. In g e n e r a l the p a r t i t i o n e d r o u g h n e s s coefficient

PI v a r i e s f r o m 0 . 0 4 6 0 to 0 . 0 4 8 8 a n d a v e r a g e s to 0.0428,

P2 v a r i e s f r o m 0 . 0 3 3 9 to 0 . 0 4 0 4 a n d a v e r a g e s to 0.0380,

P3 v a r i e s from 0.0337 to 0 . 0 4 0 1 a n d a v e r a g e s to 0.0377

and P4 varies from 0.0337 to 0 . 0 4 0 1 and averages to

0.0376 and hence decreasing t r e n d of a v e r a g e v a l u e s of

partitioned roughness c o e f f i c i e n t s f r o m PI to P4 is

observed. The roughness coefficient P5 varies from

0.0649 to 0.0826 and averages to 0 . 0 7 5 7 . In al l the

 220

Table 3.40. Grain shape mean amplitude values of Kamthi Sediments.

Sample Bhl Bh2 Mjl Mj2 W2 W5 Average

No.

1. 0.0328 0.0293 0.0353 0.0317 0.0324 0.0353 0.0284

2. 0.0241 0.0225 0.0297 0.0241 0.0248 0.0261 0.0252

3. 0.0229 0.0218 0.0261 0.0241 0.0229 0.0257 0.0239

4. 0.0234 0.0219 0.0263 0.0251 0.0239 0.0266 0.0245

5. 0.0247 0.0211 0.0244 0.0250 0.0240 0.0260 0.0242

6. 0.0242 0.0211 0.0267 0.0245 0.0238 0.0255 0.0243

7. 0.0241 0.0212 0.0273 0.0278 0.0240 0.0255 0.0249

8. 0.0242 0.0215 0.0276 0.0244 0.0240 0.0266 0.0247

9. 0.0242 0.0216 0.0280 0.0244 0.0236 0.0255 0.0245

•
10. 0.0242 0.0215 0.0276 0.0242 0.0233 0.0254 0.0244

11. 0.0240 0.0214 0.0275 0.0241 0.0234 0.0247 0.0242

12. 0.0241 0.0214 0.0272 0.0241 0.0234 0.0254 0.0243

13. 0.0241 0.0216 0.0269 0.0242 0.0232 0.0254 0.0242

14. 0.0240 0.0212 0.0269 0.0242 0.0232 0.0254 0.0242

15. 0.0242 0.0213 0.0269 0.0245 0.0231 0.0257 0.0242

16. 0.0242 0.0212 0.0269 0.0242 0.0231 0.0254 0.0241

17. 0.0240 0.0213 0.0271 0.0243 0.0229 0.0250 0.0241

18. 0.0241 0.0220 0.0263 0.0242 0.0228 0.0253 0.0241

19. 0.0240 0.0213 0.0269 0.0242 0.0227 0.0253 0.0240

20. 0.0241 0.0213 0.0270 0.0243 0.0226 0.0254 0.0241

FIG-3-62-MEAN AMPLITUDE SPECTRA
OF KAMTHI FORMATION
 HARMONICS

FIG-3-63 =M E A N AMPLITUDE SPECTRA

OF KAMTHI FORMATION
FIG.3-6^: M E A N AMPLITUDE SPECTRA
OF KAMTHI FORMATION.
 221

Table 3.41. Roughness coefficients of Kamthi sediments.

Sample PI P2 P3 P4 P5
No. (1-5) (6-10) (11-15) (16-20) (1-20)

W5 0.0448 0.0404 0.0401 0.0401 0.0731

W2 0.0414 0.0377 0.0368 0.0362 0.0763

Mj2 0.0416 0.0385 0.0383 0.0383 0.0826

Mjl 0.0404 0.0397 0.0395 0.092 0.0794

Bh2 0.0400 0.0339 0.0337 0.0337 0.0649

Bhl 0.0488 0.0383 0.0381 0.0379 0.0778

Average 0.0428 0.0380 0.0377 0.0376 0.0757

 222

samples, the p a r t i t i o n e d r o u g h n e s s c o e f f i c i e n t s (PI, P 2 ,

P3 and P4) v a lues are h i g h e r and are in the range of

0.0350 to 0.0500. The re fore , the grains from these

sandstones can be d e s c r i b e d as less c i r c u l a r and rou gh

textured.
 PLATE 3 .1

Photo 1 : Y e l l o w i s h g reen coloured, m a s s i v e

d i a m i c t i t e e x h i b i t i n g p r e s e n c e of
s u b r o u n d e d fels p a t h i c gnei s s
boulders, Kochi locality.

Photo 2 ; S t r i a t e d boul d e r from m a s s i v e

d i a m i c t i t e of G h o n a d stream, East of
K o c h i village.
Plate 31

Photo 1

W.:

^:;.v

Photo 2
 P late 3-2

Phot o 1

P h o to 2
Plate 31

Photo 1

Photo 2
 P late 3-2

Phot o 1

P h o to 2
Plate 3-3

Photo )

Photo 2
Plaie 3-^

Photo 1

Photo 2
Plate 3-3

Photo 1

Photo 2
Plaie 3-^

Photo 1

Photo 2
P late 3-5

Pho 10 T

P hoto 2
 P la te 3 6

Phot o t

P hoto 2
P late 3-5

Pho 10 T

P hoto 2
 P la te 3 6

Phot o t

P hoto 2
P la te 3 7

■f’
' -V-
*.'i>7

>/*
,rf-

Photo 1

Photo 2
Plate 3-8

P hoto 2
P la te 3 7

<•' .fei-y ", 5 ^ v ’

' '- {^

V ' '^..fn-- ’ , ^

Photo 1

Photo 2
Plate 3-8

P hoto 2
Pla»e 3 9

Photo 1

Photo 2
P la te 3)0

Phot o 1

Ph o to 2
Pla»e 3 9

Photo 1

Photo 2
P la te 310

Phot o 1

Ph o to 2
P late 3-n

Phot o 1

Photo 2

'..'-^'-'-v5‘
'^^4<^>-' y-^■
1<^^/'',‘ -^•^■
''--.^.

.■^*fe-sy,;v.r- *

^%j^^6W'- -V-V.". /-, ■

Plate 312

Photo 1

Photo 2
P late 3-n

Phot o 1

Photo 2
Plate 312

Photo 1

Photo 2
P l a t e 3-13

Photo 1

Photo 2
 P la ie 3 U

Photo 1

Photo 2
P l a t e 3-13

Photo 1

Photo 2
 P la ie 3 U

Photo 1

Photo 2
P la te 3-15

Photo 1

Photo 2
 P late 3-16

*>»»• #

--Ik ■
''«•** *
mm.
P la te 3-15

Photo 1

Photo 2
 P late 3-16

it.%*

mm.
P la te 3-17

mm.
 Plate 318

0
mm.
P la te 3-17

mm.
 Plate 318

0
mm
P la te 3-19

D n0t
a D

8 10

11 U
15

17 18
0 A
19 20

0 -5 m m
 P la te 3-20

100/im
100

I-.

AO;um

20 f t m
2 0 /A m
P la te 3-19

D A D

8 10

11 U
15

V'?.

17 18 19 20

0 -5 m m
 PLATE 3 .2 1

S u r f a c e t e x t u r e s of g a r n e t grains

a. Subangular garnet showing conchoidal breakage

p a t t e r n w i t h s h a r p edges and a n g u l a r
boarders.

b. S u b r o u n d e d g a r n e t w i t h c o n c h o i d a l breakage,
m i c r o b l o c k t e x t u r e and p o l i s h e d surfaces.

c. Seitiiparallel s teps on the s u r f a c e of g a r n e t

w i t h d e v e l o p m e n t of s t r i a t i o n s at an h i g h
a n g l e t o it.

d. A n g u l a r g a r n e t w i t h d e v e l o p m e n t of b r o a d V
s h a p e d groove.

e. Close up view of deep, m o r e or less

s t r a i g h t g r o o v e o b s e r v e d on the s u r f a c e of
garnet.

f. S m a l l s c a l e m e c h a n i c a l l y formed V s h a p e d
i n d e n t a t i o n s on the surf a c e of garnet,
s h o w i n g p r e f e r r e d orientation.
Plate 3-21

200 |um

20 >um
10 M m
P la te 3 22

Phot o 1

Photo 2
Plate 3-21

tO-|-fili
• H"-'
ysH

100 Mm

- o

20 >um
10 M m
P late M

Photo 7

Photo 2
 P la te 1-2

Photo 1

'w^ P hoto 2
P la te 3 22

Phot o 1

Photo 2
 PLATE 3 .2 4

Photo 1 : Coarse grained sandstone with

s o l i t e r y set of large s cale p l a n a r
t a b u l a r crossbedding. Locality West
of Chandur.

Photo 2 : S a n d s t o n e e x h i b i t i n g large n u m b e r of
c r o s s b e d d e d sets stac k e d over one
a nother. L o c a l i t y W e s t of Chandur.
 PLATE 3 .2 5

Photo 1 : S a n d s t o n e e x h i b i t i n g large scale

c r o s s b e d d e d set w i t h lower p l a n a r
e r o s i o n a l surface. L o c a l i t y W e s t of
Chandur.

Photo 2 : C o m p o s i t e n a t u r e of f o r e s e t and c r u d e
g r a d a t i o n f rom g r a n u l e to m e d i u m sand
in th e for e sts of large scale
c r o s s b e d d e d sandstones. Locality
W e s t of Chandur.
Plate 3-23

Photo 2
P lafe 3- 2A

Photo 2
 PLATE 3 .2 6

Photo 1 : Sandstones exhibiting laterally

c o n t i n u o u s large scale t a b u l a r
c r o s s b e d d e d sets. L o c a l i t y W e s t of
Chandur.

Photo 2 : L a r g e s cale t a b u l a r c r o s s b e d d e d
s a n d s t o n e in w h i c h f o r ests are seen
t o be t h r o w n into c o n v o l u t e bedding.
L o c a l i t y W e s t of Chandur.
 PLATE 3 .2 7

Photo 1 : Medium grained sandstone exhibiting

c u r r e n t r i p p l e laminations. Locality
W e s t of Chandur.

Photo 2 : C o a r s e g r a i n e d h o r i z o n t a l l y (flat)
b e d d e d s a n d s t o n e in b e t w e e n large
s c a l e c r o s s b e d d e d sets. Locality
w e s t of Chandur.
p late 3-27

Phot o 1

P hoto 2
'■ " - ----- - - .', ;'^: . . , U - ^

<- ' . - X- 'T

■^V-■
'.
^ ■■■•■'
''Ty^'^C-
■
■ ■
■
■
•■
■
;'■
■*/
■ •.. • -
. !■
-.,
• ■ ^ :> \ -
^
" ^'^:‘t " -
, -‘
■■'"'^L'
‘ ■ .-•'•V -:- '■ .- V = V ‘ !> :C ^ v
 P la te 3-28

Photo 1

P hoio 2
 PLATE 3 .2 8

Photo 1 : C o a r s e g r a i n e d h o r i z o n t a l (flat)
b e d d e d s a n d s t o n e o v e r l a i n by large
s c a l e c r o s s b e d d e d sandstone.
L o c a l i t y W e s t of Chandur.

Photo 2 : R i p p l e l ami n a t e d fine g r a i n e d

s a n d s t o n e w i t h large n u m b e r of sets
s t a c k e d on one another. Locality
W e s t of Chandur.
 PLATE 3 .2 9

Photo 1 S m a l l s c a le sinu o u s c r e s t e d l i n g u o i d
r i p p l e m a r k s in the fine g r a i n e d
s a n d s t o n e s. L o c a l i t y W e s t of
Chandur.

Photo 2 P o l i s h e d h a n d s p e c i m e n of c a r b o n a c e o u s
s i l t s t o n e e x h i b i t i n g cross
l a m i n ation, s h o w i n g c o n c a v e n a t u r e of
f o r e s e t s and lower t a n g e n t i a l c o n t a c t
and angular contact with upper
b i n d i n g surface. In the u p p e r part
of p h o t o p a r a l l e l l a m i n a t i o n m a r k e d
by c a r b o n a c e o u s rich and c a r b o n a c e o u s
p o o r q u a r t z rich laminae is seen.
N o t e th e p r e s e n c e of c a r b o n a c e o u s
m a t e r i a l d e p o s i t e d a long the f o r e s e t
of c r o s s l a m i n a t i o n in c e n t r a l p a r t
of photo. L o c a l i t y R a j u r coal mine.
 P late 3-29

. s- : -V .. '. , Vv!^
\■'' A V ' 1 .!:’‘' 'V >.\
P hot o 1 H - r ^ r ' ^ v -1
"^- -v- .-4- ■ . ^ i. v.^i ' •
. ^ \- V'
• r -,. . > 5 ■■«-: . • . ;- . T ■ I 5ik • . ', J

Photo 2
 P la te 3 30

Photo 1

Photo 2
 PLATE 3 .3 0

Photo 1 : C o n v o l u t e l a m i n a t i o n in siltstone,
L o c a l i t y W e s t of Chandur.

Photo 2 : F e r r u g i n o u s shale o v e r l a i n by c o a r s e
g r a i n e d s a n d s t o n e w i t h s harp
e r o s i o n a l contact. Note the p r e s e n c e
of c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e c o n c r e t i o n s in
s a ndstone. L o c a l i t y W e s t of Chandur.
 PLATE 3.31

Photo 1 : Photomicrograph exhibiting wacke

f r a m e w o r k w i t h a p p r e c i a b l e a m o u n t of
c a r b o n a c e o u s c l a y e y m a t r i x in w h i c h
f r a m e w o r k g r a i n s are f l o a t i n g (6.3 x
10, P . P . L . ) .

Photo 2 : Photomicrograph exhibiting poorly

s o r t e d f r a m e w o r k g r a i n s f l o a t i n g in
c a l c a r e o u s cement. (3.2 x 10, B.C.N.)
Plate 3-31

Photo 1

Photo 2
PInie 3 32

lo 2
 PLATE 3.32

P h o to 1 P h o to m ic ro g ra p h e x h ib itin g d a rk b ro w n
fe rru g in o u s cem ent in w h ic h fra m e w o rk
g r a in a re f lo a tin g . N o te th e
p re s e n c e o f fe r r u g in o u s cem ent in th e
c ra c k s o f fra m e w o rk g ra in s . (3 .2 x
10, P . P . L . ).

Photo 2 P h o to m ic ro g ra p h e x h ib itin g p o o rly

s o rte d n a tu re o f fra m e w o rk g ra in s ,
f lo a t in g in th e m a trix . N o te th e
v a r ia tio n fro m s i l t to m e d iu m sand
s iz e d fra m e w o rk g r a in s o f q u a rtz and
fe ls p a r . (3 .2 x 10, B . C . N . ) .
 PLATE 3.33

P h o to 1 : P h o to m ic ro g ra p h o f s ilt s t o n e
e x h ib itin g c a rb o n a c e o u s c la y r ic h and
q u a rtz r ic h ba n d s, w ith fe w b io t it e
fla k e s in c e n tr a l p a r t o f p h o to . (6 .3
X 10, P . P . L . ).

P h o to 2 : P h o to m ic ro g ra p h e x h ib itin g c o a rs e
sand s iz e d p o ly c r y s ta llin e and
ro o n o c ry s ta llin e q u a rtz g r a in s
c o n ta in in g in c lu s io n s o f m ic a and
ir o n o x id e , flo a tin g in c a lc a re o u s
c e m e n t. (3 .2 x 10, B . C . N . ) .
Plate 3-33

Phoio 1

^ ^ •. MI

Photo 2
Plate 33.

Photo 1

Photo 2
 PLATE 3.3 4

P h o to 1 P h o to m ic ro g ra p h e x h ib itin g
p o ly c r y s ta llin e ro c k fra g m e n ts
c o n s is tin g o f la r g e num ber o f q u a rtz
g ra in s o f v a ry in g s iz e s ( c e n tr a l and
u p p e r c e n tr a l p a r t o f p h o to )
m o n o c ry s ta llin e q u a rtz and fe ls p a r s
f lo a t in g in c a lc a re o u s c e m e n t. (6 .3 x
10, B . C . N . ).

Photo 2 P h o to m ic ro g ra p h o f q u a r tz ite fra g m e n t

c o n s is tin g o f e lo n g a te d b la d e d q u a rtz
s h o w in g rib b o n s tr u c tu r e . (6 .3 x 10,
B . C . N . ).
 PLATE 3.35

P h o to 1 P h o to m ic ro g ra p h e x h ib itin g b re c c ia te d
q u a r tz ite fra g m e n t f lo a tin g in
c a lc a re o u s c e m e n t. (6 .3 x 10,
B . C . N . ).

Photo 2 P h o to m ic ro g ra p h e x h ib itin g c o a rs e
sand s iz e d m ic ro c lin e g ra in w ith
t y p ic a l c ro s s h a tc h e d tw in in g . N o te
th e c o rro d e d b o a rd e rs o f m ic r o c lin e
due to e a tin g by c a lc iu m c a rb o n a te
and p re s e n c e o f c a lc iu m c a rb o n a te
cem e nt a lo n g th e c ra c k s and c le v a g e s
o f m ic r o c lin e . (3 .2 x 10, B . C . N . ) .
Photo 1

Photo 2
 Plate 3-3(

P hot o 1

4'; - •
..
■J".
■ \

Photo 2
 PLATE 3.36

P h o to 1 P h o to m ic ro g ra p h e x h ib itin g c o a rs e
sand s iz e d su b ro u n d e d p la g io c la s e
( c e n tr a l p a r t o f p h o to ) and
o rth o c la s e ( lo w e r c e n tra l p a r t o f
p h o to ) f lo a tin g in fe r r u g in o u s
c e m e n t. (3 .2 x 10 x P . P . L . ) . N o te
th e p re s e n c e o f fe rru g in o u s cem ent
a lo n g th e c ra c k s o f o r th o c la s e .

Photo 2 P h o to m ic ro g ra p h e x h ib itin g a
m u s c o v ite fla k e bended a ro u n d th e
m ic r o c lin e g ra in . (6 .3 x 10, B .C .N .)
 PLATE 3.37

P h o to 1 P h o to m ic ro g ra p h e x h ib itin g c o lo u rle s s
m u s c o v ite and p a le b ro w n is h b io t it e
fla k e s w ith one s e t o f c le v a g e ,
s h o w in g c o n c e n tra tio n and p re fe re d
o r ie n ta tio n . N o te th e c lo s e
a s s o c ia tio n o f m ic a fla k e s w ith
c a rb o n a c e o u s s tre a k s and g a lls . (6 .3
X 10, P . P . L . ).

Photo 2 P h o to m ic ro g ra p h e x h ib itin g lim e fla k e

c o n g lo m e ra te fra g m e n t ( c e n tr a l p a r t
o f p h o to ) and m ic r it ic lim e s to n e
fra g m e n t (u p p e r l e f t and lo w e r r ig h t
h a nd p o r tio n o f p h o to ). (3 .2 x 10,
B . C . N . ).
Photo 1
Plaie 3-38

Photo 1
 Z ojOMd

I O jO M d

L Z Z eiDid
 I Ojoqd

L OiOMd

se e ejDid
 PLATE 3.38

P h o to 1 : P h o to m ic ro g ra p h s h o w in g a g r a n it ic
fra g m e n t e x h ib itin g in te rg ro w th o f
q u a rtz and fe ls p a r .
(3 .2 X 10, B . C . N . ).

P h o to 2 ; P h o to m ic ro g ra p h e x h ib itin g
c o n c e n tra tio n s o f c o lo u rle s s
s u b a n g u la r to su b ro u n d e d g a rn e ts
( c e n tr a l p a r t o f p h o to ) and
c a rb o n a c e o u s c la y p e lle ts ( l e f t u p p e r
p a r t o f p h o to ) (3 .2 x 10, P . P . L . ) .
 PLATE 3.3 9

P h o to 1 : S c a n n in g e le c tr o n m ic ro p h o to g ra p h o f
q u a rtz e x h ib itin g c o n c h o id a l b re a k a g e
p a tte r n w ith ro u n d e d ed ge s.

P h o to 2 : S c a n n in g e le c tro n m ic ro p h o to g ra p h o f
q u a rtz e x h ib itin g tw o s e ts o f g ro o v e s
a t h ig h a n g le to each o th e r. N o te
th e s m a ll s c a le V shaped in d e n ta tio n s
in th e c e n tr a l p a r t o f p h o to .
P l a t e 3 39

Photo 1

Photo 2
 Plate 340

Photo 1

Photo 2
 PLATE 3.4 0

P h o to 1 : S c a n n in g e le c tro n m ic r o p h o to g r a p h
g a rn e t s h o w in g hum m ocky, s m o o th
fa c e te d s u rfa c e .

P h o to 2 : S c a n n in g e le c tr o n m ic ro p h o to g ra p h
e x h ib itin g r e g u la r ly p a tte rn e d
s h a r p ly fa c e te d g a rn e t.
 PLATE 3.41

P h o to 1 C o a rs e g ra in e d s a n d s to n e e x h ib itin g
h o r iz o n ta l ( f la t ) b e d d in g (lo w e r p a r t
o f p h o to ) c o n to rte d b e d d in g (m id d le
p a r t o f p h o to ) and la r g e s c a le
ta b u la r c ro s s b e d d in g (u p p e r p a r t o f
p h o to ). L o c a lity M a jr i.

Photo 2 C o m p o s ite n a tu re and in te r n a l c ru d e

g ra d in g o f th e fo re s e ts o f la r g e
s c a le ta b u la r c ro s s b e d d e d s a n d s to n e ,
L o c a lity M a jr i.
PlQie 3 A1

Photo I

Phoro 2
Plate 3 A2

Photo 1

Photo 2
 PLATE 3.42

P h o to 1 : G ra n u le c o n g lo m e ra te e x h ib itin g la r
s c a le tro u g h c ro s s b e d d in g . L o c a lit
M a jr i.

P h o to 2 : L a rg e s c a le tro u g h c ro s s b e d d e d
s a n d s to n e o v e rly in g th e la r g e s c a le
p la n a r ta b u la r c ro s s b e d d e d s a n d s to n
w ith e ro s io n a l c o n ta c t. L o c a lity
W a n i.
 PLATE 3.43

P h o to 1 L a rg e s c a le c ro s s b e d d e d s a n d s to n e
w ith s ig m o id a l n a tu re o f fo r e s e t.
N o te th e e ro s io n a l lo w e r c o n ta c t and
a lte r n a te c o a rs e and fin e sand s i z e
m a te r ia l in th e fo re s e ts . L o c a lity
W a n i.

Photo 2 S a n d s to n e s h o w in g p a r a lle l a lig n m e n t

o f e lo n g a te d c la y g a lls . L o c a lity
M a jr i.
 Plate 3 A 3

Photo 1

Photo 2
 Plate 3 A A

Photo 1

Phot o 2
 PLATE 3.4 4

P h o to 1 : M e d iu m g ra in e d s a n d s to n e e x h ib itin g
c u r r e n t r ip p le la m in a tio n s . L o c a li
W a n i.

P h o to 2 : F e rru g in o u s s h a le s e x h ib itin g
p a r a lle l la m in a tio n s . L o c a lity W an
 PLATE 3.4 5

P h o to 1 : D a rk re d d is h b ro w n fe rru g in o u s b a n d s,
a s s o c ia te d w ith fe r r u g in o u s s h a le .
L o c a lity W a n i.

P h o to 2 : F e r r u g in o u s s h a le s e x h ib itin g
ir r e g u la r m u d c ra c k s . L o c a lity W a n i.
Plate 3 A5

Ph o t o T

;-4fy >' 'L" ^ .

l> .V .. A
r ,,T^..

iSf^ ' i y ^ i , j^- 'V iife Sst' .3

Photo 2
Plate 3 A6

Photo 1

Photo 2
 PLATE 3.46

P h o to 1 F e rru g in o u s s h a le s e x h ib itin g la r g e
s i z e m u d c ra c k s w ith m o re o r le s s
r e g u la r p o ly g o n a l sha pe . N o te th e
s u p e rim p o s itio n o f s m a ll m u d c ra c k s
la rg e s iz e m u d c ra c k s . L o c a lity W ai

Photo 2 P h o to m ic ro g ra p h s h o w in g a r e n it ic
fra m e w o rk , e x h ib itin g lo n g and
co n c a vo co n ve x c o n ta c ts o f fra m e w o r]
g ra in s . (3 .2 x 10, B . C . N . ) . N o te ■
p re s e n c e o f c o a rs e sand s iz e d , fim
g ra in e d c h e rt fra g m e n t in th e c e n t]
p a r t o f p h o to .
 PLATE 3.47

P h o to 1 : P h o to m ic ro g ra p h e x h ib itin g w acke
fra m e w o rk in w h ic h th e c o n s titu e n t
g ra in s a te flo a tin g in y e llo w is h
b ro w n c la y e y m a trix (3 .2 x 10,
B . C . N . ).

P h o to 2 ; P h o to m ic ro g ra p h e x h ib itin g p o o rly
s o rte d fra m e w o rk g r a in s f lo a tin g in
re d c o lo u re d fe rr u g in o u s cem ent (6 .3
x 10, P . P . L . ) . N o te th e p re s e n c e o f
o o l i t i c c h e rt fra g m e n t in th e c e n tr a l
p a r t o f p h o to .
Plate 3 A7

Photo 1

Photo 2
Plate 3-A8

Photo 1

Photo 2
 PLATE 3.48

P h o to 1 : P h o to m ic ro g ra p h e x h ib itin g c o a rs e
sand s iz e d q u a rtz w ith o u tg ro w th ar
ir o n o x id e in c lu s io n s ( c e n tr a l p a rt
o f p h o to ) and m e d iu m sand s iz e q u a i
w ith m ic a and ir o n o x id e in c lu s io n s
( l e f t lo w e r p a r t o f p h o to ) (6 .3 x ]
B . C . N . ).

P h o to 2 : P h o to m ic ro g ra p h e x h ib itt in g c o a rs e
sand s iz e d m ic ro c lin e and o rth o c la s
g ra in s ( l e f t hand p o r tio n o f p h o to ]
and m u s c o v ite fla k e in c e n tra l p a r1
o f p h o to . (3 .2 x 10, B . C . N . ).
 PLATE 3.49

U n s t a b l e r o c k f r a g m e n t s : P hoto 1, 2 and 3.

P h o to 1 P e lm ic r it ic lim e s to n e fra g m e n t
c o n s is tin g o f p a le b ro w n is h p e lle ts
and m ic r it ic c a lc ite .

P h o to 2 M ic a c e o u s s ilts to n e fra g m e n t
c o n s is ttin g o f m ic a , g u a rtz and
c a rb o n a c e o u s c la y .

P h o to 3 G r a n itic ro c k fra g m e n t s h o w in g
in te r g r o w th o f q u a rtz and fe ls p a rs .

P o ly c r y s ta llin e q u a rtz : P h o to 4 to 10.

P h o to 4 P o ly c r y s ta llin e q u a rtz c o n s is tin g o f

o n ly tw o g u a rtz g ra in s .

P h o to 5 P o ly c r y s ta llin e q u a rtz g r a in s
and 6 c o n s is tin g o f la r g e num ber o f v a ry in g
s iz e d q u a rtz g r a in s w ith s u tu re d
c o n ta c ts (P h o to 5) and s h o w in g
p a r a lle l p r e fe rre d a lig n m e n t (P h o to
6) .

P h o to 7 B re c c ia te d q u a rz ite fra g m e n ts .
and 8

P h o to 9 : F in e g ra in e d c h e rt fra g m e n t.

P h o t o 10 : O o l i t i c c h e r t fragment.
Plate 3 ^ 9

mm.
Plate 3 50

Photo 1

Photo 2
 PLATE 3.50

P h o to 1 P h o to m ic ro g ra p h e x h ib itin g c o a rs e
sand s i z e m ic ro c lin e g ra in f lo a tin g
in c a lc iu m c a rb o n a te c e m e n t. N o te
th e c o rro d e d b o a rd e r o f m ic ro c lin e
due to e a tin g by c a lc iu m c a rb o n a te
cem e nt and p re s e n c e o f em bayed
c a lc iu m c a rb o n a te cem ent a lo n g th e
c ra c k s o f m ic ro c lin e (6 .3 x 10,
B . C . N . ).

Photo 2 C lo s e up v ie w o f P la te 3 .4 9 , P h o to 2
e x h ib itin g th e sam e g r a n it ic fra g m e n t
s h o w in g in te rg ro w th o f g u a rtz and
fe ls p a r . (6 .3 x 10, B . C . N . ) .