UTL200 Water

200 Water
Abstract
This section gives guidelines for providing and treating water for use in potable
water systems, injection systems, boilers, coolers, fire water systems, and tempered
safety shower systems.
It begins with a discussion of water sources, their analysis for suitability to purpose,
expected demand, costs, and limitations. General methods of external water treat-
ment are then presented so the reader has a background for the remainder of the
section.
The importance of water recycling as an economic practice is presented, along with
suggestions for accomplishing recycling.
Fire water and cooling water are not covered beyond giving water quality require-
ments. References are made to other Company manuals.
The discussion on potable water production methods and equipment is slanted
toward offshore practices, but contains information equally applicable to onshore
usage, especially the discussion of disinfection by chlorine and other methods.
Sub-section 280 provides guidance on design of tempered water systems for safety
shower and eyewash units.
Contents Page
210 Water Supply 200-4

211 Sources
212 Analysis
213 Demand
214 Costs
215 Limitations
216 Glossary of Terms
220 Water Treatment Methods 200-14
221 Natural
222 Filtration
Chevron Corporation 200-1 December 2000

200 Water Utilities Manual
223 Chemical
224 Distillation
225 Reverse Osmosis
230 Water Recycling 200-35
240 Fire Water 200-36
241 Water Quality
242 Water Supply
250 Cooling Water 200-36
251 Water Quality
252 Water Supply
260 Boiler Feedwater 200-36
261 Water Quality
262 Feedwater System Design
263 Water Treatment, General
264 External Treatment
265 Internal Treatment
266 External Treatment, Company Practice
267 Internal Treatment, Company Practice
270 Potable Water 200-57
271 Water Quality
272 Potable Water Source
273 Disinfection
274 Ultraviolet Light Disinfection
275 Reverse Osmosis
276 Calculation Procedures
277 Defining Procurement Parameters
278 Potable Water Tanks
280 Tempered Water Systems for Safety Shower and Eyewash 200-77
281 Scope
282 Water Supply
283 Tempered Water Systems
284 “In-Use” Alarms
285 Instrumentation
December 2000 200-2 Chevron Corporation

Utilities Manual 200 Water
286 Accessories
287 Start-Up
288 Maintenance
289 Tempered Water Systems References
290 References 200-82

210 Water Supply
211 Sources
Sources of potable water include fresh water aquifers, rivers, lakes, desalinated or
evaporated seawater, brackish water, and municipal drinking water systems.
The water source chosen depends on comparative economics and the socioeco-
nomic impact on adjacent communities. Municipal water supplies can usually
supply as much water as is needed, although additional pipelines to the site may be
needed. Water supplied from wells, rivers, lakes, and reservoirs may be limited by
allowable withdrawal as defined by the governing water agency. Flow rates need to
be established using pump tests and hydrogeological studies.
Municipal water supplies, when available, are the preferred source of water. They
have been treated, to remove the majority of suspended solids and dissolved solids,
in treatment plants larger and more efficient than the Company would build. Their
use minimizes Company plant investment.
212 Analysis
Detailed chemical analysis is required for each potential source of water to estab-
lish treating requirements of various plant facilities and to determine overall suit-
ability of the source. A list of the data needed is included in Figure 200-1. Several
samples are required over a representative period of time to establish normal varia-
tions in the source; be especially aware of seasonal variations in source water.
Figure 200-2 shows the composition of standard seawater. Figure 200-3 shows the
most common impurities and the problems they cause and gives suggested treat-
ment. The more important constituents are:
• Bacteria count. These data are used to establish the extent of sterilization
required before use as potable water. In the case of seawater desalination by
reverse osmosis, sterilization is also required prior to filtration.
• Metals. Metals contained in water (especially seawater) may cause rapid deteri-
oration of osmotic membranes.
• Total dissolved solids (TDS). Potable water should not contain more than 500
ppm TDS. The capacity of reverse osmosis units decreases with seawater
containing more than 35,000 ppm TDS.
• Incompatible constituents. Some constituents, such as calcium or sulfates,
may not be compatible with formation waters. This is a concern when the water
will be used for desalting, mud making, injection, boiler, or cooler feed water.
• pH. Scaling tendency increases when pH levels rise above 7. Control of pH is
required in certain desalination units to avoid scale problems or fouling of
osmotic membranes.

Fig. 200-1 Suggested Source Water Analysis(1) (1 of 2)

Bacteria, count/100 mL
Chemical Constituents, mg/L
Alkylbenzene sulfonate (ABS)
Arsenic (As)
Barium (Ba)
Bicarbonate (HCO3)
Boric acid
Bromide (Br)
Cadmium (Cd)
Calcium (Ca)
Carbon chloroform extract (CCE)
Chloride (Cl)
Chromium, hexavalent (Cr+6)
Copper (Cu)
Cyanide (Cn)
Fluoride (F)
Iron (Fe)
Iodide (I)
Lead (Pb)
Manganese (Mn)
Magnesium (Mg)
Nitrate (NO3)
Phenols
Potassium (K)
Selenium (Se)
Silicon (Si)
Silver (Ag)
Sodium (Na)
Strontium (Sr)
Sulfate (SO4)
Zinc (Zn)
Color, units
Conductivity
Odor, threshold number

Fig. 200-1 Suggested Source Water Analysis(1) (2 of 2)

pH
Residue
Filterable, mg/L
Total, mg/L
Scaling index
Specific gravity
Taste, description
Temperature of specific solids
Total dissolved solids, mg/L
Turbidity, NTU
(1) Not all required in each case.
The typical effect of feedwater dissolved solids on performance of reverse osmosis

units is shown by the following.
Seawater TDS, ppm % Rated Flow
34,500 100
35,000 99
35,500 98
36,000 96
36,500 95
37,000 93
37,500 92
38,000 90
38,500 89
39,000 88
39,500 86
40,000 85
42,500 80
45,000 74
47,500 62
50,000 54
Water analyses are conventionally expressed, for both cations and anions, in parts
per million by weight (ppmw) except for hardness and alkalinity, which are usually
expressed in ppmw of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). These ppmw values can be
converted to a common basis (such as milli-equivalents/ liter) by dividing by the
equivalent weight of the ion and multiplying by the specific gravity of the water

Fig. 200-2 Composition of Standard Seawater

Component Expressed as ION Composition (g/kg) Expressed as ppm CaCO3
Calcium Ca++ 0.40001 1,000
Magnesium Mg++ 1.2720 5,237
+
Sodium Na 10.5561 22,979
Potassium K+ 0.3800 486
++
Strontium Sr 0.0133 15
Silicon Si++++ 0.0001
Sum of Cations 12.61215 29,717
Bicarbonate HCO3− 0.1397 115

−
Sulfate SO4 2.6486 2,760
Chloride C1− 18.9799 26,792
−
Bromide Br 0.0646 40
Fluoride F− 0.0013 3
−
Iodide I (0.00005) 0.02
Sum of Anions 21.8342 29,710
Boric Acid H3BO3 0.0260

Others 0.0013
Total Dissolved Solids 34.4830
Water 965.5170
Total 1000.0000
Chlorine Cl− 19.000

Salinity 34.325
Hardness CaCO3 6.237 6,237
“M” Alkalinity CaCO3 0.115 115
Specific Gravity (at 20°C) 1.0243
pH 7.5—8.8
Conductivity (mho) 52,000

Fig. 200-3 Common Characteristics and Impurities in Water (1 of 2)

Constituent Chemical Formula Difficulties Caused Means of Treatment
Turbidity None, usually expressed in Imparts unsightly appearance to water; Coagulation, settling and filtration
Jackson Turbidity Units deposits in water lines, process equip-
ment, boilers, etc.; interferes with most
process uses
Color None—decaying organic mate- May cause foaming in boilers; hinders Coagulation, filtration, chlorination,
rial and metallic ions precipitation methods such as iron adsorption by activated carbon
removal, hot phosphate softening
Hardness Calcium, magnesium, barium Chief source of scale in heat exchange Softening, distillation, internal boiler
and strontium salts expressed equipment, boilers, piping water treatment, surface active agents,
as CaCO3 reverse osmosis, electrodialysis
Alkalinity Bicarbonate (HCO3-1), carbonate Foaming and carryover of solids with Lime and lime-soda softening, acid treat-
(CO3-2), and hydroxyl (OH-1), steam; embrittlement of boiler steel; ment, hydrogen zeolite softening,
expressed as CaCO3 bicarbonate and carbonate produce CO2 demineralization, dealkalization by anion
in steam, a source of corrosion exchange, distillation, degasifying
Free Mineral H2SO4, HCl, etc., expressed as Corrosion Neutralization with alkalies
Acid CaCO3, titrated to methyl orange
end-point
Carbon Dioxide CO2 Corrosion in water lines and particularly Aeration, deaeration, neutralization with
steam and condensate lines alkalies, filming and neutralizing amines
pH Hydrogen Ion concentration pH varies according to acidic or alkaline pH can be increased by alkalies and
defined as solids in water; most natural waters decreased by acids
have a pH of 6.0 - 8.0
1
pH = log --------------
( +1 )
H
Sulfate (SO4)-2 Adds to solids content of water, but, in Demineralization, distillation, reverse
itself, is not usually significant; combines osmosis, electrodialysis
with calcium to form calcium sulfate
scale
Chloride Cl-1 Adds to solids content and increases Demineralization, distillation, reverse
corrosive character of water osmosis, electrodialysis
Nitrate (NO3)-1 Adds to solids content, but is not usually Demineralization, distillation, reverse
significant industrially; useful for control osmosis, electrodialysis
of boiler metal embrittlement
Fluoride F-1 Not usually significant industrially Adsorption with magnesium hydroxide,
calcium phosphate, or bone black; Alum
coagulation; reverse osmosis; electrodi-
alysis
Silica SiO2 Scale in boilers and cooling water Hot process removal with magnesium
system; insoluble turbine blade deposits salts; adsorption by highly basic anion
due to silica vaporization exchange resins, in conjunction with
demineralization; distillation
Iron Fe+2 (ferrous) Discolors water on precipitation; source Aeration, coagulation and filtration, lime
Fe+3 (ferric) of deposits in water lines, boilers, etc. softening, cation exchange, contact
filtration, surface active agents for iron
retention
Manganese Mn+2 same as iron same as iron
Oil Expressed as oil or chloroform Scale, sludge and foaming in boilers; Baffle separators, strainers, coagulation
extractable matter, ppmw impedes heat exchange and filtration, diatomaceous earth filtra-
tion

Fig. 200-3 Common Characteristics and Impurities in Water (2 of 2)

Constituent Chemical Formula Difficulties Caused Means of Treatment
Oxygen O2 Corrosion of water lines, heat exchange Deaeration, sodium sulfite, corrosion
equipment, boilers, return lines, etc. inhibitors, hydrazine or suitable substi-
tutes
Hydrogen H 2S Cause of “rotten egg” odor; corrosion Aeration

Sulfide
Ammonia NH3 Corrosion of copper and zinc alloys by Cation exchange with hydrogen zeolite,
formation of complex soluble ion chlorination, deaeration, mixed-bed
demineralization
Conductivity Expressed as micromhos, Conductivity is the result of ionizable Any process which decreases dissolved
specific conductance solids in solution; high conductivity can solid content will decrease conductivity;
increase the corrosion characteristics of examples are demineralization, lime
a water softening
Dissolved None Measure of total amount of dissolved Various softening processes, such as
Solids matter, determined by evaporation; high lime softening and cation exchange by
concentrations cause process interfer- hydrogen zeolite, will reduce dissolved
ence and foaming in boilers solids; demineralization; distillation;
reverse osmosis; electrodialysis
Suspended None Measure of undissolved matter, deter- Subsidence, filtration, usually preceded
Solids mined gravimetrically; causes plugged by coagulation and settling
lines, deposits in heat exchange equip-
ment, boilers, etc.
Total Solids None The sum of dissolved and suspended See “Dissolved Solids” and “Suspended
solids, determined gravimetrically Solids”
solution. This permits the summation of oppositely-charged ions such that total
cations will then equal total anions. Cation and anion concentrations in milli-equiva-
lents/liter can be converted to ppmw CaCO 3 by multiplying by the equivalent
weight of CaCO3 and dividing by the specific gravity of the water solution.
Understanding the preceding concept of equivalent ions is central to any discussion
of water analysis and treatment. Examples of the calculation of equivalents are
given on page F-5 of Appendix F and in Reference [1].
213 Demand
Human Consumption. Fifty to one hundred gallons/ person/day of potable water is
required for locations and offshore platforms with living quarters. To size the
potable water distribution system, assume a normal flow rate of 0.4 gpm/person and
a peak demand of 1.0 gpm/person. Three to five gallons/person/day of potable water
is required for locations without living quarters.
Drilling. Obtain quantity and quality of the water required from the drilling
contractor or engineer. On offshore platforms, drilling water is generally supplied
from the potable water system.
Boiler Feedwater. Obtain quantity and quality of the water required from the
process diagram.

Cooling Tower Usage. Obtain quantity and quality of the water required from the
process diagram.
Fire Water Supply. Obtain quantity from safety engineer and process diagram.
Quality is usually not important, although seawater usage may require special
consideration in piping materials.
Injection Water Supply. Obtain quantity and quality required from the reservoir
engineer. Quality requirements are usually not strict, although formations can be
damaged by water that contains oil, oxygen, bacteria, clay, or hardness.
214 Costs
Desalination of seawater. Consider total (operating plus maintenance) yearly cost
of desalination system including cost of support utilities.
Municipal Supply. Water is purchased by the ft 3, m3, or sometimes the acre-foot.
Cost can vary from $150 to $750 per acre-foot or $0.40 to $4.00 per 1000 gallons.
Water Well. A shallow small well supplying 10 gpm could cost less than $20,000.
Deeper wells are more expensive. As the required volume increases, the size of the
well casing, tubing, and submersible pump rises quickly. A well supplying 200 gpm
could cost $100,000.
Surface Water. Water taken from rivers or lakes may require extensive treatment to
remove silt and organic matter in addition to other treatments. The cost of water
intake facilities, pumps, and pipelines is significant.
215 Limitations
After establishing the basic parameters that determine the need for a water system,
the engineer must establish those prerequisites that affect the design of the system.
Utilities. Determine quantity and reliability of waste heat available from prime
movers on the platform. Normally waste heat is available from turbine exhaust or
engine jacket water. Turbine data must be obtained from vendor literature and
corrected for site conditions. These data are needed only if a nonflash unit is being
considered. Define exhaust flow rate inlet temperature, inlet pressure and allowable
pressure drop, molecular weight of turbine exhaust, and available heat (Btu/hr).
Determine if there are limits to other required utilities, particularly electrical power.
Define available power, number of phases, and frequency in Hz.
Space/weight limits. Determine if there are any specific weight, area, or head room
limits for the system. This is particularly important if a potable water system is to be
added to an existing platform.
Limits of standard manufacture. Based on the required flow rate, confirm that
vendor equipment is of a size or quantity to meet the need. General limits are as
follows:

Desalination units. Refer to Figures 200-4 and 200-5 for typical weights and
dimensions.
1. Distillation units
Nonflash—2,400 to 150,000 gal/day
Flash—8,000 to 1,000,000 gal/day
2. RO units—5,000 to 25,000 gal/day
Fig. 200-4 Desalination Unit Weight Versus Capacity
Chlorinators
1. Bottled gas units—0.6 to 100 lb/hr
2. Sodium hypochlorite units—0.16 to 170 gal/hr

Fig. 200-5 Typical Dimensions of Watermakers
Type Capacity Dimensions, ft

US gal/day
a b c
Vapor Compression 2,400-10,000 7.0 5.0 6.0
10,000-30,000 10.0 8.0 8.0
Thermal Compression 2,400-5,000 3.0 5.0 8.0
6,000 3.5 6.0 7.6
7,000-15,000 6.0 7.5 10.0
Reverse Osmosis 1,500-3,000 3.4 9.0 6.2
5,000-10,000 5.6 15.6 8.5
20,000-30,000 5.6 27.3 8.5
Equipment Selection
Refer to Figure 200-6 for an example equipment selection tree for components of a
potable water system.
216 Glossary of Terms

Color. Measure of the color of water that is imparted by organic contaminates or
metallic ions.
Disinfection. The process of destroying microorganisms.
Effect. In water distillation, when vapor produced in a first compartment is used in
a second compartment. Each compartment is referred to as an effect.
Flash Distillation. In desalination, units in which water is heated with sensible heat
in one chamber and vaporized in the next by pressure reduction.
Nonflash Distillation. In desalination, units in which water is distilled in the same
chamber where it is heated (by boiling the water). Heat is applied in the form of
sensible heat and heat of vaporization.
Osmosis. Diffusion through a semipermeable membrane of dilute solution to a more
concentrated solution.

Fig. 200-6 Equipment Selection Tree

Osmotic Pressure. The pressure that must be applied to a solution to just prevent
osmosis.
Photoreactivation. The phenomenon by which bacteria that have been damaged
regenerate when exposed to visible light.
Potable Water. Water that is suitable for human consumption.
Short-Circuiting. Water that flows through a UV sterilizer without being treated.
Stage. In water distillation, stages refer to flash distillation in which heating occurs
in one compartment (stage 1) and vaporization occurs in the next (stage 2). Vapor
used in the first compartment is not used in the next compartment.
Trade Percent Chlorine. Equal to volume percent concentration of chlorine. Trade
% = (gm/L) available Cl2/100.
Turbidity. A measure of total suspended solids usually expressed in turbidity units
(NTU).
220 Water Treatment Methods
221 Natural
Even shallow wells supply water that is naturally treated. As water permeates
through soil and rock, it is filtered and chemically treated. Most well water contains
little suspended solids, unless it is produced from a clay bearing strata. The chem-
ical impurities in well water depend on the type of rock it is produced from—some
waters are soft, some are hard, some taste bad or are colored.
222 Filtration
Water cleanup by filtering is a simple, efficient process for most waters. The
Company often uses small canister and vessel filters to remove solids and hydrocar-
bons. Refer to product literature to assist in the choice of filters.
The theory and practice of filtration of large quantities of water in large filtration
plants, such as those operated by municipal water systems, is beyond the scope of
this manual. Refer to any good university textbook.
223 Chemical
Note Chemical water treatment methods, such as softening by lime treating, are
discussed in Appendix F. Internal chemical treatment is discussed in
Sub-section 260.

224 Distillation
Distillation units are classified as two types: flash and nonflash. These types are
discussed in subsequent subheadings. Essential to these discussions is an under-
standing of the words “stage” and “effect” as they are used in this context.
Unique to the flash process, “stage” denotes a compartment of the distillation unit.
Vapor produced in the first compartment or any subsequent compartment is
condensed within that compartment.
In nonflash units, vapor produced in a first compartment is used in a second
compartment. Each compartment is then called an effect.
The stages in a multistage plant or the effects in a multieffect plant can be
constructed as separate vessels or configured as compartments within a common
vessel. The usual arrangement is the latter.
Flash Distillation
In the flash process, seawater is not boiled. Referring to Figure 200-7, the seawater
is progressively heated in the stage condenser and in the feedwater heater while
under pressure. All of the heat input into the seawater is sensible heat. There is no
boiling or evaporation or phase change in the heat exchangers. The pressure that
suppresses boiling is maintained into the stage 1 flash device. At the flash device,
the hot seawater is released into the stage where the temperature is maintained
colder than the hot incoming seawater saturation temperature. The entire seawater
stream cools to the stage saturation temperature. The sensible heat of cooling is
equal to the latent heat of vaporization of the vapor quantity produced. Vapor is
produced in a flash plant by pressure reductions in the brine. Each reduction is
referred to as a stage. Figure 200-7 shows a two-stage flash system.
The flash evaporator has no separate condenser cooling circuit. All of the make-up
water is used first as condenser coolant, then heated in the feedwater heater and then
flows through all of the stages. Twenty gallons of seawater are required for each
gallon of distillate produced. This ratio is independent of the number of stages, but
varies directly with seawater temperature [Reference 2].
The most common type of flash unit in use is the two-stage unit as described earlier.
A flow diagram is shown in Figure 200-8. This type unit is most effective when low
pressure steam is available. Thus they are not used offshore.
Flash characteristics [Reference 2]

1. A two-stage flash evaporator has a nominal thermal economy, E, of 1.4 pounds
of distillate per 1,000 Btu of total heat input.
2. Thermal economy is a function of the number of stages: a nominal value of 3.5
lb distillate/1000 Btu is typical for six stages. A two-stage air ejector system is
required to (1) remove high volumes of noncondensable gases consisting of air
and some dissolved gases from the seawater, and (2) maintain a high vacuum.
The mass rate of gas removal varies directly with make-up seawater flow and
inversely with make-up seawater temperature. The volumetric rate of gas

Fig. 200-7 Two-Stage Flash Desalination Unit Schematic
Fig. 200-8 Two-Stage Flash Desalination Unit Flow Diagram

removal varies inversely with the temperature in the last stage of the evapo-
rator.
3. Seawater flow rate varies directly with seawater temperature and plant capacity.
4. Stage temperatures vary directly with seawater temperature.
5. Stages are used rather than effects.
Flash evaporator advantages
1. Very reliable
2. Sensible heat transfer to the seawater instead of boiling on the heat transfer
surfaces (low scaling and corrosion)
3. Full capacity for 90 days or longer
4. No chill-shocking or scale removal provisions necessary
5. No brine level control or brine density control necessary
6. Discharge brine concentration only 5 to 10% above normal seawater
7. Easy automation by adding a temperature control valve at the feedwater inlet to
the first stage
Flash evaporator disadvantages

1. Most effective with a low-pressure steam heating source; not readily adaptable
to low heat level sources such as diesel engine jacket water, gas turbine waste
heat, or electrical heaters
2. Not readily adaptable to an integral steam condensate circuit or overall system
thermal economy improvement
3. High capital costs
Nonflash distillation
Water is boiled in all nonflash evaporators. Boiling occurs at the heat transfer
surface. In the submerged tube type, Figure 200-9, the heating bundles are
submerged below the seawater surface, and the evaporation process is the classical
pool boiling process [Reference 2].
A spray-film flow diagram is shown in Figure 200-10 where the heating bundles are
not submerged. Evaporation is from a thin-film which is the classical nucleate
boiling process.
Nonflash evaporators characteristically discharge brine at a salt concentration of 1.5

times that of the incoming water. Thus, inspection of the flow rates will show that
for each gallon of distillate produced, there are approximately 3 gallons of make-up
water. This ratio is independent of the number of effects and temperature of the
seawater. The condenser cooling water requirement varies inversely with the
number of effects and seawater temperature. For a two-effect seawater cooled

Fig. 200-9 Two-Effect Submerged Tube Desalination Unit Schematic ("State of the Art Marine Distilling Plant" by R.J
Ziobro, Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Tech Press, 1973.)
Fig. 200-10 Thin-Film Spray-Film Desalination Unit Schematic ("State of the Art Marine Distilling Plant" by R.J Ziobro,
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Tech Press, 1973.)

system, the cooling water flow rate is 15 to 20 times the distillate flow rate. Because
it is customary to present flow diagrams for seawater at 85°F, the above ratios are
stated for that temperature.
The three basic types of nonflash desalination units are submerged tube, thin-film
vapor compression, and thermal compression. A brief description of each is
included below, along with discussion of their characteristics, advantages, and
disadvantages.
Nonflash characteristics [Reference 2]. Nonflash units have the heating surface
completely covered with or submerged in the brine. Vapor bubbles form on the
heating surfaces, detach, and must rise and erupt through the liquid surface into the
vapor zone. Some bubbles collapse within the brine, releasing their heat to preheat
the pool.
Several variations of the submerged tube design exist. All of them have the heating
source inside of the heating surface and boil the seawater on the outer surface. The
heating bundle has been designed as a conventional tubular bundle to control the
circulation pattern in the pool and to control the vapor release. Also, the bundle has
been designed as nontubular fluted or corrugated cylindrical surfaces to enhance
chill-shocking scale removal.
Figure 200-11 is a flow diagram for a two-effect submerged tube evaporator.
Fig. 200-11 Two-Effect Circulation Evaporator—Flow Diagram (Submerged Tube Evaporation)

Submerged tube evaporator. Usually, this kind of nonflash evaporator is consid-

ered only when reliable excess heat is available.
1. Submerged tube characteristics
a. The thermal economy, E, of a single effect is approximately 0.8 to 0.9 lb
distillate/1000 Btu.
b. The thermal economy, E, of multiple effect plants is obtained by the
summation of the individual effect economies. The economy of a two-
effect plant is typically 1.6 lb distillate/ 1000 Btu. Available operating
temperatures impose a practical limit to three-effect plants.
c. Effect temperatures are constant and are independent of seawater tempera-
ture.
d. Make-up seawater flow rate is constant.
e. Condenser cooling water flow rate varies directly with seawater tempera-
ture.
f. Effects are used rather than stages.
2. Submerged tube advantages
a. The low mass release of noncondensable gases is due to the low rate of
make-up seawater permitting a single-stage vacuum system. A single-
stage, steam-motivated air ejector is readily adaptable when high-pressure
steam is available. A mechanical vacuum pump or water motivated eductor
is usually used.
b. Single-effect plants can be designed to boil at any constant temperature in
the range of 130 to 170°F. Diesel engine jacket water is usually available at
a temperature of at least 170°F. Thus an adequate temperature differential
exists to permit design with a hot water heat source and a boiling tempera-
ture in the range of 130 to 140°F.
c. Mechanical reliability for the unit is good.
d. The automated version operates easily if it has a reliable source of excess
heat.
e. Operating cost is low.
f. Engine jacket water heat may be used with this evaporator.
3. Submerged tube disadvantages
a. Multieffect plants and single-effect plants operating above 140°F require
continuous chemical treatment and frequent cleaning by chill-shocking or
acid-cleaning for scale removal.
b. Distillate sterilizers are required by United States Public Health Service
(USPHS) on plants operating below 165°F.

c. Some form of brine density control and brine level control is required.
d. The boiling at the heat transfer surface causes rapid scale formation.
e. Brine is discharged at a salt concentration 1.5 times that of normal
seawater, increasing scaling potential.
f. High brine residence time increases scaling potential.
g. Operating weight increases because of the high brine operating level.
h. Use of this unit is recommended only when more heat is available than
demanded by evaporation.
i. Retrofit installation and integration may be difficult.
j. Total cost escalates when two effects are needed due to limited heat avail-
ability.
k. This unit demands a high volume of seawater.
Thin-film evaporators. Thin-film evaporators have a flow diagram and heat
balance very similar to the submerged tube type. The significant difference is that
the heating surface is not submerged in the brine. A thin film of brine is maintained
on the heating surface by a spraying system. The brine film is heated to the satura-
tion temperature by a combination of convection and conduction. Vapor bubbles are
formed at natural nucleation sites on the surface and are readily released into the
vapor section of the evaporator without transversing a distorted path through the
pool as in the submerged tube. The absence of vapor eruption at the pool surface
minimizes splashing and carryover.
Variations of this design have boiling on the inside of the tubes with the tubes
arranged vertically, as shown schematically in Figure 200-12. A popular variation,
having boiling on the outside of horizontal tubes, is the spray film evaporator shown
in Figure 200-13. Inspection of the condenser section in Figure 200-13 shows that
the condenser cooling water is not seawater, but boiler feedwater. The evaporator is
designed to operate at an effective temperature of 165°F. The heat generated by the
evaporator’s vapor condensation may be used as a feedwater heat source elsewhere
on the platform for a higher overall economy in the platform thermal balance.
1. Thin-film evaporator characteristics are essentially the same as for submerged
tube:
a. Some provision for maintaining the thin film. (Figure 200-12 shows
nozzles at the individual tubes and Figure 200-13 shows a brine
recirculation pump and over-the-bundle nozzles for this purpose. An early
variation of Figure 200-12 used a mechanical rotary wiper in place of the
nozzles.)
b. Inherent cycle advantage (suppression losses created by the brine pool are
eliminated.)

Fig. 200-12 Two-Effect Vertical Tube Thin-Film Evaporator Schematic
Fig. 200-13 Condensate—Cooled Spray—Film Evaporator Flow Diagram ("State of the Art Marine Distilling Plant" by
R.J Ziobro, Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Tech Press, 1973.)

2. Thin-film evaporator advantages are essentially the same as for submerged

tube, but compared to the submerged tube:
a. Can attain higher heat transfer coefficients
b. Lighter in operating weight, because of the low brine level and greater
compactness possible with improved heat transfer coefficients
3. Thin-film evaporator disadvantages: fewer than submerged tube, as noted
earlier in this section.
Vapor compression evaporators. These evaporators are used when fluid heat is
unavailable and space is limited. The submerged tube and thin-film evaporators can
be run in a vapor compression cycle. The cycle is a variation of the heat source and
not of the basic evaporator.
The principle of operation is to take vapor from the boiling brine and mechanically
compress it, increasing the vapor temperature and pressure. The compressed vapor
is fed back into the evaporator heating bundle and used to evaporate more brine.
The compressed vapor is thus condensed and forms the product distillate. The
primary energy input to the cycle is through the compressor. The compressor can be
driven by an electric motor, gas or diesel engine, or gas turbine.
Supplemental heat is required in the boiling section of the evaporator to make up the
difference between the latent heats and to compensate for the radiation and venting
heat losses. The supplemental heat can be supplied by electric heaters or steam.
The most popular form of the vapor compression evaporator is the all-electric
configuration. The compressor and pumps are motor-driven, and the supplemental
heat is provided by electric immersion heaters. Figure 200-14 is a flow diagram of a
vapor-compression spray-film evaporator.
Vapor compression advantages
1. Electric—not dependent on variable heat sources
2. Easy installation and integration
3. Suitable for most offshore locations
4. Unrestricted location on rig or platform (Note that unit must be designed for the
area classification.)
5. Minimal operational attention
Vapor compression disadvantages
1. Generally high mechanical maintenance
2. Acid deterioration of equipment
3. Not well-suited to water over 42,000 mg/L TDS

Fig. 200-14 Vapor Compression Spray-Film Evaporator Diagram
225 Reverse Osmosis

When a concentrated solution (salt water) is separated from a dilute solution (fresh
water) by a semipermeable membrane, water molecules will pass through the
membrane into the more concentrated solution in an effort to establish a chemical
equilibrium. This process is called osmosis. Osmotic pressure is the pressure that
must be applied to the concentrated solution to establish a flow equilibrium. If a
pressure applied to the saline solution is in excess of the osmotic pressure, the
osmotic process is reversed. Water molecules will pass from the saline solution
through the membrane into the purer water. This latter process is known as reverse
osmosis. The processes of direct and reverse osmosis are shown in Figure 200-15.
The desalination of seawater by the reverse osmosis (RO) process is illustrated in
Figure 200-16. By supplying seawater to the membrane at a pressure greater than
the osmotic pressure of the solution, water with a lower level of dissolved solids is
produced. Materials such as colloids, organic compounds, dissolved solids, and
bacteria that do not pass through the membrane are continuously discharged from
the system with the brine concentrate. This continuous discharge prevents accumu-
lation of these materials on the surface of the membrane.
In the practical application of reverse osmosis, a small percentage of the dissolved
solids do pass through the semipermeable membrane along with the water mole-

Fig. 200-15 Direct and Reverse Osmosis (Courtesy of Robert Holt Associates)
Fig. 200-16 Typical Seawater Reverse Osmosis (RO) System

cules. The ratio of the concentration of these dissolved solids in the product water to
that of the feedwater is defined as salt passage and is expressed as a percentage. Due
to chemical and physical limitations of the process, only a portion of the feedwater
fed to the system is desalted. The ratio of the amount of water produced to the
amount of feedwater is defined as recovery and is expressed as a percentage. As a
general rule, about 5 gallons of feedwater are needed to produce 1 gallon of potable
water [Reference 3] although recoveries of 50% with a salt passage of 2% to 5% are
possible.
RO units have typically been used by the Company to produce potable water on
platforms and boiler feedwater in refineries. Units are in operation at BORCO, Rock
Springs, El Paso, and Gaviota and are proposed for the Richmond Cogeneration
Project. We will discuss these two uses separately; however, the principles are
similar for both.
Membranes
Hollow Fiber Membranes. This membrane consists of an aromatic polyamide that
is manufactured to create a dense arrangement of hollow fibers. An example is
shown in Figure 200-17. It has a low maximum flux of 2 to 4 gal/day/ft2, but this is
offset by the large amount of surface per unit volume realized with the hollow fiber
technique.
Fig. 200-17 Cut-Away Drawing of a Hollow Fiber Permeator
Hollow fiber membranes have the following advantages:

• A large capacity per unit volume of membrane is possible.
• Membranes have been commercially proven.
Hollow fiber membranes have the following disadvantages:
• Clogging of membranes with salts and suspended solids is a serious problem
that requires stringent filtration upstream.

• Free chlorine reacts with the membrane causing failure in 100 ppm-hours, e.g.,
1 ppm chlorine concentration causes membrane failure in 100 hours.
• Iron ions and other metallic ions in feedwater also react with the membrane to
cause rapid failure; nonmetallic pipe must be used upstream of the systems.
• Compaction of membranes is a problem. As the membrane compacts from the
imposed pressure, it loses capacity. As pressure is increased to compensate for
fouling due to continuous use, the membrane compacts more. (Even when pres-
sure is removed, the membrane remains compacted). High water temperature
adds to the compaction.
• Two stages of reverse osmosis are required to obtain near pure water.
• Membrane life is typically 1 to 2 years, and replacement cost is relatively high.
Spiral-wound CA membranes. This type of membrane is formed from two layers
of cellulose acetate (CA). An example is shown in Figure 200-18. One layer (on the
fresh water side) is a dense layer 25 to 100 atoms thick and the other layer is more
porous and is 2- to 5-mils thick. Most of the salt removal occurs at the surface of the
dense layer. This type of membrane has a large capacity for desalination per unit
area but has a much lower surface area per unit volume than does the hollow fiber
type. Surface area is enhanced by winding the membrane. These membranes reject
80% to 85% of total dissolved solids.
Fig. 200-18 Spiral-Wound Cellulose Acetate Membrane Module (ROGA) (Courtesy of Fluid Systems, Inc.)
Spiral-wound membranes have the following advantages:

• These membranes are less susceptible to clogging than hollow fiber units,
though stringent upstream filtration is still recommended.

• These membranes are more resistant to chlorine attack than the hollow fiber
ones and have a 10,000 ppm-hour chlorine exposure life.
• Compaction due to imposed pressure or temperature is not significant.
• Simple flushing cleans the membrane.
Spiral-wound membranes have the following disadvantages:
• Metal ions create the same problem for these membranes as for hollow fiber
ones.
• One stage of reverse osmosis produces USPHS water from seawater, but two
stages of reverse osmosis are required to produce nearly pure water.
Spiral-wound TFC Membranes. These membranes are becoming the preferred
choice. Thin-filmed composite (TFC) membranes are based on cellulose acetate
films. They consist of three layers: a polyester support web, a microporous poly-
sulfone interlayer, and an ultrathin cellulose acetate barrier membrane on the top
surface. The web provides the major structural support and the microporous layer
provides a smooth support for the membrane.
Thin Film Composite (TFC) membranes are now commercially proven and can
reject 95% to 98% of the TDS per element at about one-half the pressure required
by the cellulose acetate membranes. These membranes were developed by Filmtec
(eventually purchased by Dow) and by UOP. All TFC membranes are spiral-wound.
RO Systems
The concepts and equipment for reverse osmosis systems are relatively simple. A
typical system for producing potable water is discussed below.
RO systems can easily produce, in one or two stages, water pure enough (350 TDS)
to drink. However, high pressure boilers may require feedwater with TDS levels of
50 ppm or less and concentrations of metallic ions below 0.02 ppm. (See
Section 260 for boiler feedwater standards.) Because of these stringent require-
ments and because membranes can be damaged by constituents in feedwater, an
overall RO system must consist of water pretreatment systems, the RO membranes
themselves, and post-treatment systems. Figure 200-19 shows some of the possible
combinations.
The correct selection of pretreatment systems is the more important, and Figures
200-20 and 200-21 show some of the selection criteria.
RO for Potable Water

Reverse osmosis (RO) units find frequent use on offshore platforms due to their
high mechanical reliability. Relatively clean seawater and well-trained operators are
a must for these units. A typical flow schematic is shown in Figure 200-22 and
includes a filtration system (similar to that used in seawater injection systems), pres-
surizing pump, reverse osmosis membranes, and a flushing system. Membrane life
is dependent on feed pretreatment and loading throughout. It can range from 1 to 2
years or 3 to 5 years with replacement costs from 20% to 50% of original invest-

Fig. 200-19 The Total RO System

Fig. 200-20 General Pretreatment Guidelines Based on Spiral-Wound RO Membrane Limitations

Chlorine Levels as Bacterial Temp
Membrane Type Cl2 in Feed(1) Degradation pH(2) as °C(3)
CA 0.3-1.0 ppm Yes 4.5-7.0 1-35°C
PA <0.05 ppm No 4-11 1-45°C
TFC-A (4) 0.0 ppm No 3-11 1-45°C
Unchlorinated
TFC-B(5) 0.05 ppm No 3-11 1-45°C
TFC-C (6) 0-1.0 ppm No 3-11 1-45°C
(1) Frequently, membrane chlorine tolerance is stated in terms of concentration and exposure time (ppm⋅hours).
(2) Continuous operation at the far ends of the pH range will shorten membrane life.
(3) Continuous operation at the high temperature end will shorten membrane life.
(4) A thin film composite membrane with no chlorine tolerance (TFC-A).
(5) A thin film composite membrane with minimal chlorine tolerance (TFC-B).
(6) A thin film composite membrane with good chlorine tolerance (TFC-C).
Fig. 200-21 General Pretreatment Guidelines Based on Spiral-Wound RO Membrane Limitations (1 of 2)

Parameter to be Investigate Need for Pretreatment
Controlled When Control Method(s)
CHLORINE Carbon filter for dechlorination
Gaseous sulfur dioxide feed for dechlorination
Liquid sodium bisulfite feed for dechlorination
Gaseous chlorine feed for chlorination
Liquid sodium hypochlorite for chlorination
BACTERIA Continuous chlorination as disinfectant
Periodic sodium bisulfite shock treatment
pH Typically, sulfuric or hydrochloric acid feed
TEMPERATURE Heat exchanger
CaCO3 Brine LSI is positive Acid feed to reduce pH and inhibit precipitation
Softening by sodium cycle ion exchange
Lime softening using open basin
Lime softening using microfiltration
CaSO4 Ca++ plus SO4= levels exceed 1000 Antiscalant feed to inhibit precipitation
ppm in brine Softening by sodium cycle ion exchange
Increase feed temperature with heat exchanger
BaSO4 Ba++ ion level exceeds 50 ppb in Antiscalant feed to inhibit precipitation
feed Softening by sodium cycle ion exchange

Fig. 200-21 General Pretreatment Guidelines Based on Spiral-Wound RO Membrane Limitations (2 of 2)

Parameter to be Investigate Need for Pretreatment
Controlled When Control Method(s)
SrSO4 Sr++ ion level exceeds 10 ppm in Antiscalant feed to inhibit precipitation
brine Softening by sodium cycle ion exchange
Fe2O3 Fe++ ion level in surface source
exceeds 50 ppb in feed
Fe++ ion level in well source
exceeds 0.3 ppm in feed
SiO2 Soluble SiO2 ion level exceeds 100
ppm in brine and feed temperature
is 15°C or lower
IRON (Soluble) Manganese greensand filter
Softening by sodium cycle ion exchange
Oxidation followed by filtration
Decrease pH by acid feed to improve solubility
Antiscalant/antidispersant feed to improve solubility
SILICA (Soluble) Increase feed temperature with heat exchanger to
improve solubility
Increase feed pH to 8.0 or greater to improve solubility
Remove heavy metals that catalyze precipitation
Precipitation by lime softening and magnesium
hydroxide in open basin or microfiltration
COLLOIDAL Water source is surface supply Heavy metals (e.g., Fe, Cu, and Al) exist with an SiO2
FOULANTS 15 minute SDI is 5 or larger ion level in excess of 100 ppm inbrine
Turbidity is 1.0 NTU or larger H2S or sulfur is present in water
Al+++ ion level exceeds 1.0 ppm in Supply piping is corrodible
feed
SUSPENDED 15 minute SDI is larger than 5 Multimedia filtration
SOLIDS Turbidity is 1.0 NTU or larger Cartridge filtration at 5-20 microns
FOULANTS Particle size exceeds 5 microns
Supply piping is corrodible
BIOFILM Water source is surface supply Continuous chlorination as disinfectant
Organic content is larger than 0.3 Periodic sodium bisulfite shock treatment
ppm as oxygen consumed Microfiltration to remove bacteria
Water supply is unchlorinated Ultrafiltration to remove bacteria
ORGANIC Water source is surface supply Carbon filtration
FOULANTS Organic content is larger than 0.3 Clarification
(Humic) ppm as oxygen is consumed Microfiltration
Water supply is unchlorinated Ultrafiltration Ion exchange organic scavengers
Oxidation by ozone feed
ments. Furthermore, these units use relatively large amounts of electricity compared
to other types of desalination units.

Fig. 200-22 Typical Reverse Osmosis Unit Flow Diagram
The reverse osmosis system includes:

1. Injection of two chemicals
a. Sodium bisulfite removes free chlorine (often used to control marine
growth in salt water lines and pump intakes). Free chlorine attacks the RO
unit’s membranes.
b. Polyelectrolytes cause suspended solids to flocculate for downstream filtra-
tion.
2. Basket strainer or centrifugal separator for removal of large solids
3. Media filter for removal of the bulk of suspended solids (This can be either a
multimedia sand filter or diatomaceous earth filter.)
4. Polishing filter for removal of suspended particles 1 to 5 microns in size
(Usually these are cartridge type.)
Note: One vendor states that Items 3 and 4 can often be replaced by mechan-
ical sock filtration in deep, clear water applications where solids from drilling
mud are not present in intake water. However, the engineer is cautioned to

review any such proposal closely because even very small amounts of colloidal
solids from drilling mud can rapidly destroy membranes.
5. Pressurizing pump to increase seawater pressure to 800 to 1,000 psig
6. Reverse osmosis membranes [Reference 3] These membranes reduce dissolved
solids in seawater to the level suitable for drinking water by reverse osmosis, as
described earlier. It is important to note that water temperature, pressure differ-
ential, feedwater salinity, and pH affect capacity. There is an optimum pressure
differential beyond which reduction of salt content does not improve. This
occurs at 800 to 1,000 psig. Increasing salinity decreases capacity as shown in
Figure 200-23. The pH of the water should be kept between 2 and 11 to avoid
membrane degradation. Contact vendors for specific recommendations.
RO for Plant Water

Currently available membranes have made water treatment using reverse osmosis
very competitive with demineralizers and other water treating programs.
In a boiler feedwater application an RO unit has the following advantages over a
demineralizer:
• Fewer environmental problems (no acid and caustic, with their attendant regen-
eration and neutralization requirements).
• More flexibility and cost effectiveness in handling variations in flow rates and
total dissolved solids.
Figure 200-23 shows a simplified 3-stage reverse osmosis plant. It assumes a flow-
rate of 100 gpm and 100 ppm total dissolved solids (TDS). Basic performance of the
plant would be as follows:
• Each stage recovers about 50%. That is, one-half of the supply water goes to
product, and the other half goes to reject or the next stage. So
– For 2 stages, recovery is about 75%.
– For 3 stages, recovery is about 87.5%.
• Thin Film Composite membranes reject well over 95% of the dissolved solids.
The final product from 100 gallons of feedwater is:

Fig. 200-23 Simplified Three-Stage Reverse Osmosis
Outlet Gallons TDS

PRODUCT 87.5 8.4
REJECT 12.5 741.5
This reduction of 91.6% of the TDS is accomplished without chemicals. The

PRODUCT water goes on to the boilers or further polishing treating. The REJECT
water goes to blowdown or cooling towers.
When designing an RO system some key questions should be resolved at the start.
1. What is the water analysis that will be used for the design basis?
(Minimum/average/maximum/design.)
2. What are the product water requirements (TDS, silica, hardness, etc.)?
3. What is the design flow rate? The peak capacity? How much spare capacity do
we want over the peak capacity? Should we specify the number of trains we
want or leave this to the manufacturers? (Five 25% trains, for instance.)
4. What are the utilities (power, raw water) and chemical costs?
5. What is the Silt Density Index (SDI) for the supply water? The SDI is an
important indicator of the fouling potential of an RO feedwater system due to
silt and colloidal and suspended materials.
6. To ensure all manufacturers or vendors are bidding consistently:
– Establish the number of feed pumps and the sparing philosophy.
– Indicate if feed pumps are turbine or motor driven.
– Include motor starters.
– Are skids to be self-contained? Should they be easily relocated?
– Decide on ANSI or API pumps.
– Specify fiberglass or steel housings for elements.
– Specify Schedule 10 piping compared to Schedule 40.
– Specify PVC piping on low pressure side.
– Indicate required future expansion capability.
– Specify a programmable control system.
– Extent to which we want to emphasize total plant water requirements.
– Specify limits for service contracts, tests, etc.
230 Water Recycling

This subsection has been deferred for future development.

240 Fire Water

This section does not provide a full guideline for design of fire water systems. For
such, refer to the Fire Protection Manual.
241 Water Quality

Fire water does not require a quality beyond the fact that it must not contain
entrained or suspended solids (sand, clay, or organics) that can clog or damage
valves, piping, pumps or hose nozzles.
242 Water Supply

Offshore platforms commonly use seawater drawn from about 15 feet below the
surface. A coarse screen generally covers the inlet.
Onshore facilities use untreated water from the most reliable supply. That may be
seawater, river or well water, or a municipal supply. Often surge tanks are necessary
to provide adequate initial volumes.
250 Cooling Water

This section does not provide a full guideline for design or treatment of cooling
water systems—for such refer to the Heat Exchanger and Cooling Tower Manual.
251 Water Quality

Cooling water must meet stringent quality standards to prevent chemical and biolog-
ical fouling of cooling towers. Quality standards are similar to boiler feedwater and
are stipulated in the Heat Exchanger and Cooling Tower Manual.
252 Water Supply

Cooling water is generally supplied from the same base source as boiler feedwater.
It is then treated similarly by filtering and softening. Final chemical treatment to
make it suitable for cooling tower use is covered in the Heat Exchanger and
Cooling Tower Manual.
260 Boiler Feedwater
261 Water Quality

It is essential that boiler feedwater quality be maintained within strict limits if
boilers are to function properly. Boilers fed by off-spec water can be seriously
damaged in just hours or days. The damage can also extend to other remote parts of
the steam system.

Quality water is made when:

1. The external and internal water treatment processes function correctly.
2. The operations staff maintain rigorous testing and operating procedures.
Most boiler feedwater problems, such as scale and corrosion, can be controlled by
continuous and careful control of the following:
1. Hardness
2. Oxygen
3. Alkalinity
4. Silica
5. Total solids
To achieve quality boiler feedwater testing should be done at lease once per shift.
During upset, shutdown, or other feed disruption, testing and control modification
must take place as often as necessary to maintain quality water.
Within the boiler, water quality is principally controlled by blowdown. Blowdown
volumes must be adjusted to control the most significant (highest concentration)
impurity.
For a more complete list of recommended water quality limits see Figures 200-24
and 200-25.
262 Feedwater System Design

Boiler feedwater (BFW) and the steam that is produced from it, are the two most
important “utilities” in plants with steam systems. Most plants must shut down
immediately if electric power is lost. But plants with steam systems can be shut
down in a safe and orderly manner because steam allows critical systems to
continue running. Therefore, boiler feedwater must be available to the boilers so
that the boilers can continue making the steam that runs the critical plant systems
during power outages.
Basic Concepts
Figure 200-26 shows the simplest representation of a BFW system. Several terms
must be defined:
External Treatment is treatment applied to raw source water to reduce impurities
to levels acceptable by many processes. It is accomplished by equipment such as
filters, softeners, demineralizers, and deaerators.
Internal Treatment is treatment accomplished chemically. The chemicals are
added in the deaerator or directly into the boiler.
Boiler feedwater is water that has been pretreated to the appropriate ASME or
ABMA standards and is new feed to the boiler.

Fig. 200-24 ASME Suggested Water Quality Limits (Courtesy of ASME)
December 2000
200 Water
Drum Operating Pressure(1) (2)
(psig) 0-300 301-450 451-600 601-750 751-900 901-1000 1001-1500 1501-2000
(MPa) (0-0.07) (2.08-3.10) (3.11-4.14) (4.15-5.17) (5.18-6.21) (6.22-6.89) (6.90-10.34) (10.35-13.79)
Feedwater(3)
Dissolved oxygen (mg/L O2) measured 0.007 <0.007 <0.007 <0.007 <0.007 <0.007 <0.007 <0.007
before oxygen scavenger addition(4)
Total iron (mg/L Fe) ≤0.100 ≤0.050 ≤0.030 ≤0.025 ≤0.020 ≤0.020 ≤0.010 ≤0.010
Total copper (mg/L Cu) ≤0.050 ≤0.025 ≤0.020 ≤0.020 ≤0.015 ≤0.010 ≤0.010 ≤0.010
Total hardness (mg/L CaCO3) ≤0.300 ≤0.300 ≤0.200 ≤0.200 ≤0.100 ≤0.050 —Not Detectable—
pH range 25°C 8.3-10.0 8.3-10.0 8.3-10.0 8.3-10.0 8.3-10.0 8.8-9.6 8.8-9.6 8.8-9.6
Chemicals for preboiler system NS NS NS NS NS Use only volatile alkaline material(5)
Nonvolatile TOC (mg/L C)(6) <1 <1 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 —As low as possible, <0.2—
Oily matter (mg/L) <1 <1 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 —As low as possible, <0.2—
200-38
Boiler water
Silica (mg/L SiO2) ≤150 ≤90 ≤40 ≤30 ≤20 ≤8 ≤2 ≤1
Total alkalinity (mg/L CaCO3) <700(7) <600(7) <500(7) <200(7) <150(7) <100(7) —Not Specified—(8)
Free hydroxide alkalinity (mg/L —Not Specified— —Not Specified—(8)
CaCO3)(9)
Specific conductance (µmho/cm) 5400- 4600-900(11) 3800-800(11) 1500-300(11) 1200-200(11) 1000-200(11) ≤150 ≤80
@ 25°C without neutralization(10) 1100(11)
Total Dissolved Solids in Steam(12)
TDS (maximum) ppm 1.0-0.2 1.0-0.2 1.0-0.2 0.5-0.1 0.5-0.1 0.1 0.1
Chevron Corporation
Notes: (Table footnotes are on the following page)
Utilities Manual
1 micromho = 1,000,000 ohm
Boiler type: Industrial watertube, high duty, primary fuel fired, drum type
Makeup Water Percentage: Up to 100% of feedwater
Chevron Corporation
Utilities Manual
(1) With local heat fluxes >1.5 x 105 Btu/hr/ft2 (>473.2 kW/m2), use values for at least the next higher pressure range.
(2) Low pressure boilers frequently use feedwater that is suitable for use in higher pressure boilers. In these cases the boiler water chemistry limits should e based on the pressure range
that is most consistent with the feedwater quality.
(3) Boilers below 900 psig (6.21 MPa) with larger furnaces, large steam release space, and internal chelant, polymer, and/or antifoam treatment can sometimes tolerate higher levels of feed-
water impurities than those in the table and still achieve adequate deposition control and steam purity. Removal of these impurities by external pretreatment is always a more positive
solution. Alternatives must be evaluated as to practicality and economics in each individual case.
(4) Values in table assume existence of a deaerator.
(5) As a general rule, the requirements for attemperation spray water quality are the same as those for steam purity. In some cases boiler feedwater is suitable; however, frequently addi-
tional purification is required. In all cases the spray water should be obtained from a source that is free of deposit forming and corrosive chemicals such as sodium hydroxide, sodium
sulfite, sodium phosphate, iron, and copper. The suggested limits for spray water quality are < 30 ppb (µg/l) TDS maximum, < 10 ppb (µg/l) Na maximum, < 20 ppb (µg/l) SiO2 maximum, and
it should be essentially oxygen free.
(6) Nonvolatile TOC is that organic carbon not intentionally added as part of the water treatment regime.
(7) Maximum total alkalinity consistent with acceptable steam purity. If necessary, should override conductance as blowdown control parameter. If makeup is demineralized quality water
and boiler operates at less than 1000 psig (6.89 MPa) drum pressure, the boiler water conductance should be that in table for 1001-1500 psig (6.9-10.34 MPa) range. In this case, the neces-
sary continuous blowdown will usually keep these parameters below th3e tabulated maximum values. Alkalinity values in excess of 10% of specific conductance values may cause
foaming.
(8) Not detectable in these cases refers to free sodium or potassium hydroxide alkalinity. Some small variable amount of total alkalinity will be present and measurable with the assumed
congruent or coordinated phosphate-pH control or volatile treatment employed at these high pressure ranges.
(9) Minimum hydroxide alkalinity concentrations in boilers below 900 psig (6.21 MPa) must be individually specified by a qualified water treatment consultant with regard to silica solubility
and other components of internal treatments.
(10) Conversion from ppm (mg/l) TDS values in the ABMA standards used a factor of 0.65.
(11) Maximum values are often not achievable without exceeding maximum total alkalinity values, especially in boilers below 900 psig (6.21 MPa) with >20% makeup of water whose total alka-
200-39
linity is >20% of TDS naturally or after pre-treatment by lime-soda, or sodium cycle ion exchange softening. Actual permissible conductance values to achieve any desired steam purity
must be established for each case by careful steam purity measurements. Relationship between conductance and steam purity is affected by too many variables to allow its reduction to a
simple list of tabulated values.
(12) Achievable steam purity depends on many variables, including boiler water total alkalinity and specific conductance as well as design of boiler steam drum internals and operating condi-
tions [Note(11)]. Since boilers in this category require a relatively high degree of steam purity for protection of the superheaters and turbines, more stringent steam purity requirements
such as process steam restrictions on individual chemical species or restrictions more stringent than 0.1 ppm (mg/l) TDS turbine steam purity must be addressed specifically.
December 2000
200 Water
Fig. 200-25 Recommended Boiler Water Limits and A (Courtesy of the American Boiler Manufacturers’ Association,
1982 (Courtesy of the American Boiler Manufacturers’ Association, 1982.)
Total Dissolved
Drum Pressure Total Dissolved Solids in Steam,
Range, Solids, Total Alkalinity, Suspended Solids, ppm (max.
psig ppm ppm ppm (max.) expected)(1)(2)
0-300 700-3500 140-700 15 0.2-1.0
301-450 600-3000 120-600 10 0.2-1.0
451-600 500-2500 100-500 8 0.2-1.0
601-750 200-1000 40-200 3 0.1-0.5
751-900 150-750 30-150 2 0.1-0.5
901-1000 125-625 25-125 1 0.1-0.5
(3)
1001-1800 100 Note 1 0.1
1801-2350 50 Note(3) Not applicable 0.1
(3)
2351-2600 25 Note Not applicable 0.05
2601-2900 15 Note(3) Not applicable 0.05
(1) Values do not include silica
(2) Actual values within this range are directly proportional to actual value of TDS.
(3) Dictated by boiler water treatment
Fig. 200-26 Simplified Water System
Boiler water is the water in the boiler drum. It is more concentrated than the feed-
water because steam has flashed off.
Blowdown is water that is removed from the boiler drum in order to remove impuri-
ties that have been concentrated in the drum because steam has boiled off. The

blowdown rate is an operator’s final control of boiler water quality. Some blow-
down is always necessary, but less is more economical.
Cycles of Concentration is a measure of the concentration of the dissolved solids
in the boiler water in the boiler drum. It is the ratio of the concentration of a specific
nonvolatile substance in the water of the boiler drum to the same substance in the
boiler feedwater. Cycles of concentration is the reciprocal of the blowdown.
Figure 200-27 shows that the boiler feedwater volume supplied by the deaerator is
equal to the sum of the returning condensate(s), make-up water, and deaerating
steam. It is also equal to the amount of steam evaporated plus the blowdown:
BFW = E + BD
(Eq. 200-1)
Fig. 200-27 Example of Steam and Deaerator Balance
Feedwater volume is also equal to the evaporation times the cycles of concentration:

C
BFW = ------------- × E
C–1
(Eq. 200-2)
where:
BFW = Boiler Feedwater, lb/hr
E = Evaporation, lb/hr
BD = Blowdown, lb/hr
C = Feedwater Cycles of Concentration
Chlorides in Blowdown
= ---------------------------------------------------------
Chlorides in Feedwater
Design Considerations
Design considerations for BFW systems include:
1. For multilevel steam systems, a high- and a low-pressure BFW system are
generally economical, unless the flow to the low-pressure system is less than
half of the high-pressure flow demand.
2. The number of BFW pumps, as shown on Figure 200-28, should be such that
the high-pressure BFW demand can be met when all electric BFW pumps are
down and one of the turbine driven pumps is down for maintenance. The BFW
demand should be the maximum plant requirement under any seasonal or upset
condition, with any combinations of expected plants operating.
Fig. 200-28 Example of Boiler Feedwater Pumping
3. BFW pump discharge pressure should be about 30 to 40% higher than the
steam pressure generated. This allows for line economizer and superheater
losses, but mainly for the pressure drop for the level control valve on the steam
drum.

4. If more than one deaerator is supplying a BFW pumping system, equalizing

lines should be connected between the upper sections of the deaerators.
5. Orifice plates, split range flow control, or automatic low flow valves should be
installed to protect BFW pumps from overheating during low flow rates to the
boilers. This minimum flow is normally routed back to the deaerator.
Note Figures 200-27 through 200-30 explain typical boiler feedwater and steam
systems. They are set up as worksheets, with blanks for flow rates, etc., that allow
you to insert values applicable to your plant.
Figure 200-28 shows how the boilers and the BFW pumps mutually assist one
another. During power outage, the BFW system guarantees that the boiler will have
a supply of BFW, and the boiler guarantees that the turbines driving the BFW
pumps will have the steam they need to run.
Figure 200-27 is a worksheet for the deaerator inlet and steam balance. The conden-
sates and the make-up water to the system can be tabulated under “Source.” The
deaerating steam raises the temperature in the deaerator to saturation temperature at
the pressure of the deaerator. The amount of deaerating steam required is calculated
by simultaneous solution of the heat and the material balance for the deaerator. The
BFW flow is equal to the steam production plus the blowdown flow.
Figure 200-29 is a boiler plant water worksheet that amplifies Figures 200-27 and
200-28. It shows the full BFW supply system and how the treated water and the
returning condensates are integrated at the deaerators. Each operating center will
have a different water treating scheme, different condensate return system, and
various ways of storing and supplying the water to the deaerator for BFW. In all
cases, the objective is to recover all available waters that are reusable, recover all
heat, and minimize operating costs.
Figure 200-30 shows a typical boiler blowdown system for the steam pressures
shown on Figure 200-27. This worksheet shows the percent of 600-psig boiler blow-
down that flashes to 150-psig and 15-psig steam.
263 Water Treatment, General

Whatever the source, water always contains impurities in solution or suspension. It
is the determining of these impurities that makes water analysis necessary and the
control of these impurities that makes water treating necessary.
There is a wide range of possible water treatment processes. The correct process
depends primarily on influent water quality, volume of water to be treated, and
degree of purification required. Figure 200-31 is a typical water flow diagram.
The impurities normally present in a water supply are:
1. Suspended solids. They are not dissolved in the water and can be separated by
settling and filtration. Examples are mud, clay, and silt.
2. Dissolved solids. They are dissolved in the water and can not be removed by
filtration. Examples are calcium and magnesium salts.

Fig. 200-29 Example of Boiler Plant Work Sheet
Fig. 200-30 Example of Boiler Blowdown System Evaluation

Fig. 200-31 Typical Refinery Water Flow Diagram
3. Gases may also dissolve but unless they combine chemically with other impuri-
ties they are expelled from the water on boiling and are not considered a
component of dissolved solids.
Figure 200-3 includes a list of common impurities found in untreated water supplies
that may have to be substituted for, reduced, or eliminated to make water suitable
for industrial purposes. The figure also shows formulas, difficulties caused if left
untreated, and means of treatment.
264 External Treatment

External treatment (pretreatment) is accomplished by major equipment in the water
treating plant. This equipment reduces, eliminates, or substitutes less offensive
impurities in the water.
External treatment takes the incoming water and makes it more suitable for its
intended application before it reaches the point of use. It removes the suspended
matter and modifies, reduces, or eliminates the dissolved solids in the water. This is
done in vessels containing filter media and resin beds. Filters remove suspended
solids. Resins beds substitute for or remove dissolved solids.

Because water impurities vary widely, we use a variety of external water treating
equipment in our plants. Generally, we use demineralizers for treating the water
going to our higher pressure boilers and sodium softening for the lower pressures.
At plants where the alkalinity is high (Salt Lake and Hawaii), we use a process
called a “Hot Lime Reactor.” All of these are discussed later in this section and in
the Appendices.
Recommended Limits
The object of external treatment is to remove the impurities from the water before it
is sent to the steam generating equipment. Before 1979, the Company maintained
the water concentrated in the boiler drums at the Recommended Limits for Boiler
Water as set by the American Boiler Manufacturers Association (ABMA). Those
limits were quite generous.
In 1979, led by the boiler industry, ASME published the “Consensus of Operating
Practices for the Control of Feedwater and Boiler Water Quality in Modern Indus-
trial Boilers.” These limits (see Figure 200-24) covered the make-up water quality
as well as the concentrated boiler water that the ABMA covered. They are much
more stringent than the ABMA limits and most of our plants cannot meet the limits
for makeup on calcium, iron, copper, etc. Blowdown at uneconomically higher rates
would be necessary to meet the ASME’s lower limits on the water in the drum.
In 1982, the ABMA revised their Recommended Limits as shown in Figure 200-25
and Table 2, Page 8 of the Power Magazine Special Report, Boiler Water Treat-
ment, in Appendix G. This revised limit continues to be more liberal than the 1979
ASME limits. It is more in line with what the Company normally does and results in
improved blowdown savings.
Conductivity
A handy tool in evaluating water quality is converting the conductivity (measure of
dissolved solids) of water into other units. Figure 200-32 allows easy conversion
between units of conductivity, resistance, parts per million (PPM), and
grains/gallon. All of these units are measures of the dissolved solids in the water.
Fig. 200-32 Water Quality Units Conversion (1 of 2)

Specific Specific Parts Per Million(2) Grains/Gal(2)
Conductance Resistance
micromhos/cm(1) megohm-cm(1) As Ion As CaCO3 As NaCl As CaCO3
.055 18.240 none none none none
.056 18.000 .036 .028 .022 .002
.063 16.000 .041 .031 .025 .002
.071 14.000 .046 .036 .029 .002
.083 12.000 .054 .042 .033 .002
.100 10.000 .065 .050 .040 .003
.125 8.000 .081 .063 .050 .004

Fig. 200-32 Water Quality Units Conversion (2 of 2)

Specific Specific Parts Per Million(2) Grains/Gal(2)
Conductance Resistance
micromhos/cm(1) megohm-cm(1) As Ion As CaCO3 As NaCl As CaCO3
.167 6.000 .108 .083 .067 .005
.250 4.000 .163 .125 .100 .007
.500 2.000 .325 .250 .200 .015
1.000 1.000 .650 .500 .400 .029
1.250 .800 .813 .625 .500 .037
.667 .600 1.083 .833 .667 .049
2.500 .400 1.625 1.250 1.000 .073
5.000 .200 3.250 2.500 2.000 .146
10.000 .100 6.500 5.000 4.000 .292
20.000 .050 13.000 10.000 8.000 .585
40.000 .025 26.000 20.000 16.000 1.170
80.000 .0125 52.000 40.000 32.000 2.340
158.730 .0063 103.175 79.635 63.492 4.641
312.500 .0032 203.125 156.250 125.000 9.137
625.000 .0016 406.250 312.500 250.000 18.273
1250.000 .0008 812.500 625.000 500.000 36.550
2500.000 .0004 1625.000 1250.000 1000.000 73.099
5000.000 .0002 3250.000 2500.000 2000.000 146.199
10000.000 .0001 6500.000 5000.000 4000.000 292.398
(1) At 25°C
(2) At 25°C, given specific conductance values included in this table:
1 psi = 2.307 head feet of water
1 psi = .07031 kg/cm2
1 grain per gal = 17.1 ppm (CaCO3)
Typical seawater TDS = 35,000-40,000 ppm
Area of circle = .785 (diameter)2
Additional Reading
A more thorough coverage of water treating fundamentals and equipment is in
Appendix F, Water Treatment. This is a Special Report from Power Magazine.
Highlights of this Appendix are as follows:
Page 1, Fundamentals and Chemistry
Page 8, Water Treating Equipment
Page 19, Ion Exchange and Demineralization
Page 26, External Treatment Methods

Page 28, Feedwater Treatment Ups Performance

Page 30, Boiler Water Blowdown Removes Solids
Page 32, Vital Role for Internal Boiler Treatment (Relate this to Section 265)
Page 34, Boiler Pressure Controls Choice
Page 35, Medium Pressure Boiler Systems
Page 36, High Pressure Needs
Page 40, Reverse Osmosis
265 Internal Treatment

Internal treatment is accomplished by the addition of chemicals to inhibit and condi-
tion the boiler feedwater at the point of steam generation. Treating chemicals are
supplied by companies like Nalco and Betz, who can also provide analysis and
consultation services.
Boiler water is made up of (see Figure 200-27):
1. Make-up water that typically has been “externally” treated
2. Returning condensate
3. Deaerating steam used in the deaerator to bring the mixture up to saturation
temperature, driving off the air and carbon dioxide
Control of the chemistry of boiler feedwater is critical to:
1. The life of the equipment
2. Efficient operation—minimizing blowdown and chemicals
3. Avoiding unscheduled shut-downs of critical boilers
4. Maintenance costs for boilers and downstream steam and condensate systems
The materials carried by water are classified as dissolved or suspended. In boilers
and waste heat steam generators, water impurities can be the cause of:
1. Reduced heat transfer
2. Tube and metal failures from overheating
3. Corrosion and embrittlement
4. Increased maintenance
5. Foaming and priming in the boiler or steam generator
6. Unscheduled shutdowns
7. Problems with moisture carryover with the steam
8. Problems due to increased gases in the steam and condensate return systems

The preceding problems are caused by the following specific manifestations of poor
water treatment:
1. Scale is deposit on the internal surfaces of the boiler. It reduces heat transfer,
capacity and efficiency, and can result in overheating to the tubes and shells.
2. Corrosion is the loss of metal from the boiler due to electrochemical reaction.
It is caused by water acidity, alkalinity, and oxygen.
3. Foaming results from materials normally in suspension. It can result from
suspended matter in the boiler feedwater, process contaminants, or improperly
applied chemicals. These impurities cause the steam spaces of the boiler to be
filled with frothy bubbles.
4. Priming is water slugs in the steam. It is due to a film of oil on the boiler water
surface and is often associated with foaming.
5. Caustic embrittlement and corrosion fatigue are discussed in detail in the
Corrosion Prevention Manual.
6. Oxygen causes pitting and corrosion.
7. Carbon Dioxide causes corrosion and joins with other materials to form scale.
All the preceding problems in the boiler can be solved by the addition of several
types of chemicals.
1. Something to make sure there is no air. Air in an atmospheric tank at 50°F has
over 5 parts per million of oxygen. This will quickly destroy the pressure parts
of a boiler.
2. Something to remove the hardness and other metal ions.
3. Something to protect the steam and condensate return lines from acid attack
due to the formation of carbonic acid, which is produced by the reaction of
condensate with carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide results when the bicar-
bonate and carbonate alkalinities break down at boiling temperatures in the
boiler.
4. A conditioner to disperse sludge; have the chemical supplier verify its effec-
tiveness.
Additional Reading
A more thorough coverage of internal water treating is presented in Appendix G,
“Boiler Water Treatment.” This is a special report from Power Magazine. This
article is particularly useful for the summary tables of all the various internal water
treating approaches. In particular refer to the following portions of Appendix G:
Page 1, External treatment reviewed and summarized (Relate this to
Section 264)
Page 7, Table 1, effects of treatment techniques on makeup-water contaminants
Page 8, Table 2, ABMA 1982 boiler water limits

Page 9, Table 3, comparing principal chemical-treatment programs for boiler

water
Page 10, Table 4, organics used to condition boiler scale and sludge
Page 10, Table 5, effectiveness of sludge conditioners depends on pressure and
stress conditions, due to high total dissolved solids, suspended solids,
and alkalinity levels
Page 11, Table 6, variety of chemicals used to adjust boilerwater analysis
Page 13, Table 7, ASME recommended silica limits in boiler water
Page 13, Table 8, characteristics of neutralizing amines determines feed rates,
region of effectiveness in after-boiler circuit
Page 15, Combining feedwater treatment optimizes protection
266 External Treatment, Company Practice

Some locations have no external treatment at all, especially where the plant is
making low-pressure steam and the incoming make-up water is relatively low in
impurities. It is sometimes uneconomical to install softening equipment, even with
average hardness values of 12 PPM in the make-up water.
On the other hand, for critical water uses (such as gas turbine injection and desuper-
heater water) polishing demineralizers may be used in series with primary deminer-
alizers to reduce the total dissolved solids in the water to less than 50 parts per
billion (PPB).
Figure 200-33 compares impurities from Chevron’s external water treating facilities
to the 1979 ASME Consensus Guidelines. It shows the water quality from external
treaters or into steam drums for pressures of 2000 to 250 psig. It highlights the
conservative recommendations of the ASME and our values for hardness, copper,
and iron in the feedwater.
Sodium Zeolite Softening

Sodium zeolite softening is the most frequent external water treating alternative
used in some of our steam systems at 600 psig and in the majority of our medium-
and low-pressure steam generating plants. The term zeolite refers to insoluble, solid
materials that are able to exchange various ions. Sodium zeolite softening is the
exchanging of sodium ions on the zeolite for scale producing hardness ions of
calcium and magnesium. The zeolites must be regenerated periodically with a NaCl
salt solution. This process is discussed in the Power Magazine special reports in
Appendices D and F.
Hardness Analyzers
The major problem with sodium softeners, which remove the hardness from the
boiler feedwater, is leakage, or channeling of hardness through the ion exchanger
bed, or exhaustion of the bed due to an unexpected increase in the hardness of the
incoming water. For plants that do not have continuous, on-line hardness analyzers

Fig. 200-33 Water Quality, ASME vs. Company Plants

Critical Water Treater Effluent Impurities, ASME versus Company Plants
Iron,
Hardness, PPM Copper, PPM as PPM as
Plant Water Pressure, psi. as Calc Carb Copper Iron
ASME Into Drum 1501 to 2000 Not Detect. 0.01 0.01
Cedar Bayou Ex Treater 1700 0.1
Into Drum 1700 0.1 0.006
ASME Into drum 751 to 900 0.1 0.015 0.02
El Segundo Ex Treater 800 0.5 0.02 0.1
Pascagoula
Ammonia Ex Treater 900 0.0 0.005 0.005
Old Area Ex Treater 600 0.1 to 0.3 0.005 0.035
Port Arthur Ex Treater 850 0.1 0.005 0.005
Richmond Into Drum 800 0.4 Unavail Unavail
ASME Into Drum 601 to 750 0.2 0.02 0.025
Philadelphia Ex Treater 680 0.2 to 0.3 0.077 0.026
Salt Lake Ex Treater 600 + 0.2 to 0.4 Unavail Unavail
Hawaii Ex Treater 600 + 0.2 to 0.5 Unavail Unavail
ASME Into Drum 301 to 450 0.3 0.025 0.05
El Paso Ex Treater 400 0.5 Unavail Unavail
Burnaby Ex Treater 400 0.5 to 0.7 Unavail Unavail
ASME Into Drum 0 to 300 0.3 0.05 0.1
Alaska Ex Treater 250 0.5 to 0.7 Unavail Unavail
to protect their boilers and the downstream steam system, we recommend the Hach
Chemical Calorimeter. (Phone number 303/669-3050.)
The Hach hardness analyzers are in common use and require less maintenance than
any alternative manufacturer. Most plants use the Model 6100. As a minimum,
weekly calibration is required. The analyzer’s tygon tubing should be replaced
every few months, and the analyzer requires about 1 quart of reagent weekly.
Other manufacturers are Uniloc, Delta, Hagen, and Milton Roy, but service may be
poor.
External Treatment Types and Costs

To be familiar with the various external water treating processes Figure 200-34
gives the relative costs for equipment and chemical costs of the various external
water treating processes.

Fig. 200-34 Types and Costs of External Treatment Methods

Process Costs By Type
Capacity
Chemicals: $ per
Type of Process 70 GPM 700 GPM 7000 GPM 1000 Gal. Trt’d(1)
Sodium Zeolite 1.0 X 1.0 Y 1.0 Z 1.0 BASE
Split Stream Softening 2.0 X 1.7 Y 1.3 Z 3.0 BASE
(Sodium + Hydrogen Zeolite)
Hot Lime + Filters 4.6 X 2.8 Y 2.9 Z 0.6 BASE
Demineralizer 8.0 X 6.6 Y 6.5 Z 7.0 BASE
Pressure Filters (Alone) 0.5 X 0.9 Y 1.3 Z Negligible
(1) Chemical costs only. They will vary with water analysis and unit costs of chemicals at the particular plant. Payouts of the higher invest-
ments are evaluated based on the decreased heat and water losses in the boiler blowdown.
With the current improvements in thin film membranes in the field of reverse
osmosis, a lot of our plants are considering it as the first step in the water treating
plant for waters as low as 75 PPM of dissolved solids. External water treating facili-
ties are expensive, both in initial investment and operating costs. In choosing a
water treating scheme it is important that the system selected does not provide an
unnecessary high quality of water.
The BORCO refinery has installed a reverse osmosis unit on local waters for their
multistage flash evaporation on sea water. The reverse osmosis had a payout over
other alternatives evaluated, including electrodialysis, desilicizers, and demineral-
izers.
The El Paso refinery in the mid 1980’s looked at their external feedwater equip-
ment and found the operating costs for well water and 50% condensate return as
follows:
External Treatment Operating Cost Ratio(1)
Existing Sodium Softening 1.0
New Sodium Softening 1.06
Hot Process Softening 1.02
Dealkalizer 1.3
Reverse Osmosis 1.46
Demineralizer 3.0
(1) Operating expenses only, no capital costs are included.
The study concluded that the reverse osmosis option would add $75,000/yr in oper-
ating costs, but save about $300,000/yr in heat and water costs. The demineralizer
would add operating costs of about $300,000/yr, while saving $400,000/yr in heat
and water. The reverse osmosis option was chosen in 1989.

External Treatment Vessel Sizing

To roughly size the vessels for any external water treating plant, the following
should be used as a design:
1. Maximum diameter of prefabricated vessel: 12-feet.
2. For vessels with resins for softening or demineralizing:
The number of units required are equal to total capacity desired at a design flow
rate of 5 gallons per minute across the cross-sectional area for the diameter
selected. For these units, flow should never be reduced to less than 2 GPM per
square foot of cross-sectional area to avoid stagnation and channeling through
the resin beds. If the plant has more than three units in parallel, there should be
two spare units included in the design: one for regeneration and one for mainte-
nance.
3. For hot lime reactors and filters:
The number of units required are equal to total capacity desired at a design flow
rate of 2.5 gallons per minute across the cross-sectional area for the diameter
selected. For these units, the filters are generally shop fabricated, and thus are
limited to the 12-foot diameter. Hot lime reactors are frequently field erected
with only one vessel of the size required. It can have some spare capacity built
into it, but it is not spared.
Recommended Vendors
The following vendors are recommended for custom designed external water
treating plants:
1. LA Water Treating
2. Illinois Water Treating
3. Graver
4. Glegg
267 Internal Treatment, Company Practice

Chemical suppliers “package” their internal water treating chemicals in blends
(solutions). Each of these blends requires something that takes care of:
1. Hardness. This is discussed in detail in the paragraph titled “Hardness Inhib-
itor Options.”
2. Oxygen. We normally handle any oxygen that makes it to the boiler by using
sodium sulfite or hydrazine.
Oxygen tests can be made with accuracies in the 50 to 100 part per billion
range by either the “Indigo Carmine” or “Winkler” methods.

Sodium sulfite
Sodium sulfite combines chemically with oxygen to form sodium sulfate in the
boiler drum.
With a properly operated deaerator, there is essentially zero oxygen in the
boiler feedwater. To ensure that there is no oxygen in the boiler, when using
sodium sulfite, a “residual” of sodium sulfite is maintained. The ppm of sulfite
required for treatment is based on feedwater:
Desired SO 3 Residual × 1.6

Required SO3 = ---------------------------------------------------------------------
Feedwater Cycles
(Eq. 200-3)
Sulfite Control Limits:
Pressure psig Limits ppm SO3
0-600 30-50
600-900 10-20
Over 900 4-6
Hydrazine
Hydrazine (N2H4) is a colorless, fuming, corrosive, strongly reducing liquid
base. It removes any remaining oxygen by joining chemically with it to form
water and nitrogen. Unlike sodium sulfite, hydrazine adds no solids to the
boiler water. We normally use it at pressures of 600 psig and up and when
sulfur compounds might result in catalyst fouling. Usual limits are about 0.1
ppm in the relatively cooler boiler feedwater. Decomposition of hydrazine starts
at about 400°F, and boiler residuals cannot be used.
3. Corrosion in the condensate return line. Carbon dioxide gas is produced
(primarily from the alkalinity) with the steam in the boiler drum. When the
steam condenses in the presence of this carbon dioxide, carbonic acid is
formed. This corrosive acid is neutralized by amines. The properties of neutral-
izing amines must be evaluated for each service. We normally use morpholine,
cyclohexylamine, diethylamino ethanol, and aminoethylpropanol.
Hardness Inhibitor Options

There are three basic hardness inhibitor programs available from the many chem-
ical companies.
1. Phosphate Treatment. This treatment has been around since 1924. In this
program, the hardness joins with phosphate, a particulate is formed, and a
dispersing agent is generally added to keep the particles in the blowdown.
Deposits do accumulate over time, reducing the heat transfer efficiency. Coor-

dinated pH/phosphate control is used by many plants successfully. This treat-

ment is considered the minimum approach of internal water treating.
2. Chelating Agents were developed in the early nineteen sixties. They produce
better boiler cleanliness than phosphate treatment. They function best at slight
residuals. However at high residuals, chelates become corrosive to the boiler
metal. They have problems where oxygen is not completely removed and in
local concentration areas. In avoiding high residuals, the program is suscep-
tible to feedwater upsets. Too little chelate, gives hot spots; too much chelate
corrodes the boiler.
There are two well-known chelant boiler treatments: EDTA and NTA. One
supplier uses a 50-50 mix of the two chelates. Residuals of either chelate
should be from zero to a few parts per million for the higher pressures to
around 15 to 25 for lower pressures and where iron is in the water.
The following chelate programs are used at several Company facilities. The
current effectiveness of these programs should be checked with the applicable
plant.
Port Arthur. Has used EDTA-chelate for over 20 years. The program is
chelate-sulfite-phosphate, and they hold the chelate well below the recom-
mended dosage.
Richmond. Used a phosphate program at No. 1 Power Plant up until 1978. In
1978 they converted to a chelate program. The chelate is Nalco 7215, NTA.
Filming and neutralizing amines (for condensate corrosion control) and hydra-
zine are also fed into the outlet of the deaerator.
Philadelphia. Used EDTA at the correct dosages, but found scaling. They have
switched to Calgon’s 50% EDTA and 50% NTA.
El Segundo. Switched from NTA to EDTA to help solve a magnesium silicate
deposit problem.
Salt Lake. Uses an EDTA chelate program. Betz monitors the system and
maintains a 5-15 ppm residual chelate.
El Paso. Replaced a Nalco phosphate program in 1978 with a Betz balanced
polymer chelate program.
Pascagoula. Switched from a hydrazine chelate program in September of 1984
to test Eliminox oxygen scavenger and Nalco 7200 Transport Plus. They use
chelates at the Ammonia Plant, at Hydrogen Plant No. 2, and at the PRCP.
3. Transport Plus. Developed in the late nineteen seventies, Nalco advertises this
for treatment programs up to 1500 psig and with heat fluxes up to 350,000
Btu/hr-ft2. This all organic polymer treatment system contains no phosphate,
chelate or phosphonate. In this program there are no particles precipitating. Per
Nalco, the polymers “transport” nearly 100% of the calcium, magnesium, silica
and iron through the boiler via continuous blowdown. There is no technical
problem, even if ten times the required amount of Transport Plus is added.

Calcium acrylate is formed at peak hardness and iron levels; the slug goes away
as the peaks subside and the water is back under control. Transport Plus is fed
in proportion to the hardness and the iron (total acidified) in the boiler feed-
water. Transport Plus polymer does not become more aggressive, like chelating
agents do, in the presence of oxygen contaminated water or in areas of local
concentration. Nalco does not recommend this program where the blowdown is
2% or less. Transport Plus has been used successfully for a number of years at
Pascagoula, Hawaii, and Richmond.
In 1984, the El Segundo Isomax Division was using Transport Plus because of its
low corrosivity and its promised superior performance. Their report on several
exchanger failures listed the following shortcomings of the Transport Plus Program:
1. During periods of undertreatment, the deposits occur exclusively in the area
of highest heat flux.
2. When deposits form, the treatment polymer increases the total mass by copre-
cipitating.
3. During high hardness (50 PPM in the blowdown) and undertreatment
(20% of recommended), the calcium and the Transport Plus form an insoluble
precipitate.
While 50 PPM hardness in the drum is rare in most plants and the treatment was
underfed for some time, it was felt that Transport Plus could be singularly unfor-
giving.
Recommended Chemical Suppliers:

The following companies are recommended for supplies of internal water treating
chemicals:
• Betz
• Nalco
• Drew
• Calgon
• Cheminin
• Chemco
• Mogul
• Petrolite
• Champion
• Coastal
Chemical Feed Systems

A chemical feed system for boilers can be purchased that includes tanks, pumps,
piping, wiring, and controls on prefabricated skids. These can be built to our specifi-
cations and require only electrical tie-in, a foundation for the skid, dilution water
connections where applicable, and discharge connections to the feed point. Systems
are available with a wide range of options, including multiple feed pumps, agita-

tors, level alarms, automated feed control, and a weatherproof shelter for the entire
skid.
JM Control Systems, Inc. furnished five 2000 gallon tanks and 14 chemical pumps
(completely skid mounted with all controls in place) for El Segundo in 1987.
Contact their Western District at 818/308-1522.
270 Potable Water

Potable water systems for onshore plants and offshore platforms provide water for
all fresh water uses in addition to water for human consumption. A typical system
on an offshore platform is depicted in Figure 200-35.
Fig. 200-35 Simplified Process Schematic—Potable Water System
271 Water Quality

Water quality requirements for drinking water used on offshore platforms in U.S.
federal waters are set by the U.S. Public Health Service (USPHS). These standards
are similar to those required by the World Health Organization. Generally, the stan-
dards permit only trace amounts of bacteria and recommend that total dissolved
solids be limited to 500 milligrams per liter (mg/L, approximately the same as ppm).
Details of these standards are contained in Reference [4]. Water quality require-
ments for onshore plants are generally covered by state and municipal standards. As
a minimum, you should meet the USPHS standards.
272 Potable Water Source

Potable water for offshore platforms is supplied from land bases, natural reservoirs
beneath the platform, or desalination of seawater. The ultimate selection of a
primary source is based on cost and reliability comparisons, which are beyond the
scope of this discussion. However, some major influencing factors are reviewed in

this section. One precaution to note is that when fresh water is to be used as a
diluent (e.g., desalting of crude oil), chemical compatibility must be assured.
Land Source Considerations

1. Distance to land
2. Cost of water delivery from shore
3. Quality and reliability of the source
Shallow Reservoir Source Considerations. Fresh water reservoirs are usually
located at 500 feet or less below the mudline, or ground surface.
1. Cost of well and pump equipment
2. Quality and quantity of water available
3. Energy costs
273 Disinfection
Disinfection of potable water can be achieved by several methods including chlori-
nation, irradiation, heat, metallic ions, etc. Only chlorination and irradiation
methods will be reviewed herein because they are the predominant methods used.
See Reference [4] for details of other methods.
Disinfection by Chlorination
Disinfection with chlorine takes a variety of forms, the most common ones being
bottled gas, calcium hypochlorite, and sodium hypochlorite. Chlorination currently
is the most widely used form of disinfection in the water treatment industry.
The method by which chlorination disinfects is very complex and not fully under-
stood. The reaction of chlorine with water is as follows:
Cl2 + H2O ↔ HOCl + H+ + Cl−
Most scientists agree that the hypochlorous acid produced is the principal disin-
fecting agent [Reference 4]. The effectiveness of chlorination is influenced by the
presence of chlorine reactive agents, temperature, pH, etc.
Chlorine can be introduced into the water in the form of gas, calcium hypochlorite
powder, and sodium hypochlorite liquid. Reactions for the latter two are:
Ca(OCl)2 + H2O ↔ Ca++ + 2OCl−+ H2O
NaOCl + H2O ↔ Na + OCl− + H2O
The hypochlorite ions establish equilibrium with hydrogen ions to form hypochlo-
rous acid. See Reference 4 for further details.
Bottled Gas. Chlorine in this form is commonly used in large water supply systems
because it produces the most chlorine available for disinfection per pound of chlo-
rine used. Chlorine gas is highly toxic and is a fire and safety hazard and therefore

requires special precautions in its use, shipment, and storage. It is not often used in
small water systems offshore because other forms of chlorine can provide adequate
supply with much reduced risk. See Engineering Guideline PIM-EN-1300
(Section 1300) in the Piping Manual for guidelines on storage and handling of chlo-
rine.
Calcium Hypochlorite. This form of chlorine is usually used in granular or tablet
form, and essentially all the chlorine in the compound becomes available for disin-
fection when dissolved in water. Calcium hypochlorite can be used as a water solu-
tion in a continuous-chlorine feed system or can be used for batch treatment by
placing the chemical directly into the system (storage tank). It is particularly useful
when high chlorine concentrations are needed prior to final commissioning.
Calcium hypochlorite is classified by the National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA) as a “Class 3” oxidizing agent and is highly toxic. Therefore, very careful
handling procedures are required. As a result, this form of chlorine is used on a
limited basis offshore.
Sodium Hypochlorite. This is often referred to as liquid bleach or soda bleach
liquor and is the most widely-used of the hypochlorites for potable water and waste
treatment purposes. While it requires much more storage space than calcium
hypochlorite and is more costly to transport long distances in large quantities, it is
more easily handled and gives the least maintenance problems with pumping and
metering equipment.
The strength of soda bleach solution is commonly expressed in terms of available
chlorine content—“trade percent” or “percent by volume.” A more accurate expres-
sion is the actual weight percent of the available chlorine or sodium hypochlorite.
The relationship between these values is:
Trade % (percent by volume)
( gpm ⁄ L )available Cl2

= --------------------------------------------------------
100
(Eq. 200-4)
Weight % available Cl2
Trade percent
= -----------------------------------------------------------------
Specific gravity of solution
(Eq. 200-5)
Weight % sodium hypochlorite
gm ⁄ L sodium hypochlorite
= ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Specific gravity of solution × 100
(Eq. 200-6)

Weight % sodium hypochlorite
( gm ⁄ L available Cl 2 ) × 1.05
= ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Specific gravity of solution × 100
(Eq. 200-7)
The weight in lb/gal for a particular strength is not a constant. It varies, depending
on the amount of excess sodium hydroxide the manufacturer uses to promote
stability.
Figure 200-36 gives approximate values of weight suitable for calculating dosages
of sodium hypochlorite.
Fig. 200-36 Commercially Available Sodium Hypochlorite Concentrations

Approximate Gal/day req’d to dose
Trade % Available weight of Available Cl2, 1 million gal/day
Cl2, gm/L one gallon, lb lb/gal to 1.0 ppm
1.00 8.45 0.083 100
5.00 8.92 0.42 20
5.25 8.95 0.44 19
10.0 9.50 0.83 10
15.0 10.1 1.25 6.6
The stability of hypochlorite solutions is greatly affected by heat, light, pH, and the
presence of heavy metal cations. These solutions will decompose at various rates
depending upon the following factors:
1. The higher the temperature, the faster the rate of decomposition.
2. The higher the concentration, the more rapid the decomposition.
3. The presence of iron, copper, nickel, and cobalt catalyzes the rate of decompo-
sition of hypochlorite.
Iron concentration as low as one mg/L (a common maximum for industrial grades)
is sufficient to cause this effect. Source of the iron is usually the caustic used in the
manufacture of sodium hypochlorite.
Copper concentration should be kept as low as possible—not in excess of one mg/L
in the finished solution. It is generally present because of the flexible copper
connections and brass body line valves used in the chlorine supply system. Great
care must be taken to prevent active corrosion of these parts by keeping them inter-
nally free of moisture. This is difficult to accomplish.
The most stable solutions are those of low hypochlorite concentration, with a pH of
11 and low iron, copper, and nickel content, stored in the dark at low temperature.

Caustic is used purely as a stabilizing factor. A large excess alkalinity does not,
however, stabilize hypochlorite solutions any more than a slight excess. Neverthe-
less, if the pH drops below 11, decomposition becomes more rapid.
The list in Figure 200-37 shows the half-life of various concentrations of sodium
hypochlorite solutions at different temperatures. It is presumed that this information
is based on industrial grade hypochlorite. It is estimated that the rate of decomposi-
tion of 10 to 15% solutions nearly doubles with every 10°F temperature rise.
Fig. 200-37 Typical Half-Life of Sodium Hypochlorite Concentrations

Half-life days at
Percent available
chlorine 212°F 140°F 79°F 59°F
10.0 0.079 3.5 220 800
5.0 0.250 13.0 790 5000
2.5 0.630 28.0 1800 —
0.5 2.50 100.0 6000 —
Sodium hypochlorite solutions are packaged in various ways ranging from 1-quart
plastic containers to tank trucks.
The most popular method is a corrugated cardboard-type carton with four 1-gallon
plastic jugs (usually red), which are returnable for refill. Very small potable water
systems can utilize ordinary laundry bleach.
Although sodium hypochlorite solutions may be safely stored with no fire risk
(which is not the case with some of the powdered hypochlorite), the solutions can
become a physical hazard when spilled. Equipment can suffer corrosion that is
much greater from these solutions than from an aqueous solution of chlorine made
from chlorine gas. Handling and storage areas should be routinely flushed with large
amounts of water.
A typical hypochlorite injection package consists of a lined or plastic tank, mixer,
and chemical metering pump (Figure 200-38). The point of chlorine injection is best
located immediately upstream of the storage tank where pressure is minimal and
retention time is greatest. Selection of materials for a hypochlorite injection unit
must be done carefully to minimize corrosion. The following material selection is
suggested:
Hypochlorite Storage Tank—polyethylene, vinyl ester fiberglass reinforced plastic
(FRP), or lined carbon steel tanks.
Mixer—synthetic cowling on waterproof motor. Shaft sleeve should be Hastelloy C
or titanium. Stainless steel will rapidly deteriorate due to stress cracking.
Piping—where pressure limits allow, utilize vinyl ester FRP or CPVC plastic piping
and fittings. Otherwise, PVC-lined carbon steel, Hastelloy C, or titanium piping or
tubing is required.

Fig. 200-38 Typical Hypochlorite Injection Unit (Courtesy of Johnson-March Systems)
Pumps—use diaphragm or plunger-type chemical feed pumps. Wetted internals

must be vinyl ester FRP, titanium, or nickel-based alloys.
274 Ultraviolet Light Disinfection

Disinfection of water using ultraviolet (UV) light radiation has been commercially
available since about 1980, and development work is continuing to eliminate oper-
ating problems that have been detected. Because this type of disinfection continues
to be studied, technical data must be updated when UV light disinfection is consid-
ered for offshore application.
Ultraviolet light disinfection of water employs low-pressure mercury lamps. They
generate short-wave ultraviolet light at a wavelength of 253.7 nanometers, which is
lethal to microorganisms including bacteria, protozoa, viruses, molds, yeasts, fungi,
nematode eggs, and algae. The currently accepted mechanism of microorganism
destruction is that ultraviolet light causes molecular rearrangements in DNA and
RNA, which in turn blocks replication.

When microorganisms are subjected to ultraviolet light, a constant fraction of the

number present die in each time increment. The fraction of the initial number of
microorganisms surviving at a given time is called the survival ratio. The fraction
killed is one minus the survival ratio.
Nt
Survival Ratio = ------- = e –KIt
No
(Eq. 200-8)
where:
No = number of microorganisms initially present
Nt = number of microorganisms surviving at time t
t = time of exposure, sec
I = intensity (more correctly, the scalar irradiance of ultraviolet light
impinging on the microorganisms), µW-sec/cm2
K = constant which depends upon the type of microorganisms and
wavelength of ultraviolet light
e = Base of natural logarithm, 2.718
Equation 200-8 indicates that for each given microorganism and ultraviolet (UV)
wavelength, the fraction killed depends upon the product of UV light intensity and
exposure time. This product is known as the dosage.
Dosage is the most important parameter for rating UV disinfection equipment. The
validity of this mathematical expression has been proven over a thousand-fold range
in intensity. The expression fails only at low values of intensity.
Dosage requirements for bacteria range from 2,500 to 22,000 µW-sec/cm2. Yeast
dosage requirements range from 6,600 to 17,600 µW-sec/cm2. Mold spore, fungi,
and algae dosage requirements range from 11,000 to 330,000 µW-sec/cm2. Viruses
have dosage requirements in the same range as bacteria. Protozoa and nematode
eggs have extremely high dosage requirements.
There is no universally accepted minimum dosage requirement for ultraviolet disin-
fection systems. In 1966, the U.S. Public Health Service published a policy state-
ment that contained a drinking water disinfection dosage requirement of 16,000
µW-sec/cm2 [Reference 5]. This statement has formed the basis for several stan-
dards published throughout the world. The Company considers a minimum dose of
30,000 µW-sec/cm2 a safer minimum (see 3 below).
UV Disinfector Limitations. Various problems associated with UV disinfectors
have been detected and some solutions achieved. These are reviewed below. Refer
to Reference 6 for further details.
1. Turbidity. UV rays penetrate the fluid media into the cell walls of the microor-
ganisms. In accordance with the laws of photochemical action, a bacterium
must absorb UV energy in order to be killed. Therefore, in order for water to be

disinfected by a UV process, it must be free of any particulate matter that

would act as a shield and prevent energy from reaching the bacteria.
By designing the UV chamber such that a particle receives irradiation from all
spherical angles, the shielding effect would be zero (assuming, of course, only
one particle in the water). However, because many particles exist, there is in
actuality an extremely small eclipse-effect. This eclipse-effect can be mini-
mized if the water flows past the ultraviolet light in turbulent flow. The UV
chamber will then perform satisfactorily.
2. Short-circuiting. All UV chambers on the market, with one or two exceptions,
experience problems with short-circuiting. In other words, some of the water
can pass through the unit untreated due to mixing patterns. Even a small degree
of short-circuiting can be extremely harmful. Some manufacturers have solved
this problem by maintaining turbulent flow and a 3 to 5 second retention time.
Also, multiple stage UV chambers can be used to minimize the problem.
3. Photoreactivation. Certain UV disinfectors, when inadequately designed, do not
completely kill bacteria but only damage them sufficiently to prevent further
growth. Visible light can repair the damage so that the bacteria begin to grow
again (photoreactivation). Photoreactivation can occur when UV dosages fall
below 30,000 µW-sec/cm2 as a result of insufficient reaction time or improper
placement of adjacent lamps (that can absorb one another’s UV intensity).
Also, if the lamp skin temperature is not controlled, but is at the ambient water
temperature or 5°F to 10°F above the ambient water temperature, reduction in
disinfection energy results. At 40°F the UV output is reduced by 90 percent
from its peak value, i.e., the UV dosage is only 10 percent of the rated value.
Generally, UV chambers have a quartz sleeve over the lamp to maximize their
energy output; however, a simple heat transfer calculation shows that the
lamp’s skin temperature is only 5°F to 10°F above the water’s temperature,
resulting in inefficient energy output. In one unit, the quartz sleeve is not sealed
from the air (for ease of lamp replacement); thus, the “heat” from the lamp sets
up convection currents, causing a flow of air over the lamp. In this particular
case, the lamp skin temperature is close to ambient. Therefore, in the winter
when air temperature is below zero, the lamp skin is at zero and no UV irradia-
tion (at 253.7 nanometers wavelength) is emitted. The UV dosage is insuffi-
cient and thus, little if any disinfection occurs. The nonsealing design also
creates a safety hazard because the recirculating air is rich in ozone (produced
by the quartz lamp), causing the air around the unit to be toxic.
4. UV intensity monitor. A consistent problem with UV chambers has been that
no UV-intensity measuring device has been available. UV intensity measure-
ment is essential for proof of disinfection. If the measurement of UV radiation
intensity in the UV contact chamber has poor reliability, there will always be
uncertainty as to whether disinfection can be reliably accomplished.
This concern originated because UV chambers have sometimes become fouled
by the formation of a film, or scale, on the quartz which “blacks out” the UV
and decreases the unit’s performance. The scale, consisting of iron and calcium

compounds, is present in all waters, and forms in the same manner as the scale
on a heat exchanger. Because scale formation can be expected, provision for it
should be made in chamber designs.
Within the last several years, UV-intensity meters have become available as an
option on certain UV chambers to provide disinfection monitoring. Unfortu-
nately, these meters have not been subjected to sufficient operating experience
to determine their accuracy or reliability.
One UV chamber is designed so that the iron and calcium deposits are mini-
mized. In turbulent flow, the water passes inside a Teflon tube outside of which
is the UV lamp in an enclosed air chamber. The turbulent flow continually
flushes oils that might be passing through the chamber and are a common
fouling problem. However, because the Teflon tubing material is a nonfouling
surface, little or no fouling occurs. Also, because no temperature gradient
occurs at the tube wall, neither the iron nor calcium plate onto the tube surface.
On one type of unit, a wiper mechanism used to minimize fouling has
performed satisfactorily. Data to date indicate that performance deterioration is
not a problem, and therefore the need for a UV-intensity meter is minimized.
All UV chambers should, however, be installed so that the units can be cleaned
by an acid flush. That is, the UV system should include acid, an acid-holding
tank, and an acid-recirculating pump
5. No residual effect. UV disinfection is a physical process and not a chemical
process. Therefore, continued disinfection does not occur after the passage of
water through the UV unit
UV disinfectors using Teflon tubes. In this type of equipment, water to be disin-
fected flows inside Teflon tubes that are surrounded on the outside by the germi-
cidal lamps. The UV light penetrates the Teflon tube(s) and is absorbed by the fluid.
Advantages
• Minimizes fouling by keeping water separated from the lamps
• Avoids short-circuiting with retention time and turbulent plug flow
• Handles turbidity (suspended solids) up to 30 to 60 ppm total suspended solids
• Provides sufficient UV dosage to prevent photoregeneration problems
• Offers UV—intensity monitor capability
Disadvantages
• Does not have much operating experience
• Allows short-circuiting if actual flow rate exceeds design flow rate
• Requires inlet water turbidity below 60 ppm total suspended solids to ensure
complete dosage
Thin-film UV disinfectors. With this equipment, water is passed by the UV lamps
in a thin film approximately 1/4-inch thick. The lamps are protected by a quartz

shield. The design gives high UV intensity. However, because the UV lamps are
closely spaced, reabsorption of radiation limits effectiveness.
Advantages
• Fully proven and successful commercial design avoids short-circuiting prob-
lems by maintaining a plug flow regime that can handle turbidity up to 30 to 60
ppm total suspended solids
• Can avoid photoregeneration with proper design
Disadvantages
• Must derate capacity by approximately 25% due to loss of useful UV intensity
by reabsorption (only way to avoid photoregeneration)
• Forms film and scale on the quartz shield resulting in reduced UV intensity and
dosage; periodic chemical cleaning required
• Has no UV intensity monitor on current version
• Must have inlet water turbidity below 30 to 60 ppm total suspended solids
Box-type UV disinfectors. These units consist mainly of UV lamps inside a box or
pipe where water is in direct contact with the quartz membrane. Its best application
is for pure water. It is not recommended for the raw water applications because of
the likelihood of fouling.
Advantages
• Suitable for pure water applications
Disadvantages
• Subject to fouling problems
• Little operating experience or test data available
275 Reverse Osmosis

Reverse osmosis theory and equipment is discussed in Section 225. It is a highly
reliable method of producing potable water.
276 Calculation Procedures

Calculation procedures for design of potable water system components are
presented in the steps that follow. Selection of desalination units and ultraviolet light
sterilization units is included, but final selection is beyond the scope of these calcu-
lations. An offshore platform situation is used for the example.
Step 1. Define parameters and prerequisites as described in Sub-section 210 and
sketch out system (see Figure 200-35).
Step 2. Establish demand.

1. Human consumption usage is 50 to 100 gal/day/ person (for platforms with

living quarters).
2. Drilling and other uses must be added.
Step 3. Source selection is beyond scope of this guideline.
Step 4. Desalination unit—selection must be based on a total cost comparison,
which is beyond the scope of this guideline. However, preliminary size
and weight data can be obtained from Figures 200-4 and 200-5. Vendors
must be contacted for more specific data.
See results section for data needed for and from the vendor.
Step 5. Size the storage tanks to provide a 7- to 10-day supply.
Step 6. Size the pressurization unit. Establish a normal demand flow rate of 0.4
gal/min/person and a peak demand flow rate of 1.0 gal/min/person.
Step 6a. Establish pump capacity. Maintain pump-up frequency at four times per
hour or less and pump rest time at 10 minutes minimum. Minimum
capacity must be equal to peak demand.
Q = Normal demand = Volume supplied by surge vessel when pump is
not operating
Qmax = Peak demand = Volume supplied by surge vessel and pump
during pump operation
or
60 min
Q ----------------- = V t F + Q p tF – V t F
hr
60 min
Q ----------------- = Q p tF
hr
(Eq. 200-9)
where:
Qp = Pump capacity, gal/min
t = Pump-up time, min
F = Pump-up frequency, cycle/hr
Vt = Surge tank operating volume, gal
Confirm Qp ≥ 1.2 x peak demand
if not, use Qp = 1.2 x peak demand for pump capacity
Step 6b. Calculate pump horsepower.
Q p ∆P
BHP = ---------------
1715e
(Eq. 200-10)

where:
P1 = Maximum surge vessel operating pressure, psig, usually 60 to 100
psig
Pst = Pressure in storage tank, usually 0 psig
∆P = P1 - Pst = differential pressure, psi
e = Pump efficiency
BHP = Required pump horsepower
Step 6c. Complete pump selection based on previous instructions and the Pump
Manual.
Step 6d. Calculate required surge vessel capacity, Vt, in gallons.
Vt = (Qp - Q)t
(Eq. 200-11)
Step 6e. Size surge vessel—Assume the gas blanket expands slowly enough to
allow for isothermal expansion. Establish required usable tank volume.
Vt ( P 3 ⁄ P 1 )
V 1 = -----------------------------
1 – ( P3 ⁄ P1 )
(Eq. 200-12)
where:
Vt = Volume discharged from surge vessel between pump operations,
gal
V1 = Surge vessel volume, gal
V2 = Compressed volume of gas in surge vessel at maximum operating
pressure, gal
V3 = The expanded volume of gas at minimum pressure, gal
P1 = Surge vessel gas (nitrogen or air) precharge pressure, psia. This
pressure must be less than or equal to minimum system pressure,
P3. Use minimum 5 psig less than the minimum system pressure
as first trial.
P2 = Maximum system operating pressure, psia
P3 = Minimum system pressure, psia (allow 5 psi for piping losses)
Step 6f. Establish vessel dimensions—use vertical vessel, keeping length/diam-

eter ratio near 3.

Total volume = volume of cylinder + volume of both heads

or
π π
V 1 = --- D 2 L + --- KD 3
4 6
(Eq. 200-13)
where:
V1 = Total vessel volume converted to ft3
D = Vessel diameter, ft
L = Vessel length, ft
b = Vessel head height, ft
K = 2 b/D (for 2:1 elliptical head K = 1/2)
Then:
π
V 1 – --- KD 3
6
L = ----------------------------
π 2
--- D
4
(Eq. 200-14)
Step 6g. Confirm that minimum liquid height above suction nozzle is sufficient to
avoid gas discharge from effluent water nozzle. Use guideline that liquid
volume is greater than or equal to volume of bottom head.
V4 = Volume liquid remaining in vessel, ft3
= V1 - V3
= V1 (1 - P1/P3)
Vh = Volume of head, ft3
= πKD3/12
Confirm that V4 ≥ Vh.
Step 7. Complete sterilization.
Step 7a. Chlorination—Establish demand based on onsite tests. For initial sizing
when site data is not available, assume a 2 to 3 ppm concentration for
desalinated water since desalinated water is generally free of contami-
nants. For water supply from land sources, base demand on laboratory
tests: refer to Reference 1 or other literature for suggested test proce-
dures.

Calculation of Chlorine Flow Rate. Only sodium hypochlorite is described. It is

suggested that solutions of 0.5% to 10% hypochlorite concentrations be prepared,
with the lower concentration preferred.
ρ w JQ
W = ----------------------------
1.0 × 10 6 C
(Eq. 200-15)
J = Concentration of available chlorine dosage required, ppm (0.1 to
3 ppm depending upon water quality)
Q = Water flow rate, gal/day
ρw = Density of water, lb/gal
C = Concentration of chlorine dosage, lb/gal
W = Chlorine solution flow rate, gal/day
Example Calculation
The following example is a preliminary design for a potable water system on a
drilling production platform in the Gulf of Mexico.
Step 1. Definition of parameters and prerequisites
Location: Gulf of Mexico, 200 miles offshore
Water depth: 350 ft
Water source: Seawater, as no shallow aquifer is present and distance to
shore is deemed impractical for hauling water
Water analysis: Same as Figure 200-2
Water demand: No process water required, human consumption in 25-
person quarters unit; estimated normal demand, 10
gal/min; maximum demand, 25 gal/min; minimum system
pressure, 25 psig
Available utilities: 3φ/480 V/60 Hz electrical power is available as required.
No heating medium is available.
Step 2. Calculate demand. Only human consumption is being considered. Use
75 gal/day/ person.
Demand = 75 gal/day/person x 25 people = 1875 gal/day

Step 3. Source selection—assumed to be seawater
Step 4. Desalination Unit. Make a preliminary selection of size and weight from
Figures 200-4 and 200-5 to determine preliminary data as shown in
Figure 200-39.

Fig. 200-39 Desalination Unit Preliminary Size and Weight Selection Data
Preliminary Selection Data
Vapor Compression Thermal Compressor Reverse
Min capacity gal/day 2400 2400 1500
Width, ft 5.8 2.5 3.4
Length, ft 4.6 4.0 9.0
Height, ft 5.2 5.5 6.2
Dry weight, kips 2.8 14.2 5.2
Oper. weight, kips 3.4 16.3 9.0
Because no waste heat is available, submerged-tube units cannot be used. Use the
reverse osmosis unit as preliminary choice.
Step 5. Storage Tank
Daily Demand x 10 days = 1875 x 10 = 18750 gal

Step 6. Pressurization Unit
Step 6a. Set pump capacity
Q = 10 gal/min
F = 4 cycles/hr
t = 5 min
Qmax = 25 gal/min
Based on normal demand, using Equation 200-6:
gal min
10 --------- 60 ---------
min hr
Q p = ----------------------------------------- = 30 gpm
( 5 min ) ( 4 cy/hr )
(Eq. 200-16)
Is Qp ≥ 1.2 x Qmax? Yes.
Step 6b. Calculate pump horsepower.
P1 = 80 psig
Pst = 0 psig
∆P = P1 - Pst
= 80 psig - 0
= 80 psi.

e = 0.3
Using Equation 200-7:
Q p ∆P 30 gpm ( 80 psi )
BHP = --------------- = ----------------------------------------
1715e 1715 ( 0.3 )
(Eq. 200-17)
= 4.66, use 5 BHP
Note Remember to uprate motor to standard motor horsepower.
Step 6c. Complete pump selection.
Step 6d. Calculate required surge vessel capacity, Vt, using Equation 200-8.
Vt = (Qp - Q)t
= (30 gal/min - 10 gal/min) 5 min
= 100 gal
Step 6e. Size surge vessel—assuming isothermal expansion and using

Equation 200-12.
P1 = Gas (nitrogen or air) precharge pressure, psia. This pressure must
be less than or equal to minimum system pressure (P3). Suggest
minimum 5 psig less as first trial.
= 40 psia
P2 = 95 psia from Step 6b.
P3 = Minimum system pressure, psia. Allow 5 psi for piping losses.
= 25 psig + 5.0 + 15 psia
= 45 psia
45-
-----
Vt ( P3 ⁄ P1 ) 40
V 1 = ----------------------------- = 100 gal --------------- = 194 gal
1 – ( P3 ⁄ P2 ) 40
1 – ------
95
(Eq. 200-18)
Step 6f. Establish vessel dimensions using Equation 200-14.
V1 = 194 gal/7.48 gal/ft3 = 25.94 ft3
K = 2b/D
= 0.5 for 2:1 head

πKD 3
V 1 – ---------------
6
L = ---------------------------- , try D = 2 ft
πD 2
----------
4
(Eq. 200-19)
π
25.94 ft 2 –  --- ( 0.5 ) ( 2 ) 3
 6
= ------------------------------------------------------------ = 7.6 ft, use 8 ft
π --- ( 2 ) 2
 4
(Eq. 200-20)
Step 6g. Confirm liquid height above top of bottom head.
V4 = V1 (1 - P1/P3)
= 25.94 (1 - 4045)
= 2.88 ft3
Vh = πKD3/12
= π(0.5)(2)3/12
= 1.048 ft3
V4 ≥ Vh
Step 7. Calculate the chlorine flow rate: use 5% (trade percent) sodium
hypochlorite. Use an expected maximum chlorine demand of 3 ppm.
By Equation 200-15:
J = 3 ppm
C = 0.42 lb/gas (see Figure 200-36)
ρw = 8.33 lb/gal
Q = 1875 gal/day
ρ w JQ
W = -----------------------
1 × 10 6 C
(Eq. 200-21)
3 ppm ( 1875 gal/day )  8.33 -------

lb
 gal
= ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 × 10 6 × 0.42 lb/gal
= 0.11 gal/day
(Eq. 200-22)

277 Defining Procurement Parameters

The results obtained from the above calculations provide the process data needed to
formulate inquiry specifications for the potable water system and its supporting
components. Use the following list as a checklist for required data.
Desalination Unit
1. Type unit required.
2. Demand—express in gallons per day.
3. Inlet water analysis. See suggested source water analysis in Figure 200-1.
4. Available utilities.
a. Electrical Power—define power and instrument electrical supply voltages,
phases, cycles, and any maximum power usage limits.
b. Process Heat—define physical and thermal properties of heating fluid,
mass flow rate available, and allowable pressure drop.
5. Special requirements—spares, materials of construction (e.g., metal vs. plastic).
6. Water quality requirements—list dissolved solids and bacterial count limits
required in accordance with USPHS requirements [see Reference 1]. If reverse
osmosis units are also being considered, specify that quality requirements must
be met for a period of 2 years without membrane changeout.
Storage Tanks
1. Define usable storage required above pump suction nozzle.
2. Define materials of construction.
3. Complete specification.
Pumps
Define inlet and outlet pressure, flow rate, materials and numbers of units; see the
Pump Manual and Reference 7 for completion of specification.
Pressure Vessel
1. Define vessel height (seam-to-seam) and inside diameter.
2. Define total volume.
3. Define inlet and outlet water nozzle heights based on usable volume required.
4. Specify internal coating in accordance with United States Food and Drug
Administration (USFDA) Standards.
5. Specify if bladder required.
6. Specify precharge pressure, design pressure, and design temperature.

Chlorination (Sodium Hypochlorite) Equipment

1. Concentration—specify maximum hypochlorite concentration in mg/L.
2. Tank
a. Define required tank volume.
b. Define tank materials.
c. Define piping size and materials.
3. Mixer
a. Define motor—enclosure voltage phases and cycles.
b. Define shaft materials and propeller materials type and quantity.
4. Injection pump
a. Define flow rate discharge pressure.
b. Define fluid properties.
c. Define materials of construction.
d. See the Pump Manual for final specification.
UV Equipment
1. Provide inlet water analysis.
2. Define outlet water requirements.
3. Require complete kill with proof of performance.
Data for Other Design Areas. Provide this data on the basis of preliminary selec-
tion and update as final equipment selection is made.
1. Required feedwater quantity to desalination unit. Base on maximum antici-
pated requirement.
2. Space and weight requirements for desalination unit storage tank, pressuriza-
tion unit, and disinfection unit.
3. Utility requirements.
278 Potable Water Tanks

Storage Tanks. Potable water storage tanks on an offshore platform provide long-
term storage (7- to 10-day supply) of water received from desalination units or
supply vessels. These tanks are usually fiberglass or lined, carbon steel tanks. Fiber-
glass tanks have definite drawbacks: they are (1) fragile and may be damaged
during handling; (2) limited to 1,000 to 5,000 gallons of storage; and (3) unless
fabricated with UV inhibitors included, may be subject to degradation by ultraviolet
light radiation. Carbon steel tanks are usually specified in American Petroleum

Institute (API) standards and are suitable for most storage volumes. Any internal
coating used for either fiberglass or steel tanks must be suitable for potable water.
Pressurization Units. Potable water pressurization units consist of pressurizing
pumps and a gas-blanketed surge vessel. The pumps take suction from the storage
tank at atmospheric pressure and deliver water to the surge vessel at 60 to 100 psig.
Potable water is delivered from the surge vessel to end users. Because potable water
demand is not constant, the gas blanket in the surge vessel expands to maintain pres-
sure to users. The minimum tank pressure in the vessel is 30 to 50 psig to provide
15 to 25 psig to the users. The pumps are operated cyclically to repressurize the
vessel.
Pressurization Pumps. Single-stage centrifugal pumps are usually the selection for
the flow rates and pressures encountered on offshore platforms. Bronze-fitted
pumps (all metals in contact with the fluid are iron except certain parts are bronze)
built to American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standards are generally suffi-
cient for potable water service. Pump flow rate should be 1.2 times the peak demand
to avoid loss of system pressure. A backup pump as a spare is required to ensure
availability of water. For detailed pump selection refer to the Pump Manual.
Surge Vessels. Surge vessels are manufactured in two forms: with and without a
bladder. Advantages and disadvantages of both types of vessels are listed below. For
detailed specifications of the vessel, refer to the Pressure Vessel Manual.
Vessels without Bladders. In vessels without a bladder, oil-free instrument air is
used as the blanket gas.
Advantages
1. Less expensive to purchase and maintain than bladder vessels.
Disadvantages
1. Fouling of potable water by compressed air contaminants is possible. (There-
fore, downstream sterilization and monitoring for oil is required.)
Vessels with Bladders. Bladder vessels separate the gas blanket from the potable
water with an expandable bladder diaphragm, which is usually made of synthetic
rubber and is similar to those used in accumulators and pulsation dampeners.
Advantages
1. Little chance of contamination by gas contact.
Disadvantages
1. More expensive to purchase and maintain than vessels without bladders.
2. Standard units available only for small domestic systems. (Offshore units must
often be custom-built.)

280 Tempered Water Systems for Safety Shower and Eyewash
281 Scope
Company safety practices as well as OSHA and other regulations require the place-
ment of safety shower/eyewash stations in certain work situations. Refer to Section
10.0 of the Safety In Designs Manual (1986) for a summary of these requirements.
In addition, certain locations require the use of a tempered water system.
This section outlines important features to be considered in the detailed design,
installation, and performance of safety shower/eyewash water supply systems
when tempered water is required.
To produce a complete design for safety showers and eyewash stations, this section
must be used in conjunction with Section 10.0 of the Safety in Designs Manual,
which gives details for the actual safety shower and eyewash station units. A safety
engineer should also be consulted to evaluate specific needs.
Mandatory verbs—such as “shall be,” “must be,” and “is/are required”—are
requirements from the Safety in Designs Manual.
282 Water Supply

Potable water shall be used for all safety shower/eyewash systems. The system shall
be sized to provide a minimum of 15 minutes tempered water supply per station in
use. Where two or more stations are connected to the same piping system, the water
supply piping shall be designed for flow to any two safety shower/eyewash stations
operating in the system simultaneously.
The minimum flow requirements for each type of device are:
• 30 gpm at 30 psig water supply shall be provided to each safety shower
• 1 gpm at 30 psig water supply shall be provided to each eyewash fountain
• 3 gpm at 30 psig water supply shall be provided to each face-wash fountain
Notes:
1. Flow rate for combination safety shower and eyewash units shall be designed
for both units operating simultaneously.
2. Shower and eyewash nozzles shown in the Safety in Designs Manual are
designed for proper operation with 30 psig supply pressure. The system layout
should be checked for any excessive pressure drop to any unit.
3. High system pressure as well as low system pressure can compromise the effec-
tive use of a unit. Automatic flow/pressure control devices are available from
safety shower/eyewash manufacturers and should be installed with the safety
shower/eyewash unit when necessary to compensate for pressure deviations and
surges.

☞ Caution Water supply pressure of 100 psig or more can result in injurious water
velocities especially at eyewash nozzles, even if equipped with automatic flow/pres-
sure control devices. A pressure regulator is required on the water supply line in this
case.
Any potable water supply that is likely to have solids, excessive hardness or that
may create suspended solids after heating shall have filters and/or strainers in the
safety shower/eyewash system.
Test the installed system to confirm the correct operation of each device (see
Sub-section 287).
283 Tempered Water Systems

Tempered water is water that is temperature regulated between limits defined by the
service.
Where tempered water is required for safety shower/ eyewash units, the tempera-
ture should be 75°F plus or minus 10°F. The water temperature should never exceed
95°F.
When ambient conditions permit, you should consider shutting down the tempering
system to avoid wasting energy.
Several types of tempered water systems have been used successfully. Schematic
piping and instrument diagrams of some systems are shown on Figure 200-40. The
two basic system types are described below.
Tempered Water Reservoir System

This type of system may be appropriate where:
• a safety shower/eyewash station is located in a remote location
• stations are not easily piped together
• enclosures are required for stations
• it is not feasible to install a circulating system
The advantage of this system is that the need for instrumentation and mechanical
equipment is minimized.
Provide a 1000 gallon main storage tank for tempered water in a heated enclo-
sure, such as a control room or boiler room, where the air temperature is kept within
the required range for safety shower/eyewash tempered water. This tank size will
provide the capacity to maintain tempered water to two safety shower/eyewash units
for 15 minutes. Water in this tank is heated and maintained at temperature from 65
to 75°F by the room air.
Pipe water from the main storage tank to a small capacity secondary storage tank
at each safety shower/eyewash station. Place secondary storage tank within an insu-
lated enclosure with a thermostatically controlled space heater which maintains
enclosure air temperature at 75°F. The safety shower/eyewash unit may also be
included in the heated enclosure. The heated enclosure provides the heat for

Fig. 200-40 Schematics of Tempered Water for Safety Shower/Eyewash System
Chevron Corporation
Utilities Manual
200-79
December 2000
200 Water
tempering the stored water in the storage tank. The secondary storage tank should
be sized to temper (heat up or cool down) the standing water in the connecting
piping from the main storage tank. Hot water due to direct sunlight exposure or heat
tracing malfunction or cold water due to cold ambient temperatures are some of the
reasons the standing water requires tempering. A 100-gallon storage tank should be
sufficient for approximately 200 feet of piping filled with water at 40 to 110°F.
Heat trace the piping from the main storage tank to the safety shower/eyewash unit
if necessary for freeze protection. Heat tracing should be self-limiting to 105°F.
Minimize the piping from the secondary storage tank to the safety shower/eyewash
unit.
High and low air temperature alarms should be provided to detect heater
malfunction (recommended settings are 95 and 65°F respectively).
Tempered Water Circulating System

This type of system may be appropriate where:
• a number of safety shower/eyewash units could be connected in series
• it is not desirable to provide a reservoir system with insulated heated enclosures
Advantages of this system are that a large number of units may be served by one
heater and the space requirement at the safety shower/eyewash units is minimized.
A heater is provided to maintain system water temperature in the circulating loop.
A commercial electric or gas water heater may be used provided it meets the
requirements of the electrical area classification.
The heater should be sized for heat loss in the circulation loop at the coldest ambient
temperature. If a storage tank is provided, storage capacity should be sized for the
system needs during operation at design rate for up to two stations used at the same
time.
Steam heating may be used. However, the steam pressure must be less than the
system water pressure and direct heating of the water with steam is not permitted.
“Leslie Constantemp” steam water heaters have been used successfully to provide
tempered water on demand; however, a 1000 to 2000 lb/hr steam supply may be
required to meet design flow requirements. The advantage of a demand-type heater
is that a storage tank is not necessary.
Provide a pump to maintain flow in the circulating loop. The flowrate is sized to
maintain the minimum system temperature at the most distant safety
shower/eyewash unit in a non-use situation during the coldest ambient temperature
condition.
Circulation of tempered water should be maintained during a power or pump failure.
Emergency backup power may be considered to maintain both heat and circulation
of the water. Alternatively, a bleed valve might be used on the circulation return line
(bleeding may deplete the tempered water supply).

The piping should be insulated for temperature control. Valves and deadlegs in the
piping system may require heat tracing if freeze protection is necessary. Heat tracing
should be self-limiting to 105°F maximum.
A 3-way thermostatic valve such as an “Amot Thermal Capsule” may be used for
blending warm water from the heater into the circulating loop. The warm water
from the heater should be tempered to a maximum of 105°F and the thermostatic
valve outlet set for 75°F. The 3-way thermostatic blending valve is required when
the “Leslie Constantemp” steam water heater is used. The thermostatic valve may
limit the minimum flow rate in the circulation loop.
A low flow alarm should be installed to detect loss of flow in the circulation loop.
High- and low-temperature alarms should be installed to detect heater malfunc-
tion (recommended settings are 95 and 65°F respectively).
284 “In-Use” Alarms

Activation of a safety shower or eyewash fountain should sound an alarm at a loca-
tion that is attended during all working hours and is not in the vicinity of the safety
shower. When there is more than one safety shower/eyewash unit, the alarm should
also identify the specific unit in use.
A red warning light should be activated above the safety shower/eyewash unit
whenever the unit is in use.
Microswitches on the operating valves or flow switches may be used to activate the
alarm or warning light.
285 Instrumentation
Temperature and flow indicators should be provided to aid system adjustments.
Units piped in parallel require special design considerations and additional instru-
mentation to ensure proper operation and temperature maintenance in each piping
branch.
286 Accessories
An enclosure for the safety shower/eyewash station shall be provided where the unit
is exposed to harsh elements such as snow or wind chill and where temperatures
regularly fall below 40°F. A safety shower/eyewash enclosure should be included as
part of design for a tempered water reservoir system. Prefabricated enclosures are
available from safety shower/eyewash unit manufacturers.
The entrance to the enclosure shall be equipped with a see-through panel or
window.
A wool blanket in a watertight container should be located at each enclosure to
provide warmth after showering.
Dust covers or plastic strips may be appropriate.

287 Start-Up
The safety shower and eyewash fountain must be tested according to performance
criteria as specified in the Safety In Designs Manual before the facility is autho-
rized for operation. Consult a Safety Engineer for details if necessary.
Operating personnel must be apprised of the location, function, and use of safety
shower/eyewash units before start-up.
288 Maintenance
Safety showers and eyewash fountains should be activated weekly to flush the line
and verify proper operation of the system including all alarms and controls.
The system, especially tanks, shall be checked periodically for bacterial growth and
a bactericide added if necessary. The system may be flushed periodically to mini-
mize bacterial growth.
289 Tempered Water Systems References

The following documents provide additional information on Sub-section 280,
Tempered Water Systems for Safety Shower and Eyewash.
American National Standard ANSI Z358.1-1981 “For Emergency Eyewash and
Shower Equipment.”
Chevron Loss Prevention Guide No. 5 “Safety Showers and Eyewash Units.”
National Safety Council Data Sheet I-686-80 “Emergency Showers and Eyewash
Fountains.”
Occupational Safety and Health Act, 29 CFR 1910, Subpart K Paragraph
1910.151(c).
Safety In Designs Manual, Section 10.0 “Safety Showers, Eyewash Units, and
Chemical Goggles Areas” including references to applicable OSHA standards.
Standard Form EF-528 “Safety Signs for.”
290 References
1. Engineering Data Book, Section 18, Water Treating, Gas Processors Suppliers
Association, 1987.
2. State-of-the-Art Marine Distilling Plant, Robert J. Ziobro, Society of Naval
Architects and Marine Engineers, Tech-Press, 1973.
3. Distillation of Seawater via Reverse Osmosis for Offshore Operation, L.
Lystotgt and Richard Callaway, Offshore Technical Conference, OTC 3340,
1978.

4. Water Quality and Treatment, The American Water Works Assoc., Inc.,
McGraw-Hill, 1971.
The following documents provide additional information on Sub-section 270,
Potable Water:
“Alternative Disinfection Methods—A Comparison of UV and Ozone,” Dr. Robert
W. Legan, Industrial Water Engineering, 1982.
Handbook of Water Resources, Harry W. Gehm and Jacob I. Brecman, Van Nostrum
Rheinhold Co., 1976.
“Ultraviolet Light Disinfection of Waste Material” James E. Gruber, 25th Great
Plains Waste Water Design Conference, 1981.
The following references provide additional information on Sub-section 210, Water
Supply, and Sub-section 220, Water Treatment Methods:
1. “Applied Water Technology,” C. C. Patton, Campbell Petroleum Series, 1986.
2. “Introduction to Oil Field Water Technology,” A. G. Ostroff, NACE, 1979.
3. “Two Oilfield Water Systems,” B. W. Bradley, Krieger Publishing, 1986.
4. “Betz Handbook of Industrial Water Conditioning,” J. I. Maguire, Editor, Betz,
Pennsylvania.

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200 Water

210 Water Supply 200-4

Chevron Corporation 200-1 December 2000

December 2000 200-2 Chevron Corporation

Chevron Corporation 200-3 December 2000

210 Water Supply

December 2000 200-4 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 200-1 Suggested Source Water Analysis(1) (1 of 2)

Chevron Corporation 200-5 December 2000

Fig. 200-1 Suggested Source Water Analysis(1) (2 of 2)

The typical effect of feedwater dissolved solids on performance of reverse osmosis

December 2000 200-6 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 200-2 Composition of Standard Seawater

Sum of Cations 12.61215 29,717

Bicarbonate HCO3− 0.1397 115

Sum of Anions 21.8342 29,710

Boric Acid H3BO3 0.0260

Total Dissolved Solids 34.4830

Chlorine Cl− 19.000

Chevron Corporation 200-7 December 2000

Fig. 200-3 Common Characteristics and Impurities in Water (1 of 2)

Manganese Mn+2 same as iron same as iron

December 2000 200-8 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 200-3 Common Characteristics and Impurities in Water (2 of 2)

Hydrogen H 2S Cause of “rotten egg” odor; corrosion Aeration

Chevron Corporation 200-9 December 2000

December 2000 200-10 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 200-4 Desalination Unit Weight Versus Capacity

Chevron Corporation 200-11 December 2000

Fig. 200-5 Typical Dimensions of Watermakers

Type Capacity Dimensions, ft

216 Glossary of Terms

December 2000 200-12 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 200-6 Equipment Selection Tree

Chevron Corporation 200-13 December 2000

220 Water Treatment Methods

December 2000 200-14 Chevron Corporation

Flash characteristics [Reference 2]

Chevron Corporation 200-15 December 2000

Fig. 200-7 Two-Stage Flash Desalination Unit Schematic

Fig. 200-8 Two-Stage Flash Desalination Unit Flow Diagram

December 2000 200-16 Chevron Corporation

Flash evaporator disadvantages

Nonflash evaporators characteristically discharge brine at a salt concentration of 1.5

Chevron Corporation 200-17 December 2000

December 2000 200-18 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 200-11 Two-Effect Circulation Evaporator—Flow Diagram (Submerged Tube Evaporation)

Chevron Corporation 200-19 December 2000

Submerged tube evaporator. Usually, this kind of nonflash evaporator is consid-

December 2000 200-20 Chevron Corporation

Chevron Corporation 200-21 December 2000

Fig. 200-12 Two-Effect Vertical Tube Thin-Film Evaporator Schematic

December 2000 200-22 Chevron Corporation

2. Thin-film evaporator advantages are essentially the same as for submerged

Chevron Corporation 200-23 December 2000

Fig. 200-14 Vapor Compression Spray-Film Evaporator Diagram

225 Reverse Osmosis

December 2000 200-24 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 200-16 Typical Seawater Reverse Osmosis (RO) System

Chevron Corporation 200-25 December 2000

Fig. 200-17 Cut-Away Drawing of a Hollow Fiber Permeator

Hollow fiber membranes have the following advantages:

December 2000 200-26 Chevron Corporation

Spiral-wound membranes have the following advantages: