Engineering: 1 Diodes

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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ELECTRONIC FUNDAMENTALS
engineering FUNDAMENTALS
1 DIODES
Semi-conductor diodes embrace a very wide field of devices using varied modes
of operation. Before discussing these, it is necessary to briefly describe semi-
conductors themselves.
1.1 SEMI-CONDUCTORS
Germanium and silicon are the most common semi-conductor elements. Figure 1
shows an element in pure crystalline form. The circles represent atoms and the
dots valence electrons, electrons able to combine with those of another atom.
ELECTRON
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
HOLE
Silicon Structure
Figure 1
1.1.1 INTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTOR
Note that one of the atoms has lost an electron, leaving a 'hole' but the free electron is still present inside the
crystal lattice, so the crystal as a whole remains.
A crystal of pure semi-conductor material with no other atoms, such as in Figure
1, is called an intrinsic semi-conductor.
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Figure 2 shows current flow in an intrinsic semi-conductor. The electrons
(negative charge) are attracted to the positive terminal of the battery, while the
holes (positive charge) are attracted to the negative.
ELECTRONS HOLES
SEMICONDUCTOR
MATERIAL
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Figure 2
1.1.2 EXTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTOR
Intrinsic semi-conductors are poor conductors. By adding an impurity to the

crystal, conductivity can be improved. Figure 3a shows an impurity having five
electrons added. The 'extra electron' is not needed for crystal bonding and so is
free to move about the lattice as a conduction electron.
Since it is not a part of the lattice, it does not leave a 'hole' when it moves; but a
'positive ion'. The more impurity atoms added, the more conductive the material.
The semi-conductor is now 'extrinsic' and of the 'N type'. Electrons are the
majority carriers, they are negative, and hence 'N' type.
Figure 3b shows a lattice with an element having only three valence electrons
added. This time there is a shortage of electrons and this produces 'holes' in the
material and negative ions. With fewer negative electrons, the majority carriers
are positive 'holes'. Now the material is described as 'P' type.
The impurity added to give more electrons to make N type material is known as a
‘donor impurity’. The impurity added to give more holes to make P type material
is known as an ‘acceptor impurity’. The process of adding either type of impurity
is known as doping.
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5
EXTRA
4
4 ELECTRON
4
4
4
4
5 DONOR
IMPURITY
ATOM
4
5
4
4
3
4
4
4
(a) ACCEPTOR
IMPURITY
ATOM 4
4
3
4
HOLE 4
3
4
4
(b)
Extrinsic Semiconductor
Figure 3
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1.2 THE HALL EFFECT
When experimenting in 1879 with current flowing in a strip of metal, E M Hall discovered that some of the
charge carriers were deflected to one of the faces of the conductor when a strong magnetic field was
applied. This gave rise to an emf (the Hall voltage) between opposite faces of the conductor. The emf is
only a few microvolts in the case of a metal conductor, but is much larger when the current flows in a
semiconductor.
An experiment, making use of what is known as the “Hall Effect”, can be conducted to demonstrate that the
majority carriers in a bar of semiconductor material are electrons in “N” type and holes in “P” type. Figure
4 shows the Hall Effect
The Hall Effect
2 0V
+ 1 0V
+2 0V
0V
0V
P.D.
SEMICONDUCTOR CURRENT
MATERIAL FLOW
+ 1 0V
2 0V
+ 1 1V
+9V
+ 11 V
POSITIVE CHARGE CARRIERS (HOLES)
+ 9V
+ 9V
NEGATIVE CHARGE CARRIERS (ELECTRONS)
+ 11 V
Figure 4
Consider the arrangement illustarted in figure 4a, this shows a bar of semiconductor material, with a D.C.
voltage of 20V applied. Conventional current will flow as indicated by the arrow. A further two
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connections “A” & “B” are taken from opposite faces of the bar at the mid-point along the axis. Thus under
static conditions, the voltgae at connect A and B will be +10V relative to the negative terminal, and there is
no voltage difference between them, i.e. no potential difference.
No consider what happens when we place this bar in a transverse magnetic field as in figure 4b. the charge
carriers moving in the semiconductor are deflected by the magnetic field in the direction given by
“Fleming’s Left-Hand rule”. Thus, whether the charge carriers are holes or electrons, they are deflected
upwards in figure 4b, towards connection A. This will result in a redistribution of charge carriers between
A & B, with the consentration towards A. If the charge carriers are positive (holes), connection A becomes
positive with respect to connection B as shown in figure 4c. Conversely, if the charge carriers are negative
(electrons), connection A becomes negative with respect to B as shown in figure 4c.
The voltage difference between connection A & B is called the “Hall Voltage” and
has many pratical applications such as “Contactless switches (proximity
detectors). It can also be used in a dc starter/generator system as a means of
measuring generator output current and providing an input signal to a Generator
Control Unit (GCU) which controls generator field current (voltage regulation)m
and protection. Figure 5 shows Hall Effect Sensors in a DC starter/generator
system as fitted to the ATR 42/72 aircraft.
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HALL EFFECT GENERATOR

SENSOR CONTROL UNIT
STARTER
GENERATOR
CURRENT
MEASURING
HALL EFFECT
SENSOR
TO
DISTRIBUTION
Hall Effect Sensors

Figure 5
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1.3 THE JUNCTION DIODE
So far “N” type and P-Type materials have been considered separately. However, most semiconductor
devices contain regions where P-type material is joined to N-type material at one or more places. These
places are called P-N junctions and the behaviour of the devices depends upon the electrical behaviour of
the region around the junctions.
By doping a semi-conductor so that there is N type material at one end and P

type at the other, a Junction Diode is made. Refer Figure 6. In this arrangement,
the electrons in the N type are repelled by the like polarity of the negative ions in
the P type.
Similarly the positive holes in the P type are repelled by the positive ions in the N
Type. This leaves an area at the junction without any majority carriers and it is
called the depletion layer.
DEPLETION
LAYER
POSITIVE IONS NEGATIVE IONS
N-TYPE P-TYPE
HOLES
ELECTRONS
Junction Diode
Figure 6
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By connecting a battery across a junction diode, positive to N type, negative to P
type, (reverse biased), majority carriers cannot flow, hence there is no current
flow in the circuit.
If the battery is connected positive to P type, negative to N type, (forward biased)

majority carriers are allowed to flow and there is current flow in the circuit. This is
the characteristic of the diode. It will allow current flow in one direction only,
when forward biased, but not in the other direction when reverse biased. Figure
7 shows a junction diode reversed and forward biased.
N O CU R R EN T N O CU R R EN T
N -TY P E P -TY P E
D EPL ET IO N D EPL ET IO N
L AY ER SM A LL L AY ER SM A LL
W ID EN S VO LT A G E N A RR O W S VO LT A GE
P -TY P E N -TY P E
N O CU R R EN T C U RR EN T F L OW S
N -TY P E P -TY P E
D EPL ET IO N
L AY ER L AR GE L AR GE
VE RY W I DE VO LT A G E VO LT A GE
P -TY P E N -TY P E
Junction Diode Reversed/Forward Biased

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Figure 7
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1.4 DIODE SYMBOL
Figure 8 demonstrates, using the circuit symbol for a diode, how the device is
placed in a circuit to allow or block current flow. Note that (conventional) current
flows in the direction of the arrow in the symbol.
+ _
ANODE CATHODE
REVERSED FORWARD
BIASED BIASED
NO CURRENT CURRENT FLOW
Diode Symbol
Figure 8
1.5 DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
With all diodes there are four parameters to be considered, these are:
1. Maximum permissible forward current (mA).
2. Maximum voltage drop (V) at nominal operating current (mA).
3. Typical reverse current (µ A).
4. Maximum permissible reverse voltage (V).

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Figure 9 shows the static characteristics of a silicon diode and figure 10 show s the characteristics for a
germanium diode.
Note: That the reverse current axes on both graphs are different.
mA
200
FORWARD
150
BIAS
100
50
VOLTS
-200V -150 -100 -50V 0.25V 0.5V 0.75V 1V
-0.02
-0.04
REVERSED -0.06
BIAS
-0.08
µA
Silicon Diode Characteristics

Figure 9
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mA
200
FORWARD
150
BIAS
100
50
VOLTS
-200V -150 -100 -50V 0.25V 0.5V 0.75V 1V
50
100
REVERSED 150
BIAS
200
µA
Germanium Diode Characteristics

Figure 10
1.6 DIODES IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
Diodes may be connected in series or parallel. For carrying high voltage, a series
configuration would be used. If a high current carrying capability were required,
the diodes would be connected in parallel.
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1.7 RECTIFIER DIODES
Rectifier diodes are designed to convert A.C. to D.C. and to be able to achieve
this effectively and efficiently, they must have:
1.Low resistance to current flow in the forward direction.
2.High resistance to current flow in the opposite (reverse) direction.
Because of the need for a very low reverse current and a high breakdown
voltage, almost all semiconductors rectifier diodes are silicon junction types; they
usually have a junction area that is large relative to their size to assist in the
dissipation of heat. An elementary rectifier circuit is where the diode is inserted in
A.C. INPUT D.C. OUTPUT
+ +
0 INPUT 0 OUTPUT
- -
series between the input and output, this is shown in figure 11.
Basic Rectifier Circuit
Figure 11
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The diode effectively passes current only in the forward bias condition. As can be
seen from figure 10, when A.C. input is applied, pulses of unidirectional D.C.
voltages are developed across the output load resistance.
Note; The polarity of the output D.C. can be reversed by reversing the diode
connections.
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1.8 EXAMPLES OF RECTIFIER DIODES
Silicon rectifier diodes are available that are capable of supplying currents from
about 200mA to about 2000A at voltages up to 3000 or 4000 volts. A sample
cross-section of such diodes is illustrated in Figure 12. Compared with other
rectifying devices, silicon junction rectifiers are small and lightweight. They are
also impervious to shock and are capable of working at temperatures up to about
200°C.
250mA @ 200V
1A @ 1000V
1000A @ 2500V
10A @ 400V
1A @ 1500V
Silicon Rectifier Diodes

Figure 12
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1.9 RECTIFIER DIODES
1.9.1 SELENIUM RECTIFIERS
The aluminium base serves as a surface for the dissipation of heat. The
rectifying junction covers one side of the base apart from a narrow strip at the
edges and an area around the fixing hole, which is sprayed with insulating
varnish. Figure 13 shows the construction of a selenium rectifier element.
INSULATING
VARNISH
RECTIFYING
COUNTER
JUNCTION
ELECTRODE
SELENIUM ALUMINIUM
BASE
HOLE FOR
MOUNTING BOLT
Selenium Rectifier
Figure 13
The counter electrode is a thin layer of a low melting point alloy, sprayed over the
selenium coating and insulating varnish. The counter electrode is the cathode,
while the base is the anode.
These rectifiers may be stacked in series, suitable for high voltages, or in parallel,
suitable for high current. When stacking, pressure applied during assembly tends
to reduce the reverse resistance. This is overcome by application of varnish at
the mounting studs.
Reverse resistance is a limiting factor in rectifiers, as is temperature. The

maximum operating temperature of these rectifiers is in the order of 70°C.
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1.9.2 SILICON RECTIFIERS
The silicon rectifier is a far smaller unit than the selenium rectifier. This type of
rectifier is used in the brushless ac generator. The silicon slice is extremely
small. On one face it has a fused aluminium alloy contact to which the anode and
lead are soldered. The other face is soldered to a base, usually copper. This is
the cathode and acts as a heat sink. The aluminium - silicon junction forms the
barrier layer. The whole is enclosed in a hermetically sealed case to protect it
from environmental conditions. These rectifiers operate at temperatures up to
150°C. Figure 14 shows a Silicon Rectifier.
ANODE HERMETICALLY
LEAD SEALED CAVITY
ALUMINIUM
SOLDER RECTIFYING
JUNCTION
SILICON
JUNCTION
COPPER
BASE
THREADED MOUNTING
STUD AND CATHODE
TERMINAL
Silicon Rectifier
Figure 14
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Figure 15 shows the circuit for a “Full-Wave bridge” rectifier.
Full-Wave Bridge rectifier

Figure 15
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1.10 VOLTAGE REGULATOR/REFERENCE DIODES
The operation of voltage reference diodes and regulator diodes is very similar, in
that both are normally designed to operate under reverse bias conditions.
These diodes are often referred to as “Zener” Diodes, other names include
“Breakdown” and “Avalanche” diodes.
PREFERRED SYMBOL
ALTERNATIVE SYMBOLS
Figure 16 shows circuit symbols for Zener Diode.

Zener Diode
Figure 16
Zener Diodes are rated to their Zener (breakdown) voltage and also their power
rating (IV), they must have a low temperature coefficients (0.001%C°). They are
all made of silicon, to satisfy the temperature requirements.
Their construction is such that, relative to the normal P-N junction diode, the
reverse IV characteristics are normally extended into the breakdown region. As a
a result, zener diodes usually operate at higher values of reverse voltage than
that allowed in normal P-N diode circuits. Figure 17 shows the IV characteristics
of a zener diode.
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BREAKDOWN
REGION
V
NORMAL OPERATING
CURRENT IN THIS VERY SMALL
REGION REVERSE CURRENT
MAXIMUM CURRENT
DETERMINED BY
THERMAL DISSIPATION
CAPABILITIES
Zener Diode IV Characteristics

Figure 17
The reverse current is very small (microamps) and is virtually independent of

voltage up to the breakdown point. At breakdown, the reverse current increases
rapidly for very little increase in reverse voltage. The maximum current that the
device can pass is determined by the “Thermal Dissipation” capabilities of the
device (power rating). Zener diodes used in regulators are capable of carrying
current in excess of 15A without destruction.
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1.10.1 VOLTAGE REFERENCE DIODE
This develops and “Holds” across its terminal a very stable reference voltage
when conducting within a specified narrow current range. The reference voltage
developed depends, of course upon the particular device.
Figure 18 shows a zener diode used as a voltage stabilizer to provide +5V stable
output for a digital system.
V IN - VZ
R=
IZ
V IN VR IZ
I = 5mA
+28V 10% up 30.8V 25.8V 5.6mA
10% down 25.2V 20.2V 4.4mA
1.2mA VARIATION
R1 4600Ω
V INPUT
28V ±10%
STABILIZED OUTPUT
5V VARIATION 5V
ZENER 14Ω STABILIZED
DIODE 1.2mA X 14Ω OUTPUT
= 16.8mV
0V 0V
Voltage Stabilizer
Figure 18
The zener diode has a nominal breakdown voltage VZ of 5V, at a working current
IZ of 5mA, and that its dynamic resistance RZ is 15 Ohms (typical figures). To
provide the output voltage of 5V for a nominal input VIN OF 28v, the value of R
must be such that the diode operates in the designed breakdown region; its value
is calculated in figure 18. The arrangement then ensures that, for quite significant
variations in VIN, the operating point moves very little and VOUT is held at the VZ
reference point.
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Figure 18 shows for variations of ± 10% in VIN, the current operating point moves
from 4.4mA to 5.6mA about its static value of 5mA. The resulting change in the
value of VZ is shown to be 16.8mV, which is an almost insignificant variation
compared with the original variation of the input voltage.
1.10.2 VOLTAGE REGULATOR DIODE
Designed to ensure that the voltage developed across its terminals remains
within a certain range for fairly wide variations in current through it. For example,
a given device is desigend to hold the voltage within the reange 9.4V to 10.6V
(e.e. 10.0V nominal) for variations of seeral milliamps of current through it. Its
main use is in circuits where it is necessary to hold voltages reasonably constant
as variations occur in circuit conditions.
Figure 19 shows a typical voltage regulator circuit.
DC
V OUT
V IN
Voltage regulator Circuit

Figure 19
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The Silicon Controlled Rectifier
The SCR, or thyristor, is a semi-conductor device made up of both N and P

materials. It has two stable states, “OFF” or “ON”, and is used as a switching
device.
1.10.3 CONSTRUCTION
The SCR is made up of four regions of semi-conductor material, either NP NP or

PN PN. There are three connecting electrodes, the anode, cathode and gate.
The outer N and P regions are connected to the cathode and anode respectively
while the central N and P region is connected to the gate. In this case the P
section. Figure 20 shows the construction and circuit symbol for a SCR.
ANODE
FORWARD
BIASED
REVERSED
BIASED
GATE
FORWARD CIRCUIT SYMBOL

BIASED
CATHODE
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

Figure 20
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1.10.4 SWITCHING ON
In the off condition with the circuit connected to a supply, the junction between
the two bases is reverse biased whilst the junction between the base and the
anode and the base and the cathode are forward biased. For all practical
purposes, current flow is blocked, although a small leakage current will exist.
The SCR is switched either by increasing the supply voltage to a value known as
breakover voltage, or by application of a current pulse to the gate. In this state
both inner regions are saturated with carriers and the junction between them is
forward biased. In consequence, the potential difference across the SCR is very
low. Beyond the breakover point the current increases rapidly, limited only by the
resistance of the circuit.
If the current should fall below a value termed the ‘holding current’, the SCR
reverts to the off or forward blocking position. It should be noted that once the
gate is pulsed it no longer controls the current so that its supply can be removed
without affecting the operation of the SCR.
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1.10.5 SCR CHARACTERISTICS
Figure 21 shows a typical SCR characteristic with 10 milliamps on the gate.

When the anode voltage reaches the breakover point, in this case 360 volts, the
current through the device goes to a maximum. If the gate current is increased,
then the breakover point occurs at lower anode voltages.
30A GATE CURRENT 10mA
BREAKOVER VOLTAGE = 360V
20A
ANODE CURRENT
INCREASING THE GATE CURRENT

WILL DECREASE THE BREAKOVER
VOLTAGE
10A
360V BREAKOVER
IG 40mA
20mA
10mA
0 100 200 300 400
ANODE VOLTAGE
Breakover Voltage
Figure 21
The advantage of the SCR can be seen from the fact that a large current can be
switched with a very small controlling current.
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1.10.6 USE OF THE SCR
As well as a high current switching device (up to 1000A), the SCR can be used
as a current controlling device.
When a thyristor is used with an ac supply it can only conduct on the positive
half-cycles like a rectifier. This means that a trigger pulse would be necessary to
fire the thyristor every half-cycle. By synchronizing the firing point on the positive
half-cycle, the amount of current flowing in the circuit is fixed, as shown in Figure
22 below.
SUPPLY
LOAD
TRIGGER
PULSE
A.C.
SUPPLY
TRIGGER
LOAD
CURRENT
Thyristor on Alternating Current

Figure 22
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By varying the firing point (phase shift) the current can be controlled. In this
circuit, capacitance C and resistance R act as a potential divider. As R is
decreased, so the phase difference between the anode and the gate will
increase, delaying the firing time. Thus, R gives control over the firing point, so
controlling the power to the load. A light dimming circuit can be operated in this
manner. Figure 23 shows a typical circuit.
SUPPLY
VARIABLE
R
TRIGGER
A.C. PULSE
SUPPLY POSITION DETERMINED
BY C/R TIME
C
LOAD
CURRENT
Thyristor on Alternating Current

Figure 23
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1.11 THE LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED)
LEDs are made from a semi- conductor material, which emits light when current
flows through the junction. The most common colour emitted is red but green
and yellow are available at a lower intensity. Figure 24 shows the circuit symbol
for an LED and its operation.
CIRCUIT SYMBOL
EMITS LIGHT
+5V EARTH
DIODE IS FORWARD BIASED
ON
EARTH +5V
DIODE IS REVERSED BIASED
OFF
Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Figure 24
The voltage drop across a LED is around 2 volts. Above this voltage, the current
passing through it increases rapidly. For this reason a series resistor is used to
limit the current to around 10 ma to prevent burnout of the junction.
1.11.1 USE OF LEDS
LEDs can be used to replace filament lamps, with the advantage of less current
consumption, less heat and no filament to burn out. They are often found on
aircraft fault panels.
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1.12 THE PHOTO CONDUCTIVE DIODE
This device is a normal PN junction with a transparent case or window. All semi-
conductor diodes are subject to some movement of hole/electron pairs when the
junction is at room temperature and this gives rise to a small leakage current,
even with the diode reversed biased but the current is measured in
microamperes.
When light falls on the junction, its energy produces a much larger number of
hole/electron pairs and the leakage current is greatly increased. These devices
have a rapid response to light and are used in the encoding altimeter to encode
the grey code into binary code. Figure 25 shows the circuit symbol and
construction of a Photo Conductive Diode.
CIRCUIT SYMBOL
“N” TYPE
PHO TO -CONDUCTIVE
MATERIA L
PRO TECTIVE
GLA SS CAP
“P” TYPE
SUBSTA NCE
CONNECTING
PINS
Photo Conductive Diode

Figure 25
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1.13 VARISTORS
The varistor is a semi-conductor device used for clipping 'noise spikes' off ac
voltage. Noise spikes are of very short duration and large amplitude. They may
pass through a power supply and appear on a dc regulated output voltage. Low
pass filters are often ineffective against noise spikes so the spikes are attenuated
before rectification of ac to dc.
1.14 METAL OXIDE VARISTOR (MOV)
The MOV is a semi-conductor resistor made of zinc oxide crystals. When voltage
across it exceeds a certain voltage, in negative or positive direction, the device
conducts to clip off noise spikes. Figure 26 shows the characteristic of the
varistor, the circuit symbol and equivalent circuit. Although the varistor acts in a
similar way to a zener diode, it is much faster in operation.
TYPICAL MOV
+I
VOLT- AMPS
CHARACTERISTICS
POSITIVE
BREAKDOWN
–200V
-V +200V +V
NEGATIVE
BREAKDOWN
-I
CIRCUIT
SYMBOLS
Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV)

Figure 26
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1.15 TESTING DIODES
Before testing a diode, the cathode must be identified and then an ohmmeter is applied as in Figure 27. In
one direction the ohmmeter reading should be low but a very high resistance should be detected in the other
direction.
L O W RE S IS T A NC E
FLUKE 23 S ER IE S M U L TIM E T ER
O HM S
0 0 0. 2 3
0 10 20 30
O FF V
P V
300 mV
N Ω P RE S S
R AN G E
A A A UT O R AN G E
10A V Ω
CATHODE
!
10 00V
300 75 0 V C OM
mA
FU S E D
SYMBOL STRUCTURE
Testing Diodes
Figure 27
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1.1.1 INTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTOR

1.1.2 EXTRINSIC SEMI-CONDUCTOR

Intrinsic semi-conductors are poor conductors. By adding an impurity to the

1.2 THE HALL EFFECT

POSITIVE CHARGE CARRIERS (HOLES)

NEGATIVE CHARGE CARRIERS (ELECTRONS)

HALL EFFECT GENERATOR

Hall Effect Sensors

1.3 THE JUNCTION DIODE

By doping a semi-conductor so that there is N type material at one end and P

If the battery is connected positive to P type, negative to N type, (forward biased)

Junction Diode Reversed/Forward Biased

NO CURRENT CURRENT FLOW

1.5 DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

1. Maximum permissible forward current (mA).

2. Maximum voltage drop (V) at nominal operating current (mA).

3. Typical reverse current (µ A).

4. Maximum permissible reverse voltage (V).

Silicon Diode Characteristics

Germanium Diode Characteristics

1.6 DIODES IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

1.7 RECTIFIER DIODES

1.Low resistance to current flow in the forward direction.

2.High resistance to current flow in the opposite (reverse) direction.

A.C. INPUT D.C. OUTPUT

Silicon Rectifier Diodes

1.9.1 SELENIUM RECTIFIERS

Reverse resistance is a limiting factor in rectifiers, as is temperature. The

Full-Wave Bridge rectifier

1.10 VOLTAGE REGULATOR/REFERENCE DIODES

Figure 16 shows circuit symbols for Zener Diode.

Zener Diode IV Characteristics

The reverse current is very small (microamps) and is virtually independent of

1.10.1 VOLTAGE REFERENCE DIODE

10% down 25.2V 20.2V 4.4mA

1.10.2 VOLTAGE REGULATOR DIODE

Figure 19 shows a typical voltage regulator circuit.

Voltage regulator Circuit

The Silicon Controlled Rectifier

The SCR, or thyristor, is a semi-conductor device made up of both N and P

The SCR is made up of four regions of semi-conductor material, either NP NP or

FORWARD CIRCUIT SYMBOL

Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

1.10.5 SCR CHARACTERISTICS

Figure 21 shows a typical SCR characteristic with 10 milliamps on the gate.

30A GATE CURRENT 10mA

BREAKOVER VOLTAGE = 360V

INCREASING THE GATE CURRENT

0 100 200 300 400

Thyristor on Alternating Current

Thyristor on Alternating Current

DIODE IS FORWARD BIASED

DIODE IS REVERSED BIASED

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

1.11.1 USE OF LEDS

Photo Conductive Diode

1.14 METAL OXIDE VARISTOR (MOV)

Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV)

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