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Earthquake
Resistant Steel Structures
Aim of this document
1. What is an Earthquake? 4
2. Why are Steel Structures Good at Resisting Earthquakes? 8
3. A Tool to Evaluate the Effects of Earthquakes: the Response Spectrum 11
4. Design Response Spectra 15
5. Characterisation of Structures Specific to Seismic Design 20
6. Aspects of Seismic Analysis and Design Checks Common to all Structural Types 25
7. Approximate Method for Seismic Analysis and Design 30
8. Architecture of Earthquake Resistant Buildings 34
9. Designing Dissipative Structures 40
10. Seismic Design of Moment Resisting Frames 47
11. Seismic Design of Frames with Concentric Bracing 60
12. Seismic Design of Frames with Concentric Bracing and Dissipative Connections 65
13. Seismic Design of Frames with Eccentric Bracing 68
14. Composite Steel Concrete Structures 73
15. Composite Steel Concrete Moment Resisting Frames 89
16. Composite Steel Concrete Frames with Bracing 91
17. Composite Steel Concrete Walls and Systems with Walls 94
18. Improving Reinforced Concrete Structures by using Composite Columns 99
19. Design Example 102
1
ArcelorMittal Technical Brochure:
Earthquake Resistant Steel Structures
1. What is an Earthquake? 6. Aspects of Seismic Analysis and design. Selecting a typology of structure for
The physical phenomenon. Action applied Design Checks Common to all Structural design.
to a structure by an earthquake. Types.
Characterisation of seismic action. Seismic mass. Methods of analysis. Torsion.10. Seismic Design of Moment Resisting
Displacements in dissipative structures. Frames.
2. Why are Steel Structures Good at Resistance condition. Limitation of second Design objective for moment resisting
Resisting Earthquakes? order effects. frames (or MRFs). US and European Ductility
The paramount importance of ductility. Classes. Design criteria. Redistribution of
Flexibility and low weight. 7. Approximate Method for Seismic Analysis bending moments in beams. Other require-
and Design. ments. Plastic hinges. Recommended
3. A Tool to Evaluate the Effects of Choice of units. Simple elastic analysis designs for beam to column connections.
Earthquakes: the Response Spectrum. method. Estimation of the fundamental Design of reduced beam sections. Connec-
Response of structures subjected to an period T1 of a building. tions of columns to foundations.
earthquake. How is an Elastic Response
Spectrum established? Code elastic 8. Architecture of Earthquake Resistant 11. Seismic Design of Frames with
response spectrum. Elastic displacement Buildings. Concentric Bracing.
response spectrum. Basic features of an earthquake resistant Design objective. Analysis of X bracing.
Multimodal response. building. Primary structure and secondary Design Criteria for X bracing. Other require-
structure. Objectives of conceptual design. ments for X bracing. Design of connections.
4. Design Response Spectra. Principles of conceptual design of an earth- Analysis of V or Λ bracing. Design Criteria
From one elastic response spectrum to quake resistant structure. for V or Λ bracing. Other requirements for V
design response spectra. Importance of the or Λ bracing. US and European design rules
structure. Remote or near field earthquake. 9. Designing Dissipative Structures. for frames with concentric bracing.
Soil and site. Ductility of the structure. Principle. Designing reliable dissipative
Example of design spectra. zones. The many local dissipative mecha- 12. Seismic Design of Frames with
nisms available in steel structures. Non Concentric Bracing and Dissipative
5. Characterisation of Structures Specific dissipative local mechanisms. Design of Connections.
to Seismic Design. non dissipative elements in a dissipative Interest of dissipative connections in frames
Behaviour factors. Ductility Classes. Plastic structure. Capacity design applied to con- with concentric bracings. Analysis of frames
redistribution parameter. nections. Capacity design applied to bars with X, V or Λ bracing and dissipative con-
with holes. Design criteria for dissipative nections for the diagonals. Design Criteria
structures. Selecting a Ductility Class for for frames with X, V or Λ bracing and dis-
sipative connections for the diagonals.
13. Seismic Design of Frames with 16. Composite Steel Concrete Frames combine with earthquake effects. Dynamic
Eccentric Bracing. with Bracing. analysis by spectral response and modal
General features of the design of frames Composite frames with concentric bracing. superposition method. Results of the analy-
with eccentric bracing. Short links and long Composite frames with eccentric bracing. sis. Design of beam to column connection
links. Selection of a type of eccentric bracing. at an interior joint in line X2. Comments on
17. Composite Steel Concrete Walls and design options. Design of a reduced beam
14. Composite Steel Concrete Structures. Systems with Walls. section. Economy due to RBS.
Introduction. How can composite structural Definition of the various composite wall
elements be dissipative? A basic choice in systems and the design objectives. Analy-
the design of dissipative composite struc- sis. Detailing rules for composite walls Annex A.
tures; the degree of composite ‘character’. of ductility class DCM. Detailing rules for Definition of Eurocode 8 Design Response
Design concepts and behaviour factors q coupling beams of ductility class DCM. Ad- Spectra.
in the context of the Eurocodes. Materials. ditional detailing rules for ductility class DCH.
Stiffness of sections. Plastic resistance of dis- Composite steel plate shear walls. Annex B.
sipative zones. Ductility in bending of com- Steels available from ArcelorMittal.
posite beams. Detailing rules for composite 18. Improving Reinforced Concrete
connections in dissipative zones. Favour- Structures by using Composite Columns. References.
able influence of concrete encasement on Problem definition and design conditions of
local ductility. General rules for the design composite columns. Behaviour of compos-
of dissipative and non dissipative elements. ite columns subjected to compression and
Anchorage and splicing of reinforcement cyclic bending.
bars. Fully encased composite columns.
Partially encased members. Steel beams 19. Design Example.
acting composite with the slab. Effective Presentation. Checking moment resistance
width of slab. and deflection limits for beams. Weak
Beam-Strong Column checks. Interior col-
15. Composite Steel Concrete Moment umn. Check in compression. Plastic resis-
Resisting Frames. tance in bending at basement level. Evalua-
Design objective. A basic choice; the degree tion of the seismic mass. Design spectrum.
of composite ‘character’. Analysis. Evaluation of seismic design shear by the
‘lateral forces’ method. Gravity load to
3
1. What is an Earthquake?
The physical
phenomenon
The most important earthquakes are located
close to the borders of the main tectonic plates
which cover the surface of the globe. These
plates tend to move relative to one another
but are prevented from doing so by friction
until the stresses between plates under the
‘epicentre’ point become so high that a move
suddenly takes place. This is an earthquake.
The local shock generates waves in the ground
which propagate over the earth’s surface,
creating movement at the bases (foundations)
of structures. The importance of the waves
reduces with the distance from the epicentre.
Therefore, there exist regions of the world with
more or less high seismic risk, depending on
their proximity to the boundaries of the main
tectonic plates (the red lines in Figure 1).
Figure 1
World map showing the main tectonic plates
(from Bristol University website: www.ideers.bris.ac.uk
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Tectonic_plates_boundaries_detailed-en.svg
10 18
11 13 Amur (AM) 59
Eurasia (EU)
7 Pacific (PA) North America (NA)
10
26 JF
Alps
Anatolia Juan de Fuca
Gorda- 19 5
21AT California-
92
Pacific (PA) Nevada
Persia - Tibet - Burma 22
14
AS
37
Aegean Sea
10 69 ATLANTIC
PACIFIC
15 48
Yangtze (YA)
15
29 ON
54 25 24
36 Okinawa
20 India (IN) 51
76 Africa (AF)
71 14 west central Atlantic
RI
Arabia (AR) 17 MA
Rivera
69 Rivera-
Africa (AF) Caribbean (CA)
Mariana 90 Cocos 10 11
26 Burma Philippine Sea (PS) 39 Panama
102 27
46 Philippines 84 PA
23
19 ND
6 Sunda (SU) 67
14
Cocos (CO)
BU Pacific (PA) North Andes
87 Galápagos (GP)
Somalia (SO) Caroline (CL) Manus (MN) Equator
BH NB
92 95
MS MO
70 96
96 32
58 WL 26SB 40 32
Ninety East - Sumatra 11 15 BS 57
86 Peru
TI SS South America (SA)
44 83 100
103
70 FT
BR Pacific (PA) Altiplano
New Hebrides - Fiji 62 Nazca (NZ)
119
INDIAN NH
CR
NI
26 AP
TO OCEAN
59 Tonga OCEAN Easter
51
51
OCEAN 68
Australia (AU)
69
55
44
EA 34
34
Puna-
Sierras
KE 102
51 Pampeanas
83
13 Kermadec Juan Fernandez JZ
62
53
78
Antarctica (AN)
14
Pacific (PA)
70
31
13 31
10
12 56
82 Sandwich
14 Antarctica (AN)
Scotia (SC) SW
25 47
14
14
66
Shetland
Antarctica (AN) SL
13
5
1. What is an Earthquake?
Besides the major earthquakes which take Maps of ‘seismic hazard’ (peak ground
place at tectonic plate boundaries, others accelerations at the bedrock level) show the
have their origin at the interior of plates at distribution of earthquake levels in the world
fault lines. Called ‘intraplates’ earthquakes, and in Europe (see Figure 2). They show that
these release less energy, but can still be earthquakes may occur in places other than
destructive in the vicinity of the epicentre. those near the tectonic plate boundaries.
Figure 2
World and European Peak
Ground Acceleration Maps
(From GFZ-Potsdam website
http://seismohazard.gfz-
potsdam.de/projects/en/).
1. What is an Earthquake?
7
2. Why are steel structures good
at resisting earthquakes?
Figure 3
Examples of ‘Dissipative’ and ‘non dissipative’ global
behaviours of structures. The ‘non dissipative’ structure
fails in a single storey mechanism. (From [13]).
du du
Concept a Concept b
V
V elastic response Concept a: low-dissipative
Structure designed to remain structure
elastic under design earthquake
du
d
Ultimate displacement
9
2. Why are Steel Structures Good at Resisting Earthquakes?
11
3. A Tool to Evaluate the Effects of Earthquakes: the Response Spectrum
Response of
structures subjected
to an earthquake
The ground movement dg(t) displaces the Figure 4
structure horizontally and dynamically. If the Example of vibration modes.
structure is infinitely stiff all its points are
displaced equally by the amount of ground
movement dg(t), so there is no displacement of
the structure relative to its base. In a flexible
structure, the movement of every point
depends on the mechanical characteristics of
all the structural elements (stiffness) and on
the distribution of masses in the structure (a
structure without mass would be submitted
to zero force). There is therefore a dynamic
response, which involves all the vibration modes Modes: global flexure storey in shear floor vibration
of the structure. Some modes are global and
involve the whole structure whereas other modes,
like floor vibrations, are local (see Figure 4).
Each vibration mode is characterised by its
period T (in s) and the portion of the total mass
associated with that mode (modal mass).
How is an Elastic
Response Spectrum
established?
By making a set of time-history analyses of Figure 5
dynamic responses of structures, it is possible Definition of pseudo acceleration β(T1)
to produce a ‘response spectrum’. This is said for a cantilever of given properties.
to be ‘elastic’ if it corresponds to a structure
responding with purely elastic deformations.
The elastic response spectrum is of interest to
designers as it directly provides the peak value of d
the dynamic response of a given structure under
d
F max=M .b (T 1)
a given accelerogram characteristic of a given M
seismic area. The process by which a spectrum
is built up is sketched in Figures 5 and 6. H
MH 3
T1 = 2
3EI
Figure 6 Figure 7
Establishing an elastic response Construction of a code elastic
spectrum as a function of β(T1) response spectrum
b T 1)
S e(T)
Computed spectrum 1
bi Elastic acceleration
ag spectrum "average"
Computed spectrum 2
0 T 1i T 1(s) 0 TB TC T(s)
13
3. A Tool to Evaluate the Effects of Earthquakes: the Response Spectrum
Se/ag Figure 8
Eurocode 8 reference shape of the elastic
2,5Sh acceleration response spectrum Se(T)
TB TC TD T
4. Design Response Spectra
15
4. Design response spectra
Table 1
Importance classes for buildings
and recommended values of γI
(EN1998-1:2004).
Figure 9
Elastic acceleration response spectra Se(T) of
Eurocode 8 for Type 1 and Type 2 earthquakes
and for various natures of site conditions.
4 5
Se/ag
Se/ag
E D
D
E
C 4 C
3 B
B
3
A A
2
2
1
1
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
T (s) T (s)
17
4. Design response spectra
Soil and site Ductility of the structure The ability to deform plastically without loss of
resistance is taken into account by attributing
to structures a ‘force reduction’ or ‘behaviour’
The layers of soil between the bedrock and If a structure submitted to an earthquake is
factor, q in Eurocode 8. This factor reduces the
the foundation level of a building modify the able to deform plastically and cyclically without
elastic spectrum Se(T) into a design spectrum
shape and amplitude of the elastic response loss of resistance, it is said to be ‘ductile’.
Sd(T). The value of q ranges from a minimum
spectrum, or ‘hazard’, established at the bedrock
1,5 (low dissipation) up to 6 or more (high
level. A soil parameter S takes this influence into As explained in Section 2 and expressed by
dissipation). The merit of using this behavioural
account so that the Peak Ground Acceleration Figure 3, ductility is a positive attribute for
factor is that the ability of a structure to
at the foundation level is equal to Sag. Sites are the economy of the project, because:
deform in the plastic range is taken into account
classified as types A, B, C, D, and E described by l the structure can undergo the same
in a purely elastic analysis of the structure
stratigraphic profiles and parameters. Different displacements as a structure which
under Sd(T). More detailed explanations of
values of S are related to these different site would remain elastic, but with smaller
behaviour factors are given in Section 5.
types, as indicated in Table 2. The site type has sections for the structural elements
a significant influence on the action applied l forces applied to the foundations are reduced.
at the base of a structure since S ranges from
1 (rock) to 1,8 (very loose soil). Different
values are also attributed to the ‘break point’
periods TB and TC of the spectra corresponding
to different sites and soils, as can be seen in
Figure 9. It is clear from these graphs that
ignoring the soil and site conditions can lead to
serious underestimations of the design forces.
Table 2
Eurocode 8 values of parameters S, TB , TC and TD defining
the elastic response spectra Type 1 and Type 2.
Example of Design
Spectra
When considering the factors listed above, a
family of design spectra Sd(T) is derived from
one elastic response spectrum Se(T). Se(T) is
a function of agR , γI and T. Sd(T) is a function
of Se(T), q and the site and soil conditions.
Figure 10
The expressions defining the Eurocode 8
Top. Examples of design spectra for
design spectra Sd(T) are given in Annex A.
different sites and behaviour factors q.
Figure 10 shows examples of the design
Bottom. Periods (T) of structures related to
spectra in a seismic area where ag = 2 m/s2
height H (estimated by T=CtH3/4 from Table 6).
and earthquakes of Type 1 define the seismic
hazard, for structures characterised by q=1,5
S d(T)
built on soil types A and C and for structures
characterised by q=4 built on soil Type C. 4
)
Soil A - q = 1,5
3 Soil C - q = 1,5
Soil C - q = 4
0 1 2 3 4 5
T (s)
H =5 m H =17 m H =5 m H =100 m
T 1=0,0 s T 1=0,7 s T 1=1,5 s T 1=2,7 s
concrete
bunker
19
5. Characterisation of structures
specific to seismic design
Behaviour factors.
Ductility Classes.
Plastic redistribution parameter.
5. Characterisation of structures specific to seismic design
Figure 11
d max MA Comparison of elastic EL and
elasto-plastic EP behaviour.
EL
M EL
y
H max M EP
A
max max
EP
21
5. Characterisation of structures specific to seismic design
It is possible to achieve very dissipative The values of q associated to a typology In practical terms, the resultant design shear FEP
steel structures if they are designed to form of structure reflect its potential to form applied to a structure is derived from an elastic
numerous and reliable energy dissipative zones. numerous dissipative zones (see Figure 12). resultant shear FEL = Fmax using: FEP = FEL /q
Reliability of the dissipative zones results (Note: only valid in the range T>TB, as
from compliance with a certain number of Estimating behaviour factors is a complex from TB , the influence of q decreases
design conditions, amongst which is ‘capacity problem which can however be resolved by down to q=1 at T = 0).
design’ as explained in Section 8. Numerous adopting sophisticated approaches. A simple,
dissipative zones will form in well designed although approximate, evaluation can be made
types of earthquake resisting structures. in the example of Figure 11. If q = ME / MEP =
2 is used, the ordinates of the “design response
All seismic codes characterise the ability spectrum Sd(T)” used to analyse the ductile
of structures to dissipate energy through cantilever in an elastic analysis are equal to
plastic mechanisms by means of a factor. 1/2 of the ordinates of the elastic acceleration
This is the ‘force reduction factor R’ in AISC response spectrum Se(T), and the action effect
documents, and the ‘behaviour factor q’ M found in the cantilever is M = ME / 2 . If the
in Eurocode 8. These factors are high for section of the cantilever is designed such that
dissipative structures (see Figure 12). its design resistance MRd ≥ ME / 2, then it can
withstand the earthquake, provided its ductility
The behaviour factor q is an approximation is 2 or more. This shows exactly the meaning
of the ratio of the seismic forces FEL that the of the behaviour factor q of Eurocode 8.
structure would experience if its response
was completely elastic, to the seismic
forces FEP that may be used in the design
(with a conventional elastic analysis model)
to still ensure a satisfactory response of
the structure. The design seismic action
is thus reduced in comparison to the one
that would need to be considered in the
analysis of a structure designed to sustain
the seismic action in a purely elastic manner.
P P P Figure 12
Behaviour factor q reflects the energy
F F F dissipation potential of a structural type.
* Stability of a K bracing depends on slender diagonal in compression, which fails in a brittle way.
5. Characterisation of structures specific to seismic design
At the outset of a project, the designer can MRF with unconnected concrete or 1,5 (2*) 2 2
choose to design structures ‘as usual’ (non masonry infills in contact with the frame
dissipative) or to design ‘dissipative’ structures. MRF with infills isolated from the frame 4 5 αu/α1
All modern seismic design codes, for instance * the National Annex can allow q = 2 in class DCL
[1] [7] [8] [13], leave the choice between
these two concepts open and define several
‘Ductility Classes’. In Eurocode 8 there are
three Ductility Classes, namely DCL (Low
Ductility, non dissipative structures), DCM
(Medium Ductility) and DCH (High Ductility).
23
5. Characterisation of structures specific to seismic design
Plastic redistribution
parameter αu/α1
The parameter α1 is the multiplier of the
horizontal seismic design action needed to
reach the plastic resistance in one part of the
structure. αu is the multiplier of the horizontal
seismic design action needed to form a global
mechanism. αu /α1 may be obtained from
nonlinear static ‘pushover’ global analysis,
but is limited to 1,6 . Values of αu /α1 taken
from Eurocode 8 are provided in Figure 13.
Figure 13
Location of dissipative zones defined
as a design objective in order to
form global plastic mechanisms,
and associated standard values of
parameter αu/α1 (from Eurocode 8)
Seismic mass.
Methods of analysis.
Torsion.
Displacements in dissipative structures.
Resistance condition.
Limitation of second order effects.
25
6. Aspects of seismic analysis and design checks common to all structural types
27
6. Aspects of seismic analysis and design checks common to all structural types
Figure 14
Computation of real displacement ds .
F e = M.S e(T)
E
F d=M.S d(T) M
F d = F e/q
D C d
de = dy d s=q.d y
de : elastic displacement from the elastic analysis under response spectrum, reduced by q factor
ds : real displacement
6. Aspects of seismic analysis and design checks common to all structural types
Figure 15
Parameters used in the control
of 2nd order effects.
d r = q.d re
P tot
V tot
N N
h V V
Ptot = Σ Ngravity
Vtot = Σ Vseismic
29
7. Approximate Method for Seismic
Analysis and Design
Choice of units.
Simple elastic analysis method.
Estimation of the fundamental period T1 of a building.
7. Approximate Method for Seismic Analysis and Design
Choice of units Static elastic analysis or contribute to the mass involved in global
modes. Example: a vertical mode of vibration
The units used in a dynamic analysis must
the ‘lateral force’ method of a floor in a structure submitted to the
horizontal component of the earthquake.
belong to a coherent system of physical units
A structure that is regular in both plan and Taking the total mass into consideration
to void errors that can easily be of the order of
elevation, in which the masses are regularly would be penalising in the evaluation of the
1000%! For instance using the International
distributed and in which stiff horizontal global shear Fb and one considers λ = 0,85.
System of Units, masses are defined in kg
diaphragms are present can be modelled by
(not in kN), forces in N, lengths in m, Young’s
means of two planar models; one in the x Based on the above, a ‘lateral force method’
modulus in N/m2 and time (periods T1) in s.
direction, the other in the y direction. Each can be applied to the earthquake action
model represents one of the n resisting frames and to the analysis of the action effects on
parallel to the direction of the earthquake the structure. Such a method comprises
being considered. The seismic mass m steps S1 to S7 as described below:
allocated to that frame is 1/n of the total S1: evaluate the period T1 of the
seismic mass of the building. For the regular fundamental vibration mode using
structure described above, the contribution of an expression from Table 7.
vibration modes higher than the fundamental S2: read the design pseudo acceleration
one is negligible and the structure responds Sd (T1) from the design spectrum
like a vertical cantilever of period T1. The S3: compute the seismic resultant
fundamental period T1 can be assessed by design base shear Fb:
considering the physical relationships of single λ = 0,85; m is the seismic mass allocated
degree of freedom systems, or ‘statistical’ to the frame being considered; Sd (T) is
relationships deduced from the analysis a design spectrum (spectrum reduced
of many existing designs (see Table 7). by a behaviour factor q selected by
the designer, see Section 5). As noted
The resultant seismic horizontal above, care is needed to ensure current
force Fb, can be evaluated as: use of units for m, Fb, and Sd (T1)
Fb = S d (T1 )⋅ m ⋅ λ
31
7. Approximate Method for Seismic Analysis and Design
S4: distribute Fb over the height of the In this expression mi, mj are the storey
structure into a number of ‘storey forces’ seismic masses. If all the storey
S5: establish internal forces and displacements seismic masses are equal:
of the structure under the force
zi
Fb, by using a static analysis Fi = Fb ⋅
S6: combine those seismic action effects Σ zj
to other action effects (gravity loading
N = 4 storeys
in the seismic situation, etc)
S7: carry out all seismic checks required for
Running this type of analysis requires a
the structural elements and connections,
first guess of the ‘sizes’ of the structural
with consideration of P-Δ effects etc.
components, namely the beams and columns.
(See Sections 6 and 10 to 14).
The analysis then provides all the action effects;
bending moments, shear, displacement de. This
Steps S5, S6 and S7 can only be
means that all the design checks can be made;
carried out once the dimensions of the
resistance of structural elements, limitation
structural elements are defined.
of displacements and of P-Δ effects etc.
z i ⋅ mi
Fi = Fb ⋅
z j ⋅ mj
Figure 16
Lateral force method.
F4 W4
W3
F3
F2 W2
W1 h2
F1
Fb
7. Approximate Method for Seismic Analysis and Design
Estimation of the
fundamental period
T1 of a building
For structures that can be ‘represented’ by a
simple cantilever, the use of physical (exact)
formulae is possible because their structural
form corresponds well to the hypotheses
behind these formulae. For more complicated
structures, ‘statistical’ studies have defined
empirical relationships between the height
of the structure, the form of the structural
system and its fundamental period T1 (see
Table 7). Figure 10 shows the relationship
between building height H and period T1 as
deduced from Table 7 for a steel moment
frame. Designers should of course not forget
that these are only approximate relationships.
33
8. Architecture of Earthquake
Resistant Buildings
Basic features of
an earthquake
resistant building
All buildings are ‘boxes’ and when subjected
to earthquakes they work in the way
sketched in Figure 17. Stiff and resistant
horizontal structures, called diaphragms,
allow the horizontal forces at each storey
to be distributed into the vertical resisting
structures; their connections to the vertical
frames must be designed to carry the storey
forces. Vertical resisting structures in the x
and y directions attract the horizontal storey Figure 17
forces and transmit them to the foundations. How structures work as ‘boxes’
(from reference [18])
35
8. Architecture of Earthquake Resistant Buildings
Figure 18
Primary and secondary structures.
Primary
structure
Secondary
structure
8. Architecture of Earthquake Resistant Buildings
Figure 19
Symmetrical in-plan shapes reduce
torsion. Structural systems distributed
close to the periphery are the most
Favourable in-plan shapes
effective at resisting torsion.
action
reaction
torsion
Don't do Do
37
8. Architecture of Earthquake Resistant Buildings
Uniformity over the height of the building The use of evenly distributed structural
avoids the occurrence of sensitive zones elements increases redundancy and facilitates
where concentrations of stress and large more redistribution of the action effects
ductility demands might cause premature and widespread energy dissipation across
collapse. Uniformity over the height also the entire structure. Its use also spreads the
requires that non structural elements do not reactions at the foundations (Figure 21).
interfere with the structural elements to localise
the plastic deformations, such as in the so-
called ‘soft storey’ mechanism (Figure 20).
infills Figure 20
Regularity over the height reduces
risk of ‘soft storey’ failure.
plastic
soft storey hinges
Figure 21
Redundancy and wide bases better
redistribute the seismic action
effects at the foundation level.
action action
reactions reactions
d d
Small lever
Small lever arm
armofofreactions
reactions Great lever arm of reactions
Great lever arm of reactions
Don't do Do
8. Architecture of Earthquake Resistant Buildings
Horizontal seismic motion is a bi-directional The foundations should ensure that the
phenomenon and the building structure must whole building is subjected to a uniform seismic
be able to resist horizontal actions in any excitation. They should also be designed
direction. The structural elements should to reduce problems in case of differential
ensure similar resistance and stiffness in settlement under seismic action. A rigid,
both main directions. When considering box-type or cellular foundation, containing a
the stiffness of the structure a balance has foundation slab and a cover slab, achieves this
to be made. The action effects in terms of objective. If individual foundation elements like
forces may be reduced in a more flexible footings or piles are used, they should be tied
structure, as can be directly concluded from together by the foundation slab or by tie-beams.
the acceleration response spectrum. However,
displacements will be greater and the design
must prevent excessive displacements that
might lead to either instabilities due to second
order effects under the design earthquake,
or instabilities due to excessive damage
(cracks) under more frequent earthquakes.
39
9. Designing Dissipative Structures
Principle.
Designing reliable dissipative zones.
The many local dissipative mechanisms available in steel structures.
Non dissipative local mechanisms.
Design of non dissipative elements in a dissipative structure.
Capacity design applied to connections.
Capacity design applied to bars with holes.
Design criteria for dissipative structures.
Selecting a Ductility Class for design.
Selecting a typology of structure for design.
9. Designing Dissipative Structures
41
9. Designing Dissipative Structures
F
a stable ductile mechanism. F
Slippage with friction
M M
Figure 22
Dissipative and non dissipative Plastic bending or shear of components
local plastic mechanisms. of the connection
9. Designing Dissipative Structures
l ovalisation of bolt holes. This occurs when
local plastic compression strains are applied
Non dissipative local In the beam without cover plate, yielding
of the flange takes place over the length
by bolts to a plate made of ductile structural mechanisms of a plastic hinge, which is of the order of
steel, and is a very stable and ductile the beam depth, that means equal to 200
mechanism (indeed the opposite of failure Non dissipative behaviour of potentially mm - Figure 23a. The ultimate elongation
of the bolts themselves in shear, or failure of dissipative zones can result from: of that 200 mm zone is equal to:
the welds). For bolted shear connections, - premature local or global buckling Du,a = 0,0338 x 200 = 6,76 mm
it is recommended that the design shear plastic strains occurring in a region that is In the beam with a cover plate –Figure
resistance of the bolts is more than 1,2 too small (see below); this is a ‘localisation of 23b, yielding of the flange only take place
times the design bearing resistance, because strains’ or ‘stress concentration’ situation. Even on a 20 mm length, the rest of the beam
even if the bolted connection is designed when appropriate materials and construction remaining elastic due to a significantly
to be ‘non-slip’ there is always relative are adopted, a design that generates high greater plastic modulus Wpl,Rd in the section
elongations over a short zone will result in reinforced by the cover plates. The ultimate
movement between the two assembled
very low deformation of the component, and elongation of that 20 mm zone is equal to:
plates in an earthquake condition. Bearing
these may be below the expectations of the Du,b = 0,0338 x 20 = 0,67 mm
resistance will then be the true mode
of failure of the bolted connection. designer and the requirements of the code.
Those elongations Du,a and Du,b can be translated
friction between plates. Friction This problem is illustrated in Figure 23 for the
into ultimate rotation capacity θu, as:
l
dissipates energy and prevents case of bending applied to a bar either without
θu = Du /( db /2)
destructive shocks in the bolts between (Figure 23a) or with cover plates which are
loose parts of a connection. For this not connected to the column (Figure 23b).
Design ‘a’ corresponds to a plastic rotation
reason, pre-tensioning of bolts is If the ultimate strain εu of the steel beam is
capacity θu,a = 6,76 /100 = 67,6 mrad, which is
prescribed for seismic applications. equal to 20 times the yield strain
greater than US or European code requirements
in the connections, if they are designed εy (εy = fy / E and the minimum value of
l
for dissipative zones in bending(25 to 40 mrad).
to develop one or more of the εu / εu prescribed for structural steel in seismic Design ‘b’ corresponds to a plastic rotation
dissipative mechanisms listed above. applications is 15), then, for an S355 steel: capacity θu,a = 0,676 /100 = 6,76 mrad,
εu = 20 εy = 20 x 355/210000 = 3,38 % which is far less than US or European code
requirements and its failure will be said ‘brittle’.
Figure 23 200
Localisation of plastic strains in a small 20 mm
zone leads to low ductility failures.
M M
200
D
Du,b
... Du,a
43
9. Designing Dissipative Structures
structure for
is example
analysed
dissipative elements of dissipative zone
buckling
and of aneff
the action a
dissipative elements in established using the ‘capacity design’ principle. - In tension.
every potential dissipative
i has to be greater than the computed zone I, the
- The actionsizes ofE those adjacent elements are
a dissipative structure If a standard elastic analysis is adopted for a
resistance
than
effects
the
Rplastic
di isdJ amplified
greater
resistance
to
than
account the fact that the real action effect
taketheinto
of
action effe
the compon
- The J
‘fuse’). potential failure modes of the elem
structure, using a reduced response spectrum, in the dissipative element is the plastic
To avoid plastic deformations, and indeed brittle
the capacity design involves the following steps: - To
identified,
achieve
resistance
foradequate
Rdi and
example buckling
sizing,
not the action RdJ of
effect
ofthe
an Jadn
failures and/or elastic instabilities, at places in the
The potential dissipative zones are tension.
to be greater
Edi determined than
from thethe computed
conventional action ef
structure other than the dissipative zones the - The sizes of those adjacent elements are
l
effects Ed in sections are computed that the real action effect in the dissipative
This concept is known as ‘capacity design’.
“combined
In every potential dissipative zone I,
l
action effect Ewith”
in which γ is a safety in the
factor. In thatsense of seeking
di determined from the con
the dissipative element is designed expression,
action effect + means “combined with” in the other
To highlight the concept, the chain shown in
such that its resistance Rdi is greater
resistances R resultingof thefrom
sense of seekingdJthe realistic worst case
nonthedissipat
Figure 24 is often presented. The strength If Edj=REdi : RdJ t J Rdi Sdj, G
than the action effect Edi: Rdi ≥ Edi RdJsituation.
> J diSdj,G EisdJthe Sdj, G effect
action in whichresultingJ is a
of a chain is the strength of its weakest link,
The J potential failure modes of the from theEother actions included in the
therefore one ductile link may be used to di
l
45
9. Designing Dissipative Structures
47
10. Seismic Design of Moment Resisting Frames
l Partial mechanisms of the ‘soft storey’
type are avoided (see Figure 20).
l Whereas plastic hinges in beams take
advantage of the full plastic moment
resistance of the section, this is not
the case with hinges in columns due to
the interaction of moments and axial
forces. Furthermore, plastic hinges in
columns would create problems in terms
of both column and global stability.
l P-∆ effects are less important if hinges are
not in the columns (Figure 25 a and b). Figure 25
l A partial failure at a beam end does not a) A frame with ‘weak beams-strong columns’
necessarily lead to collapse of the beam, b) Plastic hinges in columns result
and even if it does then collapse may be in larger P-∆ effects.
limited to that beam alone. However, a c) Parameters used in the definition of
partial failure in a column can easily be the capacity of rotation in Eurocode 8.
catastrophic for the complete structure. (EN1998-1-1:2004).
D D
s
0.5 L 0.5 L
a) b) c)
10. Seismic Design of Moment Resisting Frames
Table 8
U.S. and European Ductility Classes
for moment resisting frames.
MRF Ductility Country Designation Of Force Reduction Req. Plastic Capacity Design
Classes Moment Frame Factor R (US) Rotation of Connections
Behaviour Capacity
Factor q (EU) mrad *
Low Ductility U.S. OMF 3,5 ____ Yes
Ordinary Moment Frame
Europe DCL 1,5 – 2,0** ____ No
Ductility Class Low
Medium Ductility U.S. IMF 4,5 20 Yes
Intermediate Moment Frame
Europe DCM 4 25 Yes
Ductility Class Medium
High Ductility U.S. SMF 8 40 Yes
Special Moment Frame
Europe DCH 6 35 Yes
Ductility Class High
* The rotation capacity provided by a given combination of beam, connection and column is evaluated by tests followed by data
processing. The definitions of rotation capacity are slightly different in Europe and in the U.S. In Europe, the rotation θp is defined
as: θp = ∂ / 0,5L in which ∂ is the deflection at midspan of the beam and L the beam span shown at Figure 26. In the USA, the
effect on ∂ of the elastic deformation of the column on a storey height is added and thus included in the capacity of rotation.
** the National Annex can allow q = 2 in class DCL
49
10. Seismic Design of Moment Resisting Frames
Figure 29
Reduced Beam Sections minimise
requirements for column section,
column stiffeners and demands on
beam to column connections
(By Courtesy of Prof.C.M.Uang)
10. Seismic Design of Moment Resisting Frames
Figure 30. Design of an extended end plate connection close to a dissipative zone.
Figure 30
Impact of seismic design in comparison to a design for gravity loading alone.
Design of an extended end plate
The nature of the design checks for moment and shear resistance of theconnection close
connections is to a dissipative zone.
worth
emphasising,t1because they may be critical for t2 the design of connections Impact of seismic
in which the design
beam in comparison
flanges are welded to the column flange, and the beam web is connected to a design
to thefor gravitybyloading alone.
column
means of shear tabs (as shown in Figure 31).
n1
The design condition for theMconnection
Sd n2is: MRd,connection t 1,1 Jov Mpl,Rd,beam
The plastic bending resistance of the beam Mpl,Rd,beam is the sum of the plastic resistance
a2 tf ) and the plastic resistance moment of
moment of thea1flanges alone Mpl,flanges = bf tf fy (d+
2
the web, Mpl,web = tw d fy / 4
45
53
10. Seismic Design of Moment Resisting Frames
The nature of the design checks for moment When the connection detailing involves
and shear resistance of the connections is worth a shear tab welded to the column
emphasising, because they may be critical for flange, this condition requires:
the design of connections in which the beam l use of a shear tab with more
flanges are welded to the column flange, and resistance than the beam web
the beam web is connected to the column by l welding the tab along its top and bottom
means of shear tabs (as shown in Figure 31). sides, in addition to the vertical fillet welds
The design condition for the connection down the vertical sides that carry the shear.
is: MRd,connection ≥ 1,1 γov Mpl,Rd,beam
The plastic bending resistance of the beam There are three options for the design
Mpl,Rd,beam is the sum of the plastic resistance of rigid beam to column connections,
moment of the flanges alone Mpl,flanges = each one of which results in a different
bf tf fy (d+ tf ) and the plastic resistance location for the plastic hinge:
moment of the web, Mpl,web = tw d2 fy / 4 1. ‘classical’ connection design, as shown in
Whilst butt welds connecting the beam Figure 31, which does not increase the
flanges to the column flange, or to an bending resistance of the beam locally.
end plate, transmit the plastic resistance The plastic hinge then forms in the beam
moment Mpl,flanges without problem, the web section adjacent to the column flange;
connection must also transmit the plastic 2. other connection design options, such as
resistance moment of the beam web in order those shown in Figures 32, 35 and 37,
to fulfil the condition: MR,web,connection involve increasing the bending resistance of
≥ 1,1 γov Mpl,web = 1,1 γov tw d2 fy / 4 the beam from the column face to a point
a short length into the span. The plastic
hinge is then developed away from the
column face, which has the beneficial effect
of separating the stress concentrations
in the connection from the plastic strains
that develop in the plastic hinge.
Figure 31
Beam to column connection with
beam flanges welded to column flange
and beam web welded to a shear tab
that is welded on column flange.
Figure 32
The strengthening strategy.
3. the beam may be deliberately weakened Whilst removing material may seem The research effort after the Northridge and
at some distance from the column, by something of a paradox and indeed potentially Kobe earthquakes also showed that factors
trimming the flanges. The plastic hinge uneconomical, in fact beam sections are normally other than simply the connection design caused
is then displaced away from the column sized to meet deformation requirements under poor behaviour of the connection zones. Some
flange, and the stress concentrations gravity and earthquake loadings, often providing issues concerned welds, for example low
in the connection are separated from more resistance than is needed (‘overstrength’). toughness of the weld material, some weld
the plastic strains that develop in The only effect of adopting RBS is therefore preparations resulting in stress concentrations
the plastic hinge (see Figure 33). to consume part of this excess. It also: and defects (V preparation with cope hole,
l reduces very slightly the stiffness of welding on a backing bar, details required for on
This last concept, which is known as Reduced the structure (between 4% and 9%), site welding), and inadequate weld protection.
Beam Sections (RBS) or ‘dog-bone’, was because sections are only reduced over The base material was also questioned;
originally developed as part of an ArcelorMittal very short lengths of the beams toughness and weldability characteristics
(ARBED) promoted research programme in l normally does not require any change were in many cases far inferior to what
1988. After the Northridge earthquake in in the section sizes of the structural ArcelorMittal had long been advising specifiers.
1994 and the Kobe earthquake in 1995, elements in order to compensate
poor connection behaviour was observed in this minor stiffness reduction The achievement of appropriate quality explains
many moment resisting frames and the RBS l reduces the ultimate strength of the why the numerous experiments undertaken
concept became more widely considered as a structure, but not significantly because, between 1988 and 1997 on ‘classical’ welded
smart design option to obviate such problems. as noted above, there is normally a connections (that is connections that were
ArcelorMittal then gave free use of its patent high excess of resistance anyway not strengthened, or using RBS) showed that
and the concept was further developed, with l allows column section sizes to be plastic rotation capacities greater than the 25
radius cuts becoming apparent as the most reduced, assuming they have been or 35 mrad now required by the code could be
economical option. Design guidance on RBS sized by the ‘strong columns-weak achieved without difficulty [2][10][11]. These
is now provided in many documents, for beams’ capacity design condition tests were based on H and IPE profiles from
example in FEMA2002 and ICCA2002 [6, 7]. l allows the dimensions of any stiffeners ArcelorMittal production, with beam depths of
needed in the columns for the up to 450 mm. The standards adopted for the
transmission of bending moments and materials and fabrication procedures complied
shear in the connection zone to be with the current international requirements,
reduced, which can result in a significant namely weld preparation in K, choice of weld
reduction in fabrication costs. metal, welding from one side followed by
welding from the other, appropriate base
Figure 33
The weakening strategy using ‘dog-
bones’ or Reduced Beams Sections
(RBS), a concept originally developed
and patented by ArcelorMittal.
55
10. Seismic Design of Moment Resisting Frames
steels by ArcelorMittal extended the validity those indicated in Table 9 are mentioned
of these results to deep beams and thick
walled sections, with depths up to 1100
connections in some of the references [6][7][14],
including partial strength connections
mm and flange thicknesses up to 125 mm. and proprietary connections
Explicit design guidance for beam to column
The applicability of these steels to seismic references [6][7][14] give detailed
connections in moment resisting frames is now
l
applications was further enhanced by the ability guidance on choice of base & weld
available as a result of the huge international
of ArcelorMittal to accurately control the grades material, weld types, access hole design
research effort made since 1995. It is
of the steel produced, and to keep strengths (see example in Figure 39), etc. This
presented in documents such as references
within upper and lower limits. If a higher information is not reproduced here
[6][7][14]. In the context of Eurocode 8,
strength grade is prescribed for the columns, some references define a very small
whilst explicit information cannot be found
l
namely U.S. Grade 65 (65 ksi or 450 MPa), number of connections, namely those
in the main document [1], reference should
while a more traditional Grade 50 (50 ksi or 345 which are best able to provide high
be made to the National Annexes. Designs
MPa) is adopted for the beams, the designer ductility (for example only 3 connection
in which the plastic hinges are assumed to
can be sure that the ‘weak beam – strong types are given in reference [6])
occur in the beam sections adjacent to the
column’ design condition will be effectively there are some minor variations in the
column flanges are allowed, as well as design
l
Figure 34 Figure 35
Beam flanges welded, beam web bolted Beam flanges bolted; beam web bolted
to shear tab welded to column flange. to shear tab welded to column flange.
Above: with bolted flange plates. Below:
with double split T connection.
Figure 36
Unstiffened end plate welded
to beam and bolted to column
flange by 4 rows of bolts.
q
pf
c
pf
pt
dO
dl
db
tw
tpf
bp
tpl
57
10. Seismic Design of Moment Resisting Frames
Figure 37 Figure 38
Stiffened end plate welded to Reduced beam section. Beam flanges
beam and bolted to column welded, beam web welded to shear
flange by 8 rows of bolts. tab welded to column flange.
Radius = 4c + s
2 2
8c
a s
c
Reduced beam
section
Figure 39
Weld access hole details in FEMA 350 [7].
50
10. Seismic Design of Moment Resisting Frames
Figure 40 Figure 41
Calculation of design moment and shear Column to foundation connection
in the connection in presence of a RBS. using a pocket in the concrete.
N
M
L'
V
L
F HS
RBS RBS
x x'
59
11. Seismic Design of Frames with
Concentric Bracing
Design objective.
Analysis of X bracing.
Design Criteria for X bracing.
Other requirements for X bracing.
Design of connections.
Analysis of V or Λ bracing.
Design Criteria for V or Λ bracing.
Other requirements for V or Λ bracing.
US and European design rules for frames with concentric bracing.
11. Seismic Design of Frames with Concentric Bracing
Design objective
Figure 42
The global design objective for energy a) Global plastic mechanism which is the
dissipation in the ‘classical’ design of frames with design objective for frames with X bracings.
concentric bracing is to form dissipative zones in b) Storey mechanism prevented
the diagonals under tension, and to avoid yielding by the resistance homogenisation
or buckling of the beams or columns. Diagonals condition for the diagonals.
in compression are designed to buckle. The
expected for global mechanism in the case of a
frame with X bracing is shown in Figure 42 a).
Analysis of frames
with X bracings
The standard analysis is made assuming that:
l under gravity loading, only the beams
and columns are present in the model
under seismic loading, only the diagonals in
Figure 43
l
N Ed,G N Ed 3
N Ed 1
61
11. Seismic Design of Frames with Concentric Bracing
order to achieve plastic mechanism the values of ȍi should not vary too m
a globalductile
Design criteria As the diagonals
the full
‘fuses’, height
the beam
are effectively
andof the structure,
column design
Other requirements
and a homogenisation criterion is defined; the ma
for X bracings should
forces are not differ from
a combination for X bracings
of: the minimum by more than 25%. Practically, this means that
cannot
l
beforce
the axial made NEd,Gof
duethe same section from top to bottom of the building. : is th
to gravity
The yield resistance Npl,Rd of the The non-dimensional slenderness λ of the
reserved for the minimumsituation
loading in the seismic design :i .
diagonals should be greater than the the axial force NEd,E due to seismic action
l diagonals should be limited to: 1,3 < λ ≤ 2,0.
axial tension force NEd computed under amplified by the ‘overstrength’ of the This limitation is justified by the fact that at the
the seismic action effect: Npl,Rd ≥ NEd
As the diagonals are effectively ductile ‘fuses’, the beam and column design fo
first application of force by the earthquake the
diagonal, which is found by multiplying
combination of:
the section ‘overstrength’ factor Ω by compression NEd,E in the diagonals increases up
For each diagonal, the ratio of the resistance - the axial force NEd,G γdue(when
the material ‘overstrength’ to gravity loading
to in thestrength
the buckling seismic Nb,Rddesign
; in othersituation
words
ov
provided Npl,Rd to the resistance required - the axial force N
applying so-called capacity due
Ed,E design).to seismic action amplified by the
it is quite significant, and certainly ‘overstrength’
not equal to of the
NEd is determined: Ωi = Npl,Rd,i / NEd,i . which is found by multiplying the zero section
as indicated‘overstrength’
by the simple analysis modelȍ by the
factor
The axial‘overstrength’ Jov (when
load design resistance Npl,Rd ofapplying
the so-called capacity
proposed (which design).
only includes the diagonals in
These ratios Ωi represent the excess capacity beam or the column, which takes into account tension). Then, after the first loading cycle by
of the sections with respect to the minimum The axial load design resistance Npl,Rd
interaction with the design bending moment MEd
the
of earthquake,
the beamdue or to
thepermanent
column,deformation
which takes int
requirement and are therefore called ‘section ininteraction resulting
with the design bending moment MEd in the seismic
the seismic design situation, should satisfy: from buckling the resistance of the
design situatio
overstrength’. In order to achieve a global plastic diagonals in compression will have decreased
satisfy:
mechanism the values of Ωi should not vary sharply, justifying the simple model (which
too much over the full height of the structure,
N pl,Rd ( M Ed ) t N Ed,G 1,1J ov : .N Ed,E ignores them completely). The 1,3 limit for λ
and a homogenisation criterion is defined; the is intended to avoid overloading the columns
maximum Ωi should not differ from the minimum Other requirements for X bracings. in the pre-buckling stage, when both the
by more than 25%. Practically, this means
The non-dimensional slenderness O ofcompression the diagonalsand tension diagonals are active.
should be limited to: 1,3 <
that diagonals cannot be made of the same
section from top to bottom of the building.
This limitation is justified by the fact that at the first application of force by the earth
If the pairs of diagonals are not positioned as
Ω is the symbol reserved for the minimum Ωi .
compression NEd,E in the diagonals increases an X, but uparetodecoupled
the buckling strength
as in Figure Nb,Rd ; in ot
44, then:
it is quite significant, and certainly not equal l the only limitation for slenderness is: λ ≤ 2,0 analy
to zero as indicated by the simple
proposed (which only includes the diagonals l thein tension).
design Then,
should take into after
accountthe first loadin
the earthquake, due to permanent deformation the tension and compression forces the resistan
resulting from buckling
diagonals in compression will have decreased sharply,
which develop justifying
in the the simple mod
columns adjacent
ignores them completely). The 1,3 limit for O is intended to avoid overloading th
to the diagonals in compression, the
compression forces in these diagonals
in the pre-buckling stage, when both the compression and tension diagonals are activ
being equal to their buckling resistance.
For structures of up to two storeys no limitation
If the pairs of diagonals are not positioned as an X, but are decoupled as in Figure 44
applies to λ , and diagonals could be cables.
- the only limitation for slenderness is: O d 2,0
- the design should take into account the tension and compression forces which d
the columns adjacent to the diagonals in compression, the compression force
diagonals being equal to their buckling resistance.
For structures of up to two storeys no limitation applies to O , and diagonals could b
Figure 44
Models used for the analysis a) under
gravity loading. b) under seismic loading.
Figure 44. Bracing in which the pair of diagonals of each X brace are decoupled.
11. Seismic Design of Frames with Concentric Bracing
Design of connections
The design of the connections between the Figure 45
diagonals and the beams or columns is made Comparison between a ‘classical’
considering the capacity design condition connection design (a) and a connection
explained in Section 9. The ductility condition that is ‘capacity designed’ relative to the
explained in the same Section is applied if holes diagonal plastic resistance (b or c).
are made for connection purposes. Capacity
design of the connections generally results in
huge components, due to the fact that the steel
sections used for the diagonals have several
‘elements’ (2 for L sections, 3 for U sections,
etc) in which full plastic yielding under tension
is developed. As all these ‘elements’ cannot
be directly connected to a gusset plate, either
a local increase in the section of the ‘element’
in contact with the plate (by means of a 1,1 γov Npl, Rd
b c
welded cover plate as shown in Figure 45 b),
or the use of an intermediate piece of angle
through which part of the force in the diagonal
is transmitted (Figure 45 c), is necessary.
Analysis of V or Λ bracings
A standard analysis is made assuming that:
l under gravity loading, only the beams
and columns are present in the model
Figure 46
under seismic loading, both the diagonals
Design action effects applied to a beam
l
63
11. Seismic Design of Frames with Concentric Bracing
65
12. Seismic Design of Frames with Concentric Bracing and Dissipative Connections
for simple analysis, they provide additional diagonals. With dissipative connections, the
strength connections are permitted by
stiffness in comparison to the ‘tension deformation is concentrated in the connection.
codes, provided that the adequacy of design
diagonal only’ model. This compensates
(strength, stiffness, ductility) is supported by
for the additional flexibility resulting from In 2001 ArcelorMittal, aware of the considerable
experimental evidence. Several reasons justify
the use of semi-rigid connections. potential of partial strength connections in
the interest in partial strength connections:
Partial strength connections can be the seismic design of frames with concentric
Partial strength connections can be
l
l
Figure 47
Rectangular pin connection with
two internal eye-bars.
a) 3D view. b) in test.
a) b)
Figure 48
Two designs with a U connection.
12. Seismic Design of Frames with Concentric Bracing and Dissipative Connections
of the ȍ
Homogenisationbuilding: i = Rpl,Rd,i connections
/ NEd,i . Theoverstrengths
maximum value
overoft
is known (controlled production of
The behaviour factor q of frames with - dissipative
standard connections), γov = 1.0
minimum by more
building: ȍi = Rpl,Rd,i / NEd,i . The than 25%.
maximum : is the minimum
of :i should no
value
in tensionvalue
concentric bracing and partial strength
Resistance Npl,Rd or in
- If Rpl,Rd of the compression
dissipative connections is known (co
l
67
13. Seismic Design of Frames with
Eccentric Bracing
Figure 49
e e e Examples of frames with eccentric bracing
e
69
13. Seismic Design of Frames with Eccentric Bracing
Figure 51
Eccentric braces in which the shear
and bending moment diagrams in
the link are unsymmetrical.
Link
Link M V
Moment Shear V
M in link in link
13. Seismic Design of Frames with Eccentric Bracing
In a link submitted to a symmetrical action effect The criteria that must be satisfied in order
M, as in Figure 52 b), the energy dissipated in to form a global plastic mechanism are
the plastic mechanism is: WM = 2 Mp,link θp similar in frames with eccentric or concentric
The limit between long and short links braces, because they correspond to the same
corresponds to the situation in which yielding concept. There should be homogenisation
could equally take place in shear or bending: of the dissipative connections’ overstrengths
WM = WV => 2 Mp,link θp = Vp,link θp e Ωi over the height of the building ( Ωi = Rpl,Rd,i
=> e = 2 Mp,link / Vp,link / NEd,i). The maximum value of Ωi should
not differ from the minimum by more than
25%. Ω is the minimum value of ΩI that will
For values of e around this limit, significant ensure that yielding occurs simultaneously at
bending moments and shear forces exist several places over the height of the building,
simultaneously and their interaction has to and a global mechanism is formed. The
be considered. In Eurocode 8, the value of e beams, columns and connections are ‘capacity
for considering a plastic mechanism in shear designed’ relative to the real strengths of the
(short links) is: e < es = 1,6 Mp,link / Vp,link seismic links. This is achieved by satisfying:
NRd (MEd ,VEd ) ≥ NEd,G + 1,1 γov Ω NEd,E
The value of e for considering only a plastic Ed ≥ Ed,G + 1,1 γov Ωi Ed,E
mechanism in bending (long links) is :
e > eL = 3 Mp,link / Vp,link
F2
M pl
p
F1 p p
pst e e e
a) WV = Vp,link θp e b) WM = 2 Mp,link θp
71
13. Seismic Design of Frames with Eccentric Bracing
Selection of a type of
l If the seismic links are in the beams, whilst
the beam sections are determined by
eccentric bracing design checks other than those of ULS
under seismic conditions, the requirement
There are many potential types of for homogenizing the section overstrength
eccentric bracings. The choice between ratios Ωi of the dissipative zones may
short and long links is partly determined require an important overstrength of
by the following considerations: the beams and consequently of all other
l short links provide more structural components due to ‘capacity
stiffness than long links design’. Frames with V or inverted V
l shear deformations are essentially eccentric braces in which the Vs have a flat
in-plane deformations of the webs horizontal tip correspond to this situation.
of sections, without any marked
l One way to overcome this penalty is to
tendency to lateral torsional buckling select a frame typology which forces all
l long links mean strong bending effects take the seismic links to yield simultaneously,
place with a potential for lateral torsional like the frame shown in Figure 53.
buckling, which has to be prevented by
l Vertical seismic links as shown in Figure
strong lateral restraints of the upper and 51 can more easily be designed as specific
lower flanges of the steel sections. ‘ductile fuses’, because gravity loading
subjects them essentially to axial forces
The choice between various typologies which do not interact significantly with
is influenced by many factors, including their bending and/or shear resistance.
the openings required by the architecture,
and by structural considerations: Frames with eccentric bracing making were
l The distribution of resistance over the originally designed to dissipate energy through
height of the building should follow the seismic links and not in partial strength
shear distribution, in order to distribute connections. But frames with eccentric bracings
yielding over the height of the structure. can make use of partial strength connections.
Figure 53
Typology of eccentric bracing in which
seismic links yield simultaneously.
14. Composite Steel Concrete
Structures
Introduction.
How can composite structural elements be dissipative?
A basic choice in the design of dissipative composite structures;
the degree of composite ‘character’.
Design concepts and behaviour factors q in the context of the Eurocodes.
Materials.
Stiffness of sections.
Plastic resistance of dissipative zones.
Ductility in bending of composite beams.
Detailing rules for composite connections in dissipative zones.
Favourable influence of concrete encasement on local ductility.
General rules for the design of dissipative and non dissipative elements.
Anchorage and splicing of reinforcement bars.
Fully encased composite columns.
Partially encased members.
Steel beams acting composite with the slab.
Effective width of slab.
73
14. Composite Steel Concrete Structures
Introduction
There are a lot of opportunities for the
use of composite steel concrete design in
buildings. Besides the ‘classical’ types of steel
structures, such as moment resisting frames
and frames with concentric or eccentric
bracing,, composite structures can be:
l Composite wall structures, of Types
1 and 2 as shown in Figure 54.
l Mixed design systems involving
concrete walls or columns and steel or
composite beams; Type 3 in Figure 54.
l Composite steel plate shear walls
consisting of a vertical steel plate
that is continuous over the height of
the building, with structural steel or
composite vertical boundary members
and with reinforced concrete encasement
on one or both faces of the plate.
Figure 54
Composite walls (Type 1 and 2).
Composite or concrete walls coupled by
steel or composite beams (Type 3).
75
14. Composite Steel Concrete Structures
Table 13
Properties of the reinforcements.
77
Stiffness of sections.
The stiffness of composite sections in which the concrete is in compression should be
calculated using a modular ratio n = Ea / Ecm = 7
For composite beams that incorporate a concrete flange the second moment of area of the
section, referred to as I1 (slab in compression) or I2 (slab in tension), should be calculated
taking into account the effective width of slab defined at Table 16.
The stiffness of composite sections in which the concrete is in tension should be calculated
Stiffness of sections Plastic
assuming that the resistance
concrete ofthat only the steel parts of the section are structural.
is cracked and
Theinstructure
The stiffness of composite sections
dissipative zones
which the should be analysed taking into account the presence of concrete in compression
concrete is in compression should inbesome zones and concrete in tension in other zones or making use of the average value of I
calculated
Two different plastic resistances of the
using a modular ratio or EI mentioned in 15.
dissipative zones are considered in the design
n = Ea / Ecm = 7
of composite steel concrete structures:
Plastic resistance
l the oflower
dissipative zones.
bound plastic resistance
For composite beams that incorporate a
Two different plastic resistances of the dissipative zones are considered in the design of
(index pl, Rd) of the dissipative
concrete flange the second moment of
composite steel concrete
area of the section, referred to as I1 (slab
structures:
zones is the one considered in design
Table 14 indicates limits of x/d of sections for which the condition is satisfied.
68
14. Composite Steel Concrete Structures
Figure 55
Strains obtained at the same rotation θ in a
symmetrical steel beam and in a composite
beam made from the same steel section.
c,composite
x
d
s,steel
s,composite
Table 14
Limiting values of x/d for ductility
of composite beams (with slab)
79
Detailing rules for
composite connections
in dissipative zones Figure 56
Beam to column composite connections.
Local design of the reinforcing bars used in the
joint region has to be justified using equilibrium
models. Annex C of Eurocode 8 provides
complete information for the design of the bc
‘seismic’ reinforcement in slabs (see Section t
15). When the web panels of beam/column
connections are fully encased, the panel zone
resistance can be calculated as the sum of the bb
contributions from the concrete and steel shear
panel, provided the aspect ratio hb/bp of the
panel zone satisfies the following conditions: hb
a) 0,6 < hb/hc < 1,4
b) Vwp,Ed < 0,8 Vwp,Rd
A
D
A steel beam
B face bearing plates
C reinforced concrete column
D composite encased column
14. Composite Steel Concrete Structures
When a dissipative steel or composite beam axial strength equal to the shear strength of
frames into a reinforced concrete column the coupling beam. It is allowed to consider
(see Figure 56), it is necessary to realise part or total of reinforcement present in the
the transfer of bending moment and shear column for other reasons as part or total of
present at beam end into the column, which is the reinforcements so required. These vertical
realised by a couple of vertical reaction forces reinforcing bars should be confined by the
into the concrete, similarly to those shown transverse reinforcement already mentioned. To
in the case of a beam framing into a wall at ensure a good behaviour of the steel coupling
Figure 68. To maintain the integrity of the beam and of the concrete at the support, the
column, the following should be checked: mentioned face bearing plates should be placed
l the capacity of the column to in the exterior plane of the concrete. Figure 56.
bear locally those forces without
crushing, which requires confining When a dissipative steel or composite beam is
(transverse) reinforcement framing into a fully encased composite column
l the capacity of the column to resist locally (see Figure 56), the beam/column connection
tension mobilised by those vertical forces, may be designed either as a beam/steel column
which requires vertical reinforcements. connection or as a beam/composite column
connection. In the latter case, vertical column
Indeed, because of the reversal of signs reinforcements may be calculated either as
of the plastic moment at beam end, the explained above or by distributing the shear
reaction is alternatively directed upwards strength of the beam between the column
and downwards, depending on the direction steel section and the column reinforcement.
of the moves of the frame ; this can put the The presence of face bearing plates and
column under tension. For that reason, a rule in transverse reinforcements is equally required.
Eurocode 8 prescribes to place in the column,
in the vicinity of the beam stiffeners or « face
bearing plates » adjacent to the beam plastic
hinge, vertical reinforcements with a design
Figure 57
Confinement of the composite web panel.
bb
s 1 s1 s1 s 1 s 1
hb
s1 < c
bp = hc
81
14. Composite Steel Concrete Structures
Concrete used to encase a steel section, or Ductility Class of Structure DCM DCH
placed between its flanges, prevents inward local
Reference value of behaviour factor q 1,5 < q ≤ 2 2<q≤4 q>4
buckling of the steel walls/flanges and therefore FLANGE outstand limits c/tf
reduces strength degradation due to buckling. Reference: H or I Section in steel only 14 ε 10 ε 9ε
For this reason, some of the limits for wall EN1993-1-1:2004 Table 5.2
slenderness of composite sections are higher FLANGE outstand limits c/tf 20 ε 14 ε 9ε
than those for pure steel sections. These limits H or I Section, partially encased,
can be increased by up to 50% if the following with connection of concrete to web
details are placed with certain densities: as in Figure 57 b) or by welded studs.
l confining hoops, for fully encased sections EN1994-1-1:2004 Table 5.2
l additional straight bars welded to the FLANGE outstand limits c/tf 30 ε 21 ε 13,5 ε
inside of the flanges, for partially encased H or I Section, partially encased
sections as shown in Figure 58a. + straight links as in Figure 57
a) placed with s/c ≤ 0,5
Table 15 presents values of acceptable wall EN1998-1-1:2004
slenderness for H or I sections in compression. FLANGE outstand limits c/tf 30 ε 21 ε 13,5 ε
The connection of concrete to web refers H or I Section, fully encased
+ hoops placed with s/c ≤ 0,5
to design details defined in Eurocode 4: the
EN1998-1-1:2004
concrete is connected to the web of the steel
WEB depth to thickness limit cw/tw 42 ε 38 ε 33 ε
section, either by stirrups welded to the web
cw/tw = h – 2tf
(see Figure 58b)) or by means of bars of at
Reference: H or I Section, in steel only,
least 6 mm diameter placed through holes, web completely in compression
and/or by studs of at least 10 mm diameter EN1993-1-1:2004 Table 5.2
welded to the web. Further guidance on ‘+ WEB depth to thickness limit cw/tw 38 ε 38 ε 33 ε
hoops’ and ‘straight links’ is provided below H or I Section, web completely in
under the subtitles ‘Fully encased composite compression, section partially encased
columns’ and ‘Partially encased members’. with connection of concrete to web
or fully encased with hoops.
EN1993-1-1:2004 Table 5.2,
EN1994-1-1, cl.5.5.3(3)
note: ε = (fy/235)0.5 with fy in MPa
tf
tf
Figure 58
Partially encased sections.
h = hc
h = hc
tw tw s s s s s s s
a) Additional straight bars (links)
welded to the flanges.
b) Concrete connected to the web of the steel
section by means of welded stirrups.
c c c) Steps s of the stirrups.
b = bc b = bc
a) b) c)
14. Composite Steel Concrete Structures
General rules for the When, for capacity design purposes, the full
composite resistance of a column is employed,
Anchorage and splices
design of dissipative and complete shear transfer between the steel and of reinforcement bars
non dissipative elements reinforced concrete parts should be ensured. If
insufficient shear transfer is achieved through The following requirements apply to reinforcing
bond and friction, shear connectors should bars used for both earthquake resistant
An earthquake resistant structure is designed
be provided to ensure full composite action. reinforced concrete structures and composite
in order to achieve a global plastic mechanism
In essentially axially loaded non dissipative structures. For hoops used as transverse
involving local dissipative zones. The mechanism
members, sufficient shear transfer should be reinforcement in beams, columns or walls, closed
identifies the members in which dissipative
provided to ensure that the steel and concrete stirrups with 135° hooks and extensions 10 dbw
zones are located, and therefore indirectly the
parts share the loads applied to the column at in length should be used, dbw being the diameter
members in which there are no dissipative zones.
connections to beams and bracing members. of the transverse reinforcement. Figure 59.
Columns can be designed to be dissipative in
In DCH structures, the anchorage length of
regions where the global mechanism indicates
In the design of non dissipative composite beam or column bars anchored within beam to
that plastic deformations will take place,
columns, the resistance in shear of the steel column joints should be measured from a point
for example in moment frames at the:
section may be considered either alone or on the bar at a distance 5dbL inside the face of
l bases of all types of columns at ground level
combined with the resistance in shear of the joint, to take into account yield penetration
l tops of columns in the upper storey
the concrete section. In this latter case it due to cyclic post-elastic deformations. dbL is
should be determined according to Eurocode the diameter of longitudinal reinforcement.
Specific rules apply to these zones, as well
4. In dissipative members, the shear When calculating the anchorage or lap length
as to other regions of the columns in which
resistance should be determined considering of column bars which contribute to the flexural
uncertainties exist, for example at the top and
the steel section alone, unless special strength of elements in critical regions, the ratio
bottom of any storey with fully encased columns
details are provided to mobilise the shear of the required area of reinforcement to the
(these are the ‘critical zones’ of reinforced
resistance of the concrete encasement. actual area of reinforcement As,req/As,prov should
concrete structures). In such ‘critical zones’
be assumed to be 1,0. If, in the seismic design
confining reinforcement is required for both
For fully encased columns that are situation, the axial force in a column is tensile,
dissipative and non dissipative columns. In
assumed to act compositely, the minimum the anchorage lengths should be increased to
the design of both types of composite column
cross-sectional dimensions b and h 50% longer than those specified in Eurocode 2.
the resistance in bending of the steel section
should be not less than 250 mm.
may be considered either alone or combined
with the resistance of the concrete section.
83
When calculating the anchorage or lap length of column bars which contribute to the flexural
strength of elements in critical regions, the ratio of the required area of reinforcement to the
When
actualcalculating the anchorage
area of reinforcement As,reqor/Alap
s,provlength
shouldofbe
column
assumed barstowhich If, in the14.
be 1,0.contribute to Composite
the
seismicflexural
design Steel Concrete Structures
strength
situation,oftheelements
axial force in critical regions,isthe
in a column ratio the
tensile, of the requiredlengths
anchorage area ofshould
reinforcement to theto
be increased
actual area ofthan
50% longer reinforcement
those specified As,reqin
/As,prov
Eurocodeshould2.be assumed to be 1,0. If, in the seismic design
situation, the axial force in a column is tensile, the anchorage lengths should be increased to
50% longer than those specified in Eurocode 2.
Fully encased composite columns.
In dissipative structures, there are critical regions at both ends of all column ‘clear lengths’ in
Fully
moment encased
frames, composite
and in the columns.
portions of columns adjacent to links in eccentrically braced
In dissipative
frames. structures,
The lengths lcr ofthere
thesearecritical
critical regions
regions (inatmetres)
both endsare:of all column ‘clear lengths’ in
moment ^hc ; lcl / and
lcr maxframes, 6; 0,in 45m ` for
the portions
ductility of class
columns
M adjacent to links in eccentrically braced
frames. The lengths lcr of these critical regions (in metres) are:
l max^1,5h ; l / 6; 0,6m` for ductility class H
lcrcr max^hc ; lccl / cl6; 0,45m` for ductility class M Ac is the area of the section of concrete; As is th
Where hc is the largest cross-sectional dimension of the column – Figure 59 - and lcl is of thethe steel profile; fcd is the concrete design s
l‘clearmax ^1,5hc of
length’ ; lclthe 0,6m` for ductility class H
/ 6;column.
cr
profile; fysDCH
is the design
not yield
exceed:strength of the re
Fully
Where hcencased
is thethe
When calculating
largest cross-sectional dimension
anchorage or lap length of column
μ φ is the required
of the columnvalue–ofFigure 59 - and lcl isductility
the curvature
bars which contribute to the flexural
the
which
class
is equal
should
to D D D
s = min(bo/2, 150, 6dbL) n s, with:
=
‘clear ductility factor; ε is the design value of the
strengthlength’ of the in column.
composite columns
of elements critical regions, the ratio of the required areasy,d of reinforcement to the
tension steel strain at yield; hc is the gross
actual area of reinforcement As,req/As,prov should be assumed to be 1,0. If, in the seismic design
For drectangular
where cross-sections: D n 1 ¦ bi2 /
bL is the minimum diameter
bbww
n
cross-sectional depth (parallel to the horizontal of the longitudinal re-bars.
d b 0d
situation, the axial force in a column is tensile, the anchorage lengths should be increased to
In dissipative structures, there are critical 2. n is the total number of longitudinal bars latera
10 1
50% longer than those specified in Eurocode direction in which the μ φ applies); ho is the The diameter of the hoops
w
regions at both ends of all column ‘clear depth of the confined core (to the centreline bo dbbw
distance between consecutive engaged bars.
c should be at least
lengths’ in moment frames, and in the of the hoops); bc is the gross cross-sectional dbw = 6 mm for ductility class DCM
Fully encased composite columns. The spacing s of confining hoops in critical reg
portions of columns
In dissipative structures, adjacent
there to
arelinks ins regions at width;
critical bo isofthe
both ends allwidth
column of ‘clear
the confined
lengths’core
in bo bdbw
c = max( 0,35 dbL,max[fydL/fydw]0,5, 6)
s = min (bo/2, 260, 9 dbL) mm for
eccentrically
moment frames, braced andframes.
in the The lengths
portions of lcolumns
cr adjacent to links in
(to the centreline of eccentrically
the hoops). The braced
symbols mm for ductility class DCH
s = min ( b /2, 175, 8 d ) mm for
frames.
of these The lengths
critical regionslcr of
(inthese critical
metres) sregions (in metres)
are: ho , hc are:
, bo , bc are defined at Figure ho 59. o bL
dbL,max is the maximum diameter of the
The spacing s of confining hoops in the lower p
l
cr max ^hc ; l cl / 6 ; 0, 45 m ` for ductility class M A is the area of the section ofhconcrete;
for ductility class M c As is longitudinal re-bars. fydL et fydw respectively
lcr max^1,5hc ; lcl / 6; 0,6m` for ductility class H
c
H the area of the longitudinal rebars; should not exceed: s =
ho Aa is the area the design yield strength of the longitudinal min( bo /2, 150, 6 dbL)
Where hc is the largest cross-sectional dimension ofofthe hc lcl is design where dbL is the minimum diameter of the longi
thecolumn – Figure
steel profile; 59the
fcd is - concrete
and the and transverse reinforcement.
‘clear length’ of the column.
Where hc is the largest cross-sectional strength; fyd is the design yield strength of The diameter of hoops dbw should be at leas
dimension ofAthe c iscolumn
the area of the section of concrete; A is the area of the longitudinal rebars; Aa isthe thethearea
hC – Figure 59 - and the profile; fys sis the design yield strength of In dcritical regions, distance
bw = 6 mm for ductility class DCM
between
is the ‘clearoflength’
the steel
of the profile;
column. fcd is the concrete design strength; feffectiveness
yd is the design yield strength of bars
the restrained 0,5
ea of the section of concrete; A is the area of the longitudinal rebars; A is the area
lcl the rebars; α is the confinement consecutive longitudinal
dbw = max( 0,35 dbL,max[fydL/fydw] , 6) mm for d
w
s a
profile; hCfys is design
the design yield strength to α =αD
db
Figure
To satisfy59. Definition
which
plastic is
rotation of symbols
equal
demandsto D =
and for
D fully
tonD , encased
with:
For composite
rectangular column.
cross-sections: 250 mm for ductility class DCM, or
is the design yield strength of thedue rebars; sD is the confinement effectiveness bo bcfactor, yield strength of the longitudinal and transverse
compensateFor
D=
qual toFigureDcover
nD
for loss of
59.s, Definition
resistance
rectangular
with: rotation
to spalling
cross-sections: D 1 ¦ b 2
/ 6 b h D 1 s / 2b
200 1
mm s /
for2 h
ductility class DCH.
theoffollowing
symbols for and
fullytoencased
To satisfy plastic demands n composite
compensate i column.
for loss ofo resistance
o sdue to spallingo of o
of the concrete,
s 2 expression In critical regions, the distance between consec
n
the cover
gular cross-sections:
should be satisfied D
concrete,
n is the
To. satisfy plastic
the
within 1
n total ¦
following
thenumberb
critical / 6 expression
b
i regions: h D
should
ofo longitudinal
o
rotationbcdemands
s 1be
satisfied
s / 2 b
bars laterallyo 1within
s / 2
engaged
and to compensate for loss
the
h o
critical regions:
by hoops orIncross ties and
the bottom b is the
two storeys of a building,
resistance due to spalling cross-ties shouldi not exceed 250 mm for ducti
. n ho ofof longitudinal bars laterally hoops
of
in accordance with the indications
D Z
the cover t 30 distance
P
concrete, Q H between
the 0 consecutive
, 035
sy, d following expression should be satisfied engaged
n is the total bars.
number
c within the critical regions: DCH.
al number of longitudinal
wd I d
bars bo laterally engaged by hoops
engaged by hoopsorhcross
or crosstiesties and
and bb i is the above should be provided beyond the critical
b i is the
etweenDQconsecutive
.
Z
d= t 30
wdNEd/NThe
.
P
I =
pl,Rd Qengaged
d NEd H
spacing
d Aas
sy,/(
bars.
c
0 , 035
fydof+ confining
Acfcd + Asfsdhoops ) in critical regions should not exceed regions
distance between consecutive engaged bars. In the forbottom
an additional
twolength
storeysequal
oftoa building, hoo
bo
Where Zwd s =ismin the (mechanical
bo/2, 260, 9volumetric dbL) mm ratio of the confining
The spacing s of confining
for ductility hoops
hoops in
classwithinDCM half
the critical the length of the critical regions.
should be provided beyond the critical regions
ng s of Qconfining
d = Nω
Where
regions, Edw/N ishoops
definedtheh NEd
C as:
in/(critical
=mechanical + Aregions
Aafydvolumetric cfcd + Asfshould sd) not exceed
critical regions should not exceedclass DCH of the critical regions.
s
d pl,Rd
= min ( b o /2, 175, 8 d bL ) mm for ductility
o/2, 260, ª9 d
Where
ratio Z) volume
ofbLthe mm
wd is the
confining
The spacing of mechanical
hoops
confining
withinforvolumetric
hoops
s of confining
ductilityf yd º
hoops
class
ratio
s = min DCM
of(bthe confining
/2, 260, 9 dbL) mmhoops within the critical
in the lower part of the lower storey for ductility class DCH
o
The diameter dbw of confining hoops used to
o/2, 175, «Z8critical
regions,
the dbL
wd )defined
mm
regions, as:
defined as: for ductility
fullysencased
;class
»composite DCH
for ductility class DCM prevent flange buckling
The diameter dbw ofshould be not hoops
confining less than
used to pr
Figure should
59. Definition
volume not exceed:
of symbols
of concrete forcore = min(
f b /2, 150, 6dbL)
column.
ª¬ ¼
> @
o
ng s of confining hoops in the lower part of
f the lower storey for ductility class DCH
cd
volume of confining hoops º = min ( /2, 175, 8 ) mm
d bw b t f / 8 f ydf / f ydw 0,5
yd s b d
«PZIsatisfy
wd sis=the whererequired dbL value
isdemands
the of minimum diameter
compensate» ; ductility of theclass
o
longitudinal bL
; Hsy,ddueistothere-bars.
exceed:To
¬
min(
plastic
volume brotation
o/2, of 150,
concrete 6dbLcore )thetocurvature
and f cd ¼ forfor loss offactor
ductility resistance
DCH design
spalling of value of the
tension
the
is the minimum steel
cover concrete,
diameter strain at yield
the following
of theofof ;expression
hc is theshould
longitudinal gross be cross-sectional
re-bars.
The satisfied
spacingwithin thedepth
critical
s of confining (parallelin to the horizontal
regions:
hoops in in which
which b andb tand tf arewidth
f are the
the and
width and thickness
thickness of of
Pdirection
.I
is the The required
. in which the
diameter bvalue the thehoops
c PI applies); ho is the
curvature dbw should
ductility
depth
the lowerof be
part
atconfined
factor
the least
of
; Hsy,d
the lower
is storey
core the(to design
the
for
value ofofthe
centreline the
the
strengths
flange and off the flange
and f and
are reinforcement.
the design yield
D Zwd t 30steel
tension PI Q dstrain H at yield 0,035 ;ductility
hc is theclass gross cross-sectional depth ydf ydw
ter of thehoops);
hoops bcddbwis = thesy,6dgross
mmbo for cross-sectional widthDCM ; bo is the width of (parallel
the confined to thecore horizontal
(tostrengths
the
bw should be at least
of the flange and reinforcement.
AafydP+0,35
0,5
direction
Qcentreline
d = NEd/Npl,Rd
indofbw
which
=the /(the
N=Edmax(
hoops). IA applies
cfcd d
The Asf);
+symbols
bL,max h ishothe
sd) [ofydL hdepth
/,fydw ofbcthe
c ], bo, ,6) areconfined
mm core
for ductility
defined at (to
Figure the
class 59.centreline
DCH of the
Partially encased members.
m for ductility
hoops); bclass DCM ; b
Where Zwd cdisis the
the gross
mechanical cross-sectional
volumetric ratiowidth
of the is the
bL,max0,5is the maximum diameter of the longitudinal re-bars. fydL et fydw respectively
confining
o width
hoops of
withinthe confined
the critical core (to the
In zones where the energy
design is dissipated by plastic b
( 0,35 dcentreline fydLof/fydw
bL,max[defined theas:]hoops). , 6) mm for ductility ho , hclass
c , band
DCHare defined at Figure 59.
o , bctransverse
regions,
yield strengthThe of symbols
the longitudinal reinforcement. spacing of the transverse reinforcement s shoul
he maximum
ª diameter
volume of the longitudinal
of confining hoops f yd º re-bars. fydL et fydw respectively the design Figure 59s = min (bo/2, 260, 9 dbL) mm for
Z wd »; 75symbols for fully
gth of the
«
¬ longitudinal
volume of and
concrete transverse
core f reinforcement.
cd ¼
Definition of s = min ( b /2, 175, 8 d ) mm for
In critical regions, the distance between consecutive longitudinal bars restrainedcolumn. by hoops or
o bL
P I is the required value of the curvature ductility factor; Hsy,d is the design value of the encased composite on
75 a length greater or equal to:
cross-ties shouldis not exceed 250 mmdepth for ductility class DCM, or 200 mm for ductility class
regions, the distance
tension steel strain between at yield; hcconsecutive longitudinal bars
the gross cross-sectional restrained
(parallel by hoops or
to the horizontal - lcr for dissipative zones at the end of a mem
DCH. PI applies ); ho is the depth
should direction
not exceed in which 250 the mm for ductility classofDCM, the confined core (to
or 200 mm theforcentreline
ductility of theclass
w
hoops); bc is the gross cross-sectional width; bo is the width of the confined core (to the
10
centreline ofIn
the the
hoops).
bottom two hstoreys
The symbols o , hc , bo ,of
bc are defined at Figure
a building, hoops59. in accordance
with the
As indications above straight links welded
previously explained,
bo bc
should be provided beyond the critical regions for an additional length equal 58a),toinhalf the length
addition to the reinforcement required
tom two storeys of a building, hoops in accordance with the indications above
of the critical regions.
s dissipative zones.
provided beyond the critical regions for an additional length equal to half the 75
length
cal regions. The diameter dbw of the additional straigh
The diameter dbw of confining hoops used to hprevent
o flange buckling shouldd bwbe not
b less
t f / 8than
f ydf / f ydw 0,5 > @
hc
b used
d bwhoops
ter dbw of confining t f / 8to >
fprevent
ydf / f ydw
0,5
@
flange buckling should be not less than
t f / 8 f ydf / f ydw
in which @
0,5 b and t are the width and thickness of the flange and f and f
f ydf ydw are the design yield
strengths of the flange and reinforcement.
hC and thickness of the flange and fydf and fydw are the design yield
and tf are the width
of the flange and reinforcement.
Partially encased members.
In zones where energy is dissipated by plastic bending of a composite section, the longitudinal
encased members.
spacing of the transverse reinforcement s should satisfy:
The spacing s of confining hoops in critical regions should not exceed
s = min (bo/2, 260, 9 dbL) mm for ductility class DCM
s = min (bo/2, 175, 8 dbL) mm for ductility class DCH 14. Composite Steel Concrete Structures
The spacing s of confining hoops in the lower part of the lower storey for ductility class DCH
should not exceed: s = min(bo/2, 150, 6dbL)
where dbL is the minimum diameter of the longitudinal re-bars.
In critical regions, the distance between consecutive longitudinal bars restrained by hoops or
cross-ties should not exceed 250 mm for ductility class DCM, or 200 mm for ductility class
DCH.
Partially encased Steel beams composite
in which b and tf are the width and thickness of
the flange and f and f are the design yield
members with the indicationswith
abovea slab
ydf ydw
In the bottom two storeys of a building,strengths
hoops ofinthe
accordance
flange and reinforcement.
should be provided beyond the critical regions for an additional length equal to half the length
In of thewhere
zones critical regions.
energy is dissipated by The additional straight links should be welded Beams intended to behave as composite
plastic bending of a composite section, to the flanges at both ends, and the capacity elements in dissipative zones of an earthquake
the The diameter
longitudinal dbw ofofconfining
spacing hoops used of
the transverse to the
prevent
welds flange buckling
should be should
not less than the be not lessresistant
than structure may be designed for full or
>
reinforcement s
d bw b t f / 8 f ydf / f ydw
should
s = min (bo/2, 260, 9 dbL) mm
@
satisfy: 0,5 tensile yield strength of the links. A clear partial shear connection, although the minimum
degree of connection η (as defined in Eurocode
concrete cover of between 20 mm and 40
forinductility
whichclassb and DCMtf are the width and thickness of the flange and f and fydw are the design
mm should be provided toydfthese links.
yield not be less than 0,8 and the total
4) should
strengths of the flange
s = min (bo/2, 175, 8 dbL) mm and reinforcement. resistance of the shear connectors within any
for ductility class DCH The design of partially-encased members hogging moment region should be not less than
onPartially encased
a length greater members.
or equal to: in which only the steel section is assumed the plastic resistance of the reinforcement.
Inlcrzones where energy
for dissipative zones atis dissipated by plastic bending of a composite section, the longitudinal
to contribute to member resistance may be Because of the cyclic character of earthquake
spacing
the endof ofthe transverse reinforcement s should satisfy:
l
a member carried out as for steel structures, although action effects which can cause a degradation
s =2lmin (bo/2, 260, 9 dbL) mm
cr for dissipative zones within a member.
for ductility class DCM
the capacity design should consider the entire of concrete around the connectors or excessive
s = min (bo/2, 175, 8 dbL) mm for ductility class DCH
l
Figure 60
Values of the rib shape
efficiency factor kr. 10°<<80°
kr = 1 kr = 1 kr = 0,8
85
14. Composite Steel Concrete Structures
Figure 62
Effective width of slab Definition of effective widths
be1 , be2 and beff
The total effective width beff of concrete
flange associated with each steel beam should
be taken as the sum of the partial effective
widths be1 and be2 on either side of the
centreline of the steel web (Figure 62). The
partial effective width on each side should
be taken as be, given in Table 16, but not
greater than the available widths b1 and b2 .
Figure 61
Layout of ‘seismic re-bars’
E AT AT AT AT
D
C
C C C
A B A
A Exterior Node B Interior Node A Exterior Node
The partial effective widths be of the slab to Symbols bb , be , beff and l used in Tables 16
be used in the determination of the elastic and and 17 are defined in Figures 62 and 63. hc
plastic properties of the composite beam (T is the depth of the column section. bb is the
section comprising a steel beam connected to bearing width of the slab concrete on the
a slab forming a concrete flange) are defined column in the horizontal direction, perpendicular
in Tables 16 and 17 and at Figures 62 and to the beam for which the effective width
63. These values of the partial effective is determined. This bearing width may
widths be are valid for beams positioned as include additional details aimed at increasing
shown for beams C in Figure 63, and if the the bearing capacity, like the additional
design of the slab reinforcement and of the plates sketched as Detail 4 at Figure 63.
connection of the slab to the steel beam and
column are in accordance with Annex C of
Eurocode 8. In Table 16, those moments which
induce compression in the slab are considered
as positive and those which induce tension
in the slab are considered as negative.
A
Figure 63
Definition of elements
in moment frames.
B
E
A C
I D
C
D
be1
beff be2
D
A A A
A
bb bb bb bb
F
G G G G
87
14. Composite Steel Concrete Structures
Design objective.
A basic choice; the degree of composite ‘character’.
Analysis.
89
15. Composite steel concrete moment resisting frames
in the columns themselves. This is the same normally formed at the beam ends. Two design to positive (sagging) bending
as for pure steel structures, and the aimed options exist to achieve ductility in those zones: (un-cracked section)
for global mechanism is often called a ‘weak 1. form ductile composite dissipative l EI2 for the parts of spans
beam-strong column’ or WBSC solution (see zones, by satisfying certain conditions subjected to negative (hogging)
Figure 25a)). Such a design does however concerning seismic re-bars, etc bending (cracked section).
allow plastic hinges to form in the columns at 2. use only the steel sections for the
the base of the frame, and at the top of the beam end dissipative zones Alternatively, the analysis may be performed
columns in the uppermost storey. The design assuming an equivalent second moment of area
should be such that plastic rotation capacity at The second option simplifies the design, but the Ieq which is constant over the entire span:
the beam ends is at least 25 mrad for ductility real structure must correctly reflect the model Ieq = 0,6 I1 + 0,4 I2
class DCM, and 35 mrad for ductility class DCH. used in the analysis. There must be an effective
disconnection of the slabs from the steel For composite columns, the
sections. If the disconnection is not effective, flexural stiffness is given by:
the real stiffness of the structure will have been (EI)c = 0,9( EIa + r Ecm Ic + E Is )
underestimated by the model, as will therefore E and Ecm are the modulus of elasticity for the
the earthquake action effects given that steel and concrete respectively; r is a reduction
pseudo acceleration increases with stiffness. factor that is a function of the type of column
Also, the capacity design of columns will have cross-section and has a recommended value
been based on an underestimation of the beam of r = 0,5. Ia, Ic and Is denote the second
plastic resistance, leading to an underestimation moments of area of the steel section, the
of the design forces in the columns. concrete and the re-bars respectively.
Beams should be checked for lateral and lateral
An effective disconnection between steel and torsional buckling in accordance with Eurocode
concrete may be realised if there is no contact 4, assuming the presence of a negative
between the slabs and any vertical side of a steel plastic moment at one end of the beam.
element (columns, shear connectors, connecting
plates, corrugated flanges, omega steel deck Composite trusses should not be
nailed to the flange of steel sections etc) within used as dissipative beams.
a circular zone around each column of diameter
2beff . beff is the greater of the effective width In columns where plastic hinges will form,
of the beams connected to that column. it should be assumed that Mpl,Rd will occur
in these hinges. The following expression
should apply for all composite columns:
NEd/Npl,Rd < 0,30
16. Composite steel-concrete
braced frames
91
16. Composite steel-concrete braced frames
Specific construction details shown at Besides these aspects, the philosophy for
Figure 64 should be realised for: the design of composite eccentrically braced
l face bearing plates for links framing frames is similar to that for steel eccentrically
into reinforced concrete columns braced frames presented in Section 13.
(similar to those defined for
connections in Section 14).
l transverse reinforcement in ‘critical
regions’ of fully encased composite
columns adjacent to links.
Figure 64
Detail of zone T, beam –
column – link connection
zone in a composite frame
with eccentric bracings.
B
E B
A
C
A : seismic link
B : face bearing plate
C : concrete
D : additional longitudinal rebars
T E : confining ties
93
17. Composite steel-concrete walls
and systems with walls
Definition of the various composite wall systems and the design objectives.
Analysis.
Detailing rules for composite walls of ductility class DCM.
Detailing rules for coupling beams of ductility class DCM.
Additional detailing rules for ductility class DCH.
Composite steel plate shear walls.
17. Composite steel-concrete walls and systems with walls
concrete Figure 65
compression Mechanical behaviour
struts of shear walls, Type
1 and 2 solutions.
steel ties
in tension
connection between
horizontal steel tie,
concrete and vertical
steel profile
95
17. Composite steel-concrete walls and systems with walls
Figure 66 Figure 67
Details of partially encased composite Details of fully encased composite
boundary element; transverse boundary element; details of transverse
reinforcement for ductility class DCH. reinforcement for ductility class DCH.
min = 2 h h
min = 2h h
C
◄
B A
D
A D
Figure 68
Details of coupling beam
C framing into a wall; detail
for ductility class DCH.
V M
A: Additional wall confining ties
at embedment of steel beam
le B: Steel coupling beam;
C: Face bearing plates.
B
˜ 2/3 le
17. Composite steel-concrete walls and systems with walls
97
17. Composite steel-concrete walls and systems with walls
To ensure the correct behaviour of the beam and the concrete at the support, stiffeners of the
steel beam are required in the plane of the exterior concrete face. Installed at that place, those
stiffeners, also called “face bearing plates”, contribute to the confinement of the concrete.
Figures 56 et 68.
Additional detailing
Additional detailing rules rules Composite
for ductility class DCH. steel
for ductility
Transverse class DCH
reinforcement plate
should be used for shear walls
confinement of the composite boundary zones of
the wall, be they partially or fully encased. This reinforcement should extend a distance 2h
into the reinforcement
Transverse concrete walls, where
should be h is theComposite
used for depth of steelthe boundary
plate element
shear walls are designedintothe plane of the wall
(see Figures 66 and 67). The requirements for the seismic linkswhich
confinement of the composite boundary zones yield through shearing of the plate itself, in frames with eccentric
of the wall, be they partially or fully encased. should be stiffened by concrete encasement on
bracing also apply to the coupling beams.
This reinforcement should extend a distance 2h one or both sides. The concrete thickness should
into the concrete walls, where h is the depth of not be less than 200 mm when it is provided on
Composite steel plate shear walls. one side and 100 mm when on both sides, with
the boundary element in the plane of the wall
Composite
(see steel
Figures 66 and 67).plate shear walls area minimum
The requirements designed to yieldratio
reinforcement through
of 0,25% shearing
in both of the plate itself,
which should be stiffened by
for the seismic links in frames with eccentric concrete encasement on one or
directions. The encasement must be suitably both sides. The concrete
thickness
bracing should
also apply to thenot be less
coupling beams.than 200attached
mm when in orderittoisprevent
provided onofone
buckling steel.side and 100 mm when
on both sides, with a minimum reinforcement ratio of 0,25% in both directions. The
encasement must be suitably attachedThe
in analysis
order to prevent
of the buckling
structure of steel.
should be based
on the material and section properties defined
in 14. Checks should be made that: VRd ≥ VEd
The analysis of the structure should be based on the material and section
properties defined in
The shear resistance VRd is given by:
14. Checks should be made that: VRd VEd
The shear resistance VRd is given by: VRd Apl u f yd / 3
where fyd is the design yield strength of thef plate
where designAyield
is the and pl isstrength
the horizontal
of the area of the plate.
yd
plate and Apl is the horizontal area of the plate.
The connections between the plate and The the boundary
connections betweenmembers (columns
the plate and the and beams) as well
as the connections between the plate boundary
and its members
concrete(columns
encasement,
and beams) must
as be designed such that
the full yield strength of the plate can
wellbe developed.
as the connections The
betweensteel plateandshould be continuously
the plate
connected on all its edges to structural steel encasement,
its concrete boundary must members with welds and/or bolts to
be designed
such that the full yield strength of the plate
develop the yield strength of the plate in shear. Openings in the steel plate should be stiffened
can be developed. The steel plate should be
as necessary. continuously connected on all its edges to
structural steel boundary members with welds
and/or bolts to develop the yield strength
18. Improving Reinforcedof theConcrete Structures
plate in shear. Openings in the steel by incorporating
plate should be stiffened as necessary.
Composite Columns.
The most frequent failure mode of reinforced concrete (R.C.) moment frame buildings is a
‘soft storey’ mechanism in which failure takes place in the bottom storey of the building
(Figure 69). This phenomenon is caused by the following factors:
- large openings present in the bottom storey but not elsewhere weaken the structure;
openings are due to use of the ground floor level for offices, shops, lobby etc, with slender
columns present;
- bending combined with compression results in the crushing of concrete;
- alternate inclined cracks due to shear result in de-cohesion of the concrete
- bending and shear of ground storey columns induces the collapse of the building
18. Improving Reinforced Concrete
Structures by incorporating
Composite Columns
99
18. Improving Reinforced Concrete Structures by incorporating Composite Columns
Definition of the problem Design of composite l the steel sections should not overly modify
the local stiffnesses EI of the RC columns,
As an alternative to complete composite design
columns used to in order to maintain the stiffness of the
of structures, an ArcelorMittal promoted improve the behaviour original RC structure, as any increase in
stiffness would mean an increase in the
research study has recently considered the use
of ‘local’ composite elements in what remains
of RC buildings seismic forces, which is clearly not desirable.
these criteria should be checked for
essentially a reinforced concrete building in
l
Research has demonstrated that composite both weak and strong axis bending.
order to improve safety. The justification for
columns in the lower levels of RC buildings
this new development is explained below.
do provide reliable shear, bending and Two designs for anchorage of the steel
compression resistance. Design criteria for members into the concrete structure were
The most frequent failure mode of reinforced
encased steel members have been defined: tested; C1 with anchorage extending up to
concrete (RC) moment frame buildings is
l the steel section alone should be able to mid height of the second storey columns,
a ‘soft storey’ mechanism in which failure
resist the design axial force of the seismic and C2 with anchorage stopped within the
takes place in the bottom storey of the
loading case: depth of the first storey beams (Figure 70).
building (Figure 69). This phenomenon
NRd > NSd (γq. G + γq. Q) Columns are assumed to be subject to constant
is caused by the following factors:
with γg = 1 and γq = 0,3 compression and to alternate cyclic bending.
l large openings present in the bottom
l the steel section alone should be The moment- rotation diagrams obtained show
storey but not elsewhere weaken the
able to compensate for the deficient that composite columns provide significantly
structure; openings are due to use of
concrete section under applied bending more resistance and ductility than the original
the ground floor level for offices, shops,
moment and shear at collapse: reinforced concrete elements (Figure 71).
lobby etc, with slender columns present;
MRd,steel > MRd,concrete
l bending combined with compression
and VRd,steel > VRd,concrete
results in the crushing of concrete;
l alternate inclined cracks due to shear
result in de-cohesion of the concrete
l bending and shear of ground storey columns
induces the collapse of the building
Figure 69
The ‘soft storey’ mechanism which
composite columns can mitigate.
plastic
hinges
soft storey
after earthquake
18. Improving Reinforced Concrete Structures by incorporating Composite Columns
Behaviour of composite
l the rotation capacity θcomp of a composite
element, defined as the rotation at which
l the stiffnesses of the reinforced
concrete and composite elements
columns subjected the composite elements still present are similar, as wished.
to compression and a resistance equal to the maximum
resistance of an R.C. element, is on
l the improvements due to using composite
sections should be relatively greater for
cyclic bending average two times greater than θR.C. lower concrete strengths, but a C1 type of
l the composite elements resisted on average anchorage should be preferred in that case.
The conclusions of the aforementioned 1,5 times more cycles before the end of
research were very positive for composite the test (corresponding to a 50% resistance More technical details and design
columns, which were shown to provide much drop) and dissipated on average 3 times considerations are given in reference [12].
more capacity to resist earthquakes than RC more energy than the RC elements.
columns of the same dimensions. In summary;
l there is no significant influence of the
l the full composite plastic moment anchorage type (C1 or C2) on results,
resistance is developed (Mpl,exp = Mpl,th.) but this conclusion may result from
l in dissipative zones, the shear resistance of a the high strength of the concrete
composite column is that of the steel profile. and have no general character.
Figure 70
Left: Composite section. Right:
Anchorage types C1 and C2.
tW
tf
C1 C2
101
19. Design example
Presentation.
Checking moment resistance and deflection limits for beams.
Weak Beam-Strong Column checks.
Interior column.
Axial Compression check.
Plastic resistance in bending at basement level.
Evaluation of the seismic mass. Design spectrum.
Evaluation of seismic design shear by the ‘lateral forces’ method.
Gravity load to combine with earthquake effects.
Dynamic analysis by spectral response and modal superposition method.
Results of the analysis.
Design of beam to column connection at an interior joint in line X2.
Comments on design options.
Design of a reduced beam section.
Economy due to RBS.
19. Design example
going through the following steps the earthquake action effects. Torsional
in a straightforward way, making certain
until all design criteria are fulfilled. effects are included by magnifying the
approximations, ‘sizes’ for the structural
design spectrum by the amplification
elements which are close to a final design.
The iterative process can make use of either the factor δ as indicated in 7.
Carrying out such a preliminary process is a
‘lateral force’ method or the ‘spectral response-
normal step in seismic design, because the
modal superposition’ method. If the ‘lateral The ‘spectral response-modal superposition’
dynamic action effects are a function of
force’ method is used, the calculation steps are: method is a dynamic analysis which allows
the member stiffness which the designer
1) selection of beam sections several vibration modes to be taken into account.
is trying to determine, so iterations are
2) definition of column sections checking
inevitable. The example presented is thus an
the ‘Weak Beam Strong Column’ criteria
initial step. A more refined definition of the
3) check compression/buckling
section sizes, complete 3D calculations etc,
resistance of columns at ground
can only be made once the ‘reasonable’ design
floor level under gravity loading
presented hereafter has proved its validity.
4) calculation of the seismic mass
(G + ψEi Q) of the structure
The example considers a building in which
5) evaluation of the period of the structure by
the seismic resistance is provided by both
means of a code formula (see Section 7)
peripheral and interior moment resisting
6) evaluation of the resultant base shear Fb
frames (MRF), in both the x and y directions.
and distribution of Fb into lateral forces
MRFs are known to be flexible structures and
7) static analysis of one plane frame under
their design is often governed by the need
‘lateral loads’, magnified by a factor to
to satisfy deformation criteria under service
take into account torsional effects
earthquake loading, or limitation of P-∆ effects
8) static analysis under gravity
under design earthquake loading. For this
loading (G + ψEi Q)
reason, rigid connections are preferred.
9) stability check, considering P-∆
effects (parameter ψ) in the seismic
It is wise in a preliminary design to select
loading situation (in which the
sections that will satisfy, with some reserve,
gravity loading is G + ψEi Q)
the design criteria under gravity loading alone,
10) deflection check under ‘service’
and to select a value below the maximum
earthquake loading (a fraction of the
authorised one for the behaviour factor q.
design earthquake, generally 0,5)
The maximum allowed is
11) static analysis under gravity
q = 5 x αu / α1 = 5 x 1,3 = 6,5.
loading (G + ψ2i Q)
In order to quickly arrive at the final design a
12) combination of action effects
value of q = 4 will be chosen for the analysis.
determined in steps 7) and 8), and
design checks on section resistances.
103
19. Design example
TB = 0,15s TC = 0,5s TD = 2s 2
Behaviour factor: q = 4
1
l
x4
6m
x3
6m
x2
6m
x1
8m 8m 8m
19. Design example
Beams in x direction.
Moment resistance check.
1,35G + 1,5Q = 1,35 x 33 + 1,5 x 18
= 71,55 kN/m
Beams are assumed fixed at both ends:
MSd = 71,55 x 82 / 12 = 381 kNm
Wpl,min = 381.106 / 355 = 1075.103 mm3
Minimum beam section in x direction:
IPE 400 (Wpl = 1702.103 mm3)
105
4,05 x Beams
6 / 12 =are282 kNm fixed at both3 ends:
assumed 3 M = 94,05 x 62 / 12 = 282 kNm
y direction: IPE 360 (W6 pl = 1019.10 mm 3
) 3 Sd
Wpl,min = 3282.10 / 355 = 795.10 mm
(WplMinimum
= 1019.10beam mm3section
) in y direction: IPE 360 (Wpl = 1019.103 mm3) 19. Design example
mum beam sections are:
WplConclusion.
= 1702.103 mm3 I=23130.104 mm4
e:
3WplFor gravity loading,
mm 4 minimum beam sections
mm4 3 are: 3
3 3 4
= 1019.10 4 I=16270.10
m I=23130.10
- in direction mm
x : 4IPE400 Wpl = 1702.10 mm I=23130.104 mm4
3 4
m I=16270.10 mm
y : IPE360 Wpl the 3 3
I=16270.104 mm4
sizes -needed
in direction
to resist gravity loading = 1019.10
iterativemm procedure for
mns can begin. The calculations presented below correspond to the
ist gravityBased loading
onand the minimum
these iterative procedure
sizes needed for to resist gravity loading the iterative procedure for
) sizes of beams columns:
calculations presented
sizing the beams below correspond
and columns to the
n x : IPE500 I= 48200.10 4
mm4 can Wbegin. The calculations
pl = 2194.10 3
mm3 presented below correspond to the
columns: following (slightly greater)
4 sizes
4 of beams and columns:
3 3
n y : IPEA450 4 I= 29760.10 mm 3Wpl = 1494.10 mm
48200.104 mmsections 2194.103 xmm
W4plin= direction I= 48200.10 4 4 mm 4 4 Wpl = 2194.103 mm3
ng axis= I-ybeam
=4 76370.10
4 mm4 3 : 3IIPE500
weakaxis=Iz =19710.10 mm
29760.10 3 Wplin
mmsections = 1494.10 mm IPEA450 I= 29760.10 4 4
Wpl = 1494.103 mm3
4 -= beam
4718.10 mm3 direction y : W 4 Y1.= 1953.10 mm
3 mm 3
mm ‘Weak
trong axis
Beam-Strong
Iweakaxis=Iz I=19710.10 4 pl,weakaxis
mm Line 4
mm4 such that the strongIweakaxis=IInterior column.
4 4 Axial
3 - columns: HE340M: strong axis= I3y = 76370.10
Columns
3 are oriented z =19710.10 mm
m Column’ checks Wpl,weakaxisW = 1953.10 =mm 4718.10 3
axis bendingmmresistance of the HE340MWpl,weakaxiscompression
3
= 1953.10 mm check
3 3
pl,strong axis
g Column’ checks. sections is mobilised rather than the weak
2
The Weak Beam-Strong Column axis considered above, so the WBSC Relevant loaded area: 8 x 6 = 48 m
(WBSC) check is: check is satisfied ‘by inspection’. Floor weight is 5 kN/m2, all included.
olumn 19.3.
(WBSC) ‘Weak check Beam-Strong
¦ is:
That criterion can be expressed: Rc M ¦ t Column’
1 ,3 M Rb
checks.
G floor = 48 x 5 = 240 kN/storey
¦ ¦
level: 6 x 622 = 3732 kN
Wpl, columns t 1,3 Wpl, beams
2 beams and 2 columns intersecting, so the WBSC Exterior node, checkline becomes:
X2. Approximate buckling length: 2,9 m
At interior nodes there are 2 beams WBSC condition: 2Wpl, column,weak (equal to the storey height)
mns intersecting,
and columnsso
At 2interior the WBSC
nodes
intersecting,thereso arecheck becomes:
2 beams and
axis2≥columns
1,3 Wpl,IPE500intersecting, so the WBSC check becomes:
Slenderness (with HE340M section, weak
the WBSC check becomes: axis, i = 79mm): 2900/79 = 36,7
1 beamWWand pl, column 1,3 W
2 columns intersecting
pl, beam so the WBSC 2 W
check becomes:
pl,HE340M,weak axis =1953 x 2
Euler slenderness λE : 76,4 (S355 steel)
pl, column ≥ 1,3 Wpl, beam =3906.103 mm3 > 1,3 Wpl,IPE500
ns intersecting so the WBSC check becomes: =2194.103 x 1,3 =2852.103 mm3 => reduced slenderness λ = 0,48 => λ = 0,85
At exterior nodes, there is 1 beam
At exterior nodes, there is 1 beam and 2 columns WBSC and 2 columns intersecting so the WBSC Acheck becomes:2
condition satisfied. c = 31580 mm
2 W pl, column
intersecting 1,3 W
so the WBSC check pl, beam
becomes: Nb,Rd = 0,85 x 31580 x 355
,IPEA450 2 W pl, column ≥ 1,3 W pl, beam Conclusion. = 9529 kN > 3732 kN
Interior node,
3 line
3 Y2.
weakaxis = 1953.10 mm > 1,3 x 1494.10 =1942.10 mm
3 Beam 3
sections 3IPE500 in direction x and
Interior node, line Y2. 1,3 W
Wpl, column,weak IPEA450 in direction y satisfy the WBSC
3 axis 3 pl,IPEA450
m3 > 1,3 Wplx 1494.10
, column,weak =1942.10 mm
axis ≥ 1,3 Wpl,IPEA450
Ö HE340M has Wpl,weakaxis = 1953.10
3
condition 3 when
mm3 HE340M > 1,3 xcolumns
1494.10are 3used
=1942.103 mm3
- HE340M has Wpl,weakaxis = 1953.103 mm3 and oriented as indicated in Figure 72.
is ax 1494.10
pl,IPE360> 1,3 less demanding
3=1942.103check mm3 than that for the interior node, so
Exterior node line Y2.
anding2check than that for the
Wpl, column,weak 1,3 interior
Wpl,IPE360 node,
is a so
less demanding check than that for the interior node, so
Exterior node line Y2. axis
2isWpl,
satisfied ‘by
column,weak axis inspection’.
≥ 1,3 Wpl,IPE360 is a less
demanding check
h that the strong axis bending than that for the interior
resistance of the HE340M sections is
Line considered
node,
weak axis soY1.
is satisfied ‘by inspection’.
above, so the WBSC check is satisfied ‘by
bending resistance
Columns are of the HE340M
oriented such that sections is axis bending resistance of the HE340M sections is
the strong
d above, so the WBSC check is satisfied ‘by
mobilised rather than the weak axis considered above, so the WBSC check is satisfied ‘by
inspection’.
93 93
19. Design example
107
19. Design example
Evaluation of seismic design shear [Note: If the final design was to be based only on
a planar analysis as described above, δ would be
using the ‘lateral forces’ method taken equal to: δ = 1 + 1,2 x/L , as prescribed in
Eurocode 8. However, the example described
In this section the approximate ‘lateral forces’ method is considered (see 18). here has been developed assuming that a final
design using 3D modal response analysis will be
Estimate the fundamental period of the structure using Table 7: performed after ‘satisfactory’ sizes of the beams
T = Ct H3/4 Ct= 0,085 H = 6x 2,9 m = 17,4 m => T = 0,085 x 17,43/4 = 0,72 s and columns have been established. The value
(1 + 0,6 x/L) used for δ is known to be close to
Calculate the corresponding design pseudo acceleration Sd (T): TC < T < TD the real value for the type of frame analysed].
=> Sd (T)= (2,5 x ag x S x TC )/ (q x T) = (2,5 x 2 x 1,2 x 0,5)/(4x 0,72)= 1,04 m/s2
Definition of storey forces.
Calculate the seismic design shear FbR As all storey seismic masses are equal the
FbR = m Sd (T) λ = 3060.103 x 1,04 x 0,85 = 2705.103 N = 2705 kN distribution of storey forces is triangular (see
Figure 16), and the storey forces are given by :
FbR is the total design seismic shear applied to the building in either the x or y direction
(they are the same because the estimation of T is only related to the building height). zi
This corresponds to a deformed shape which is purely translational in the x or y directions. Fi = Fb ⋅
Σ zj
In this example, calculations are presented for frames in the x direction. All six frames are
the same, and with a floor diaphragm that is assumed to be effective enough to evenly
distribute the force, then the seismic design shear FbX in one frame is: FbX = FbR /6 = 451 kN The resultant design base shear FbX in frame
X1, including torsional effects, is: FbX = 586 kN
Torsional effects have to be added to the translational effects. In the structure analysed, The storey forces are:
due to double symmetry in the x and y directions, the centre of mass CM and the centre F1= 27,9 kN
of rigidity CR are both, at all levels, at the geometrical centre of the building. This means F2= 55,8 kN
that only accidental eccentricity results in torsional forces. In this example, torsion is F3= 83,7 kN
therefore taken into account by amplifying FbX by δ = 1 + 0,6x/L as explained in 7. In this F4= 111,6 kN
expression, L is the horizontal dimension of the building perpendicular to the earthquake F5= 139,5 kN
in direction x (30m), while ‘x’ is the distance from the centre of rigidity to the frame F6= 167,5 kN
in which the effects of torsion are to be evauated. The greatest effect is obtained
for the greatest x, which is x = 0,5 L (15m), so that: δ = 1 + 0,6 x 0,5 = 1,3 Earthquake action effects.
The design shear FbX including torsional effects is therefore: FbX = 1,3 x 451 kN = 586 kN The earthquake action effects E are determined
using a static analysis under the storey forces.
Results are given in 19.11, where they are
compared to those from a dynamic analysis.
19. Design example
109
19. Design example
Figure 73
Diagram of bending moments under
earthquake action obtained by the
lateral force method. Units: kNm.
63.68
69.30
54.97
12.93
66.26
221.72
266.96
278.13
209.01
Figure 74
Diagram of bending moments
under earthquake action from the
dynamic analysis. Units: kNm.
111
19. Design example
Figure 75
Deformed shape in
vibration mode 1
Figure 76
Deformed shape in
vibration mode 2
X
19. Design example
Figure 77 presents the bending moment The maximum moment in exterior columns
diagram under the combination used for is 195,2 kNm ,at the base of columns
the checks of structural elements: E + G (moments at storeys 1 and 2 are inferior to
+ ψ2i Q (in which bending moments are that value even with the 1/ (1- θ) increase).
taken from the lateral force method). Exterior columns are HE340M
The maximum beam moment is bending about their weak axis:
at storey 2: 509,8 kNm Mpl,Rd = 1953.103 x 355 =
With the 1/ (1- θ) increase: 693,3 kNm > 195,2 kNm
1,16 x 509,8 = 591,4 kNm
Beams are IPE500 : Mpl,Rd = 2194.103 Checks under the service earthquake,
x 355 = 778,9 kNm > 591,4 kNm which is assumed to be half of the design
earthquake, raise no concerns. Interstorey
The maximum moment in interior columns is: drifts Ds are half of those given in Tables
481 kNm (at the base, as moments at 18 and 19, with a maximum:
storeys 1 and 2 are inferior to that value Ds = 0,5 x 0,054 x 1/ (1- θ) = 0,031m
even with the 1/ (1- θ) increase). Ds / h = 0,031m / 2,9 = 0,0108 = 1,1 %
Interior columns are HE340M
bending about their strong axis: This value is acceptable with infills and partitions
Mpl,Rd = 4718.103 x 355 = that are independent of the structure.
1674,9 kNm > 481 kNm
Figure 77
Bending moment diagram under
the combination used for the
checks of structural elements:
E + G + ψ2i Q . Units: kNm.
124.59
135.48
156.21
163.62
166.18
156.61
113
19. Design example
Table 18
Results from the lateral
force method analysis.
E0 d0 0 dr0
E1 d1 0,033 dr1 0,033 V1 27,9 Vtot 1 586,0 Ptot 1 5100 h1 2,9 θ1 0,100
E2 d2 0,087 dr2 0,054 V2 55,8 Vtot 2 558,1 Ptot 2 4250 h2 2,9 θ2 0,141
E3 d3 0,139 dr3 0,052 V3 83,7 Vtot 3 502,3 Ptot 3 3400 h3 2,9 θ3 0,122
E4 d4 0,184 dr4 0,044 V4 111,6 Vtot 4 418,6 Ptot 4 2550 h4 2,9 θ4 0,093
E5 d5 0,216 dr5 0,033 V5 139,5 Vtot 5 307,0 Ptot 5 1700 h5 2,9 θ5 0,062
E6 d6 0,238 dr6 0,021 V6 167,5 Vtot 6 167,5 Ptot 6 850 h6 2,9 θ6 0,037
Table 19
Results from the modal
superposition analysis.
Modal superposition
= Es + G + ψEi .Q G + ψEi .Q = 35,42 kN/m
Dynamic analysis.
Storey Absolute Design Storey lateral Shear Total Storey Interstorey
displacement interstorey drift forces Ei : at storey Ei : cumulative height Ei : drift
of the storey : (di -di -1): gravity load sensitivity
at storey Ei : coefficient
(Ei -Ei -1) :
di [m] dr [m] Vi [kN] Vtot [kN] Ptot [kN] hi [m] θ
E0 d0 0 dr0
E1 d1 0,022 dr1 0,022 V1 26,6 Vtot 1 396,2 Ptot 1 5100 h1 2,9 θ1 0,099
E2 d2 0,057 dr2 0,035 V2 42,9 Vtot 2 369,7 Ptot 2 4250 h2 2,9 θ2 0,137
E3 d3 0,090 dr3 0,033 V3 50,0 Vtot 3 326,8 Ptot 3 3400 h3 2,9 θ3 0,118
E4 d4 0,117 dr4 0,027 V4 61,1 Vtot 4 276,7 Ptot 4 2550 h4 2,9 θ4 0,086
E5 d5 0,137 dr5 0,020 V5 85,0 Vtot 5 215,6 Ptot 5 1700 h5 2,9 θ5 0,054
E6 d6 0,148 dr6 0,012 V6 130,6 Vtot 6 130,6 Ptot 6 850 h6 2,9 θ6 0,027
flange is also 40 mm
factor, and a partial safety factor of 1,1:
the distance to the column web is (150/2)
MRd,connection ≥ 1,1 γov Mpl,Rd,beam = 1,1
l
115
19. Design example
Neglecting VSd,c :
V = 2 x 1071. 103 /(377-2x40) = 7212 kN
Vwb,Rd = (0,9 fy Awc )/ (√3 x γM0)
= (0,9 x 355 x 9893) / (√3 x 1,0)
= 1824.103 N
Vwb,Rd = 1824 kN << 7212 kN
Figure 78
Plan view of beam to column connections.
IPE A 450
HE 340 M
IPE 500 X
150
35 50
40 40
130
IPE A 450
117
19. Design example
70 60
60 60
might be interesting to reduce the number of
13,1
16
frames that provide most of the earthquake
resistance. For instance, frames in lines Y1 and 4 M 36
100 60
70
Y4 could be dedicated to earthquake resistance
in the y direction, while frames in lines X1,
82
X4 and X6 could be dedicated to earthquake
resistance in the x direction. Smaller beam IPE A 450
82
100
sections and low cost connections could be 6 M 20
82
used in the frames on other grid lines.
60 100
13,1
82
70
16
60
4 M 36
60 70
IPE 500
HE 340 M
Figure 80
Plastic deformation mechanism in
the end plate of the IPE500 beam.
IPE 500
A
F tr,rd IPE 500
HE 340 M
19. Design example
Table 20
Results from the modal
superposition analysis.
119
19. Design example
Definition of section cuts at RBS. Thanks to the RBS, the design moment
As indicated in Section 9, the RBS cut dimension c should be in the range c = 0,20 b to 0,25 b MEd,connection for the beam end connections has
Consider c= 0,22b = 0,22 x 200 = 44 mm . been reduced from 1071 kNm down to 834
The plastic moment of an IPE500 section (without any reduction) is equal to: kNm. The reduction in design moment for the
Wpl,y fy = 2194.103 x 355 = 778. 106 Nmm connections, due to RBS, is therefore 28%.
This results from the addition of:
Flange moment: b tf fy (d - tf) = 16 x 200 x 355 (500 – 16) = 549. 106 Nmm The design check for shear at the connection is:
Web moment: tw fy (d - 2tf) / 4 = 10,2 x 355 x (500 – 32)2
2 = 198. 106 Nmm The condition was:
Moment due to root radii at web-flange junctions: = (778 – 549 – 198) = 31. 106 Nmm VRd,connection ≥ 448 kN without RBS.
The design moment MEd,connection applied to the beam end connections is:
MEd,connection = 1,1 γov Mpl,Rd,,RBS + VEd,E x X
With X = a + s/2 = 262, 5 mm
MEd,connection = 1,1 x 1,25 x 537 + 368 x 0,2625 = 834 kNm
19. Design example
121
ANNEX
ANNEX A ANNEX B
Definition of Eurocode 8 design ArcelorMittal Available Steels.
response spectra. The available steel grades, their mechanical
and chemical characteristics as well as
For the horizontal components of the the dimensions of the profiles
seismic
ANNEX action,
A. the design horizontal can be downloaded on:
acceleration response spectrum Sd(T)
Definition of Eurocode 8 design response spectra.
is defined by the following expressions. http://www.arcelormittal.com/sections
These apply throughout Europe.
For the horizontal components of the seismic action, the design horizontal acceleration
ag = γI.agr
response spectrum Sd(T) is defined by the following expressions. These apply throughout
aEurope.
gR : maximum reference acceleration
at the level of class A bedrock.
ag = JI.agr agR : maximum reference acceleration at the level of class A bedrock.
ª2 T § 2,5 2 ·º
0 d T d TB : S d T a g S « ¨¨ ¸¸»
¬ 3 TB © q 3 ¹¼
2 ,5
TB d T d TC : S d T ag S
q
2,5 ª TC º
°= a g S
TC d T d TD : S d T ® q «¬ T »¼
°t E a
¯ g
2 ,5 ª TCTD º
°= a g S
TD d T : S d T ® q «¬ T 2 »¼
°t E a
¯ g
= 10 / (5 + ) ≥ 0,55
, where ξ is the viscous damping ratio of
the structure, expressed as a percentage.
109
References
123
Technical
advisory
& Finishing
cambering
initiatives anywhere in the world.
l
l curving www.constructalia.com
l straightening
To facilitate the design of your projects, we also l cold sawing to exact length
offer software and technical documentation that l welding and fitting of studs
you can consult or download from our website: l shot and sand blasting
l surface treatment
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