Educational Psychology and Theories of Learning

According to modern Psychologists, Psychology is a science of behavior. That means

Psychology is the scientific study of the behavioral changes which occur in a person

due to the change in environment. Educational Psychology deals with the behavior

of all the learners who are learning either inside or outside the school, whereas

general Psychology deals with the facts and principles of behavior of all individuals

in social environment. Educational Psychology is considered as a branch of practical

Psychology.

Educational Psychology deals with the behavior of learners in learning environment.

That is why the scope of Educational Psychology is relatively narrow and specific

than that of Psychology in general.

However, in its limited scope Educational Psychology uses all the methods of

general Psychology. To know the learner and to bring out desirable changes in his

behavior – are the two important aspects of Education.

To know the learner, means to know his inherent capacities, instinctive abilities and

distinctive nature.

To bring out the desirable changes in the inherent nature of the learner we must

have clear knowledge of the various methods by which this change can be achieved

and to what extent it can be achieved. Educational Psychology helps us to develop

clear knowledge about all these aspects and apply this knowledge in different

learning situations.

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From Educational Psychology we can know the nature and educational significance

of various mental functions of the learner such as feeling, desire, aptitude, attention,

intelligence, etc. With the help of this knowledge we can develop the appropriate

learning situation and the suitable learning process for the learner. The learning

process for the learner depends on the various mental activities such as perception,

thinking, reasoning, memory, etc. Educational psychology helps us to know the true

nature of all these mental activities with the help of the finding of general

psychology and in this way helps the learner in his learning process.

There is a close relationship between learning and the inherent ability and nature of

behavior the learner. Educational Psychology explains in details the following

aspects of learning and thereby helps the teacher to develop the appropriate learning

situation:-

It is the function of Educational Psychology to discuss about the feeling, desire,

needs, aptitude and other mental abilities of the learner and to find out through

analysis and experiments the right avenues in which the desired development of

these inherent abilities can be achieved.

Educational Psychology explains the different stages of growth and development

of the learner. By observing critically how the learner attains his physical,

intellectual and social development through these different stages. Educational

Psychology guides the teacher to adopt the appropriate teaching methods in

accordance with the natural process of the development.

Educational Psychology examines different problems of learning and tries to solve

these problems:

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 • How do the learners learn?

• What is the relation between learning and maturation?

• What are the conditions of effective learning?

• What is the relation between learning and motivation?

• How can we develop a suitable learning situation?

Educational Psychology enquires into all these questions and helps in developing

effective learning environment and selecting appropriate subject matter for the

learner.

Educational Psychology investigates into the role of heredity and environment in

the mental development of the learner. It evaluates the influence of these two

factors in the formation of personality and character of the learner and guides the

teacher to adopt appropriate teaching methods.

Because of individual difference among the learners modern education gives more

emphasis on individual learning. Educational Psychology reveals the true nature of

individual learning and individual difference through observation and helps the

teacher to develop more effective learning process. To determine the individual

difference between learners Educational Psychology tries to measure scientifically

the intelligence, aptitude, and inclinations and abilities of learners. As these

scientifically methods help the teacher to measure intelligence, aptitude, inclinations

and abilities of the learner, he does not have to depend on assumptions any longer to

devise appropriate teaching methods. Beside this, one of the important tasks of

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Educational Psychology also helps to develop methods of scientific evaluation to

assess the progress of the learner by the education given by the school.

Lastly, Educational Psychology determines the appropriate teaching methods in

relevance with wider social environment and guides the teacher to follow these

methods.

Modern education gives emphasis on educating the child according to his need,

desire and ability. The influence of Psychology on the theoretical aspects

of education is considered as child-centric education. In order to understand the

need, desire and ability of the child we must take the help of a branch called the

‚Child Psychology‛ which deals with the behavior of children. Psychology describes

self-activity as a natural instinct of the child and in accordance with this concept the

system of learning by doing has been introduced in the schools.

Psychology also has effective influence on modern education in making syllabus and

timetable, in adopting necessary steps to maintain discipline, in helping the students

to adjust effectively with the environment of the school. Modern Education is

considered as psychologically approved education. By making the use of various

information regarding the mental activities Psychology makes learning easy for

learner.

Theories of Learning

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Learning is commonly defined as a process that brings together cognitive,

emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing,

or making changes in one's knowledge, skills, values, and world views (Illeris, 2000;

Ormorod, 1995). Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the learning

takes place. Explanations of what happens constitute of the learning theories.

A learning theory is an attempt to describe how people and animals learn; thereby

helping us to understand the inherently complex process of learning. Learning

theories have two chief values according to Hill (2002).

• One is in providing us with vocabulary and a conceptual framework for

interpreting the examples of learning that we observe.

• The other is in suggesting where to look for solutions to practical problems.

The theories do not give us solutions, but they do direct our attention to those

variables that are crucial in finding solutions.

There are three main categories under which learning theories fall are

• Behaviorism: Behaviorism focuses only on the objectively observable

aspects of learning.

• Cognitivism: Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain

brain-based learning.

• Constructivism: Constructivism views learning as a process in which

the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts.

Psychologists have examined the learning process of the child thoroughly and have

developed some theories of learning on the basis of this. Among the theories of

learning the most important theories are-

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 • Pavlov’s Theory of Conditioning

• Thorndike’s theory of connectionism,

• Gestalt Theory of Insight, and

• Field theory of learning.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism as a theory was primarily developed by B.F. Skinner. It loosely

encompasses the work of people like Thorndike, Tolman, Guthrie, and Hull.

Behaviorists describe ‘conditioning’ as the only way of learning. What

characterize these investigators are their underlying assumptions about the process

of learning. In essence, three basic assumptions are held to be true. First, learning is

manifested by a change in behavior. Second, the environment shapes behavior. And

third, the principles of contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a bond

to be formed) and reinforcement (any means of increasing the

likelihood that an event will be repeated) are central to explaining the learning

process. For behaviorism, learning is the acquisition of new behavior through

conditioning.

Behaviorism and Classroom practice

To summarize in brief, Behaviorism is based on three principles: learning is

manifested by a change in behavior, the environment shapes our behavior,

contiguity and reinforcement are essential in explaining the learning process. Just as

the Little Engine (from The Little Engine That Could) that believed he could make it

over the hill, students must believe that they are capable of learning. Much of their

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successes are dependent on their efforts. One such example is homework and

practice (Pitler, 2007). Frequent practice and repetition of information is necessary

for learning to occur (Smith, 1999). Students should be taught the importance of

effort and how to monitor their own efforts. Teachers should make sure that the

amount of homework is applicable to learning and assigned in appropriate amounts.

The length and amount of homework should vary depending on age and grade

level. Parental involvement should be minimal. Homework should be beneficial in

reinforcing learning.

Depending on availability, technology can be incorporated in homework

assignments. The Internet provides a vast variety of sites that can benefit students

and learning.

Technology can also play a vital role in monitoring effort. Through the use of

electronic spreadsheets, data collection tools, and survey resources, students can

compare efforts and outcomes (Pitler, 2007).

The Russian scientist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov's description on how animals (and

humans) can be trained to respond in a certain way to a particular stimulus drew

tremendous interest from the time he first presented his results in 1904. His work

paved the way for a new, more objective method of studying behavior. Pavlov was

a behaviorist. This means that his theories focused on observable behavior, because

unlike thought, behavior can be measured.

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Pictorial representation of Pavlov’s Classical conditioning theory

Pavlov (1902) started from the idea that there are some things that a dog does not
need to learn. For example, dogs don’t learn to salivate whenever they see food. This
reflex is ‘hard wired’ into the dog. In behaviorist terms, it is an unconditioned
response (i.e. a stimulus-response connection that required no learning).

In his experiment, Pavlov used a bell as his neutral stimulus. Whenever he gave food
to his dogs, he also rang a bell. After a number of repeats of this procedure, he tried
the bell on its own. As you might expect, the bell on its own now caused an increase
in salivation.

So the dog had learned an association between the bell and the food and a new
behavior had been learnt. Because this response was learned (or conditioned), it is
called a conditioned response. The neutral stimulus has become a conditioned
stimulus.

Classical conditioning is "classical" in that it is the first systematic study of basic laws
of learning / conditioning.

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This theory has a definite role to play in learning. It is with the help of ‘conditioning’

that the child learns the basic habits like learning the language, taking food and

studying at a particular time, etc., By uttering the word ‘mama’ the child gets

response from his mother. By getting repeated response, the word ‘Mama’ becomes

conditioned with the image of his mother.

In the same way, some activities which depend on the movements of different parts

of the body like swimming, riding a bicycles etc. can be learned through trial and

error. That means by trials and error the child learns the correct way of doing that

activity. Through trial and error and conditioning the child learns something

mechanically.

How is Classical Conditioning by Pavlov relevant to classroom

situations?

"Extinction" can be used to remove negative responses to stimulus. This can be

useful in a situation when a student experiences extreme fear or anxiety when

presented with a math test or when made to read aloud to the class. The fear or

anxiety can be linked to the stimulus through something in the child's past, and this

link can be removed by pairing the stimulus with positive feelings. For example,

providing children with math problems whilst giving them verbal encouragement

‚You can do it!‛ can remove the fear or anxiety previously felt and replace it with

the new conditioned response of happiness.

Create a conditioned stimulus to link to your desired behavior. As a teacher, if you

want the learners to pay attention to the task at hand, stand up and pace slowly until

the class is working well. This will make the learners develop the new condition

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where in your proximity will produce the desired behavior. In future standing up

and pacing around the room will get the learners to work well.

Create a positive feeling within the classroom. If you shout and make children feel

nervous, they could begin to associate your classroom with negative emotions, and

feel those emotions as you enter the classroom in future. Help children form

associations between learning and positive atmosphere. Be bright and cheerful when

you greet your class each day.

According to Thorndike children learn through trial and

error.

Thorndike’s Theory of learning: - The theory of learning

propounded by Thorndike is called connectionism.

According to this theory, ‚Learning is the establishment of bounds between stimulus

and response and it follows a mechanical process of trial and error.‛

Edward Lee Thorndike

Thorndike made an experiment on a cat. A hungry cat was put

in a puzzle box which can be opened from outside by operating

a simple mechanism. A piece of fish was kept outside the box.

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Seeing it, the cat indulged in random movement in order to come out. All its

wasteful movements were errors. But during the frantic attempt to come out, the cat

accidentally operated the mechanism and immediately the door opened. The cat was

allowed to have a bite at the fish (Reward), separated from it and again put into the

box. Once again, it attempted to come out, committed ‘errors’ finally came out and

was again allowed to have another bite at the fish. But it was not allowed to eat the

whole fish. Then again it was put into the box and the procedure was repeated many

times. After a few trials the cat was found to have eschewed most of the wasteful

movements (errors) and it operated the mechanism with considerable ease. It had

learnt to associate the mechanism with the opening of the door.

This experiment resulted in the 3 Primary Laws of Learning formulated by

Thorndike. These three laws are-

• Law of Exercise: The law of Exercise can be stated as follows - when the same

stimulus is given over and again causing a particular response, the connection

between that stimulus and response is strengthened.

• Law of Effect: The Law of Effect can be stated as follows - When a response to

recur when the same stimulus is present. The connection between stimulus

and response gets strengthened in the same manner, when a response to a

stimulus produces annoyance the same response is not likely to recur when

the same stimulus is present. The connection between that stimulus and

response gets weakened.

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 • Law of readiness: The law of readiness can be stated as follows - Learning

takes place provided the learner is ready to learn and a learnt response is

retained, provided the learner has learnt it willingly.

How can Thorndike’s law be used in the classroom?

In a classroom situation, imagine a child being rewarded for his neat handwriting – a

child is most likely to continue with that as it is connected to a reward – intrinsic or

extrinsic. This will also motivate the others to emulate him. However, if he is

punished or reprimanded for illegible or untidy handwriting – most likely he will

try not to repeat that in future.

All animals, including humans, have the tendency to monitor what happens to us

after each behavior. The continuity of the behavior is dependent on the outcome -

good or bad. This tendency to modify our behavior due to the consequences of that

behavior is the basic foundation for the behavioral perspective in psychology.

Cognitivism

The earliest challenge to the behaviorists came in a publication in 1929 by Bode,

a Gestalt psychologist. He criticized behaviorists for being too dependent on overt

behavior to explain learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain

brain-based learning.

Gestalt psychology or Gestaltism (German: Gestalt - "essence or shape of an entity's

complete form") of the Berlin School is a theory of mind and brain positioning, that

the operational principle of the brain is holistic, parallel, and analog, with self-

organizing tendencies.

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The Gestalt Psychologists

Gestalt Psychologists are of the opinion that it is insight which helps the children

to learn. Gestalt theory of insight has great significance in the classroom learning.

According to this theory, in order to solve a problem we have to consider the whole

form or structure of the problems, not its individual parts. When the teacher asks the

students to solve a sum, they try to get the solution in various ways. In their effort

they examine different points of consideration. Suddenly some of them get the clue

and solve the problem. In this case they solve the problem by following Gestalt

theory of Insight.

Insight is an intelligent search for solving a problem. In this type of learning

when the child faces a problematic situation, he goes through the process of

‘discrimination’, ‘generalization’ and suddenly gets the insight or the clue to solve

the problem. His thinking, reasoning and imagination also helps the child to

learn. Different children take the help of different process to learn the same thing

because of difference in their intelligence. For example, when an intelligent child

adopts ‘insight learning’ to learn something, a comparatively less intelligent child

takes the help of ‘trial and error’ to learn the same thing.

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Gestalt psychologists proposed looking at the patterns rather than isolated events.

Gestalt views of learning have been incorporated into what have come to be

labeled cognitive theories.

Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach:

• Memory system is an active organized processor of information and

• Prior knowledge plays an important role in learning. Cognitivists consider

how human memory works to promote learning Aspects of cognitivism can

be found in learning how to learn, social role acquisition, intelligence,

learning, and memory as related to age.

Cognitivism in the classroom

Cognitivism is a learning theory that focuses on how information is received,

organized, stored and retrieved by the mind. Cognitivism often helps the mind to

work like an information processor or a computer. It can be used in classroom to

create interest, test previous knowledge. Important classroom principles from

cognitive psychology include meaningful learning, organization, and elaboration.

Create an environment where there are lots of manipulative

tools that help in developing understanding. A teacher can ask

questions to help students refine their thinking and recognize

where they may be wrong. In cognitivism failure may be

considered a good thing as it is a tool to help learners realize

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that they need to learn more. Role of the instructor is to monitoring the learner’s

progress, ask lots of questions and help a learner develop the higher order thinking

skills like problem solving and later critical thinking.

Field theory

KurtLewin, as a neo-gestaltist, transferred the Gestalt Model to everyday situations.

He was greatly influenced by Einstein and applied the idea of Einsteinium field

physics to psychology. He proposed that human behavior is a function of both the

person and the environment in which the behavior takes place, including the social

parameters. He believed behavior was purposeful and visualized the individual as

existing in a field of forces which included +valence forces which attract people, and

-valence forces which repel people. According to Lewin's theory, learning is

essential to coping with these opposing force fields.

Imitation too has an important role to play in learning. Children learn many things

from their parents, friends and teachers by imitating them. In fact, all these theories

have equal importance in classroom learning and one of them cannot be called the

only way of learning.

The latest catchword in educational circles is "constructivism‛ The term refers to the

idea that learners construct knowledge for themselves - each learner individually

(and socially) constructs meaning - as he or she learns. Constructivism views

learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or

concepts based upon current and past knowledge or experience. In other words,

"learning involves constructing one's own knowledge from one's own experiences."

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The theory focuses on what the learner is thinking about learning (not on the

subject/lesson to be taught):

There is no knowledge independent of the meaning attributed to experience

(constructed) by the learner, or community of learners.

Constructivist theory follows in the path of Dewey, Piaget and Vygotsky among

others.

Principles of learning according to the constructivist thinking

 Learning is an active process in which the learner uses sensory input and

constructs meaning out of it. The more traditional formulation of this idea

involves the terminology of the active learner (Dewey's term) stressing that

the learner needs to do something. Learning is not the passive acceptance of

knowledge which exists "out there" but that learning involves the learner

engaging with the world.

 Children learn to learn as they learn: learning consists both of constructing

meaning and constructing systems of meaning. For example, if we learn the

chronology of dates of a series of historical events, we are simultaneously

learning the meaning of a chronology. Each meaning we construct makes us

better able to give meaning to other sensations which can fit a similar pattern.

 The crucial action of constructing meaning is mental: it happens in the mind.

Physical actions, hands-on experience may be necessary for learning,

especially for children, but it is not sufficient; we need to provide activities

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 which engage the mind as well as the hands.9 (Dewey called this reflective

activity.)

 Learning involves language: the language we use influences learning.

Researchers have noted that people talk to themselves as they learn. On a

more general level, there is a collection of arguments, presented most

forcefully by Vygotsky, that language and learning are inextricably

intertwined.

 Learning is contextual. We do not learn isolated facts and theories in some

abstract ethereal land of the mind separate from the rest of our lives. We learn

in relationship to what else we know, what we believe, our prejudices and our

fears. On reflection, it becomes clear that this point is actually a corollary of

the idea that learning is active and social. We cannot divorce learning from

our lives.

 One needs knowledge to learn. It is not possible to assimilate new knowledge

without having some structure developed from previous knowledge to build

on. The more we know, the more we can learn. Therefore any effort to teach

must be connected to the state of the learner must provide a path into the

subject for the learner based on that learner's previous knowledge.

 It takes time to learn: Learning is not instantaneous. For significant learning

we need to revisit ideas, ponder over them, try them out, play with them and

use them. This cannot happen in the 5-10 minutes usually spent in a gallery

(and certainly not in the few seconds usually spent contemplating a single

museum object.) If you reflect on anything you have learned, you soon realize

that it is the product of repeated exposure and thought. Even, or especially,

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 moments of profound insight, can be traced back to longer periods of

preparation.

 Motivation is a key component in learning. Motivation is essential for

learning. This idea of motivation as described here is broadly conceived to

include an understanding of ways in which knowledge can be used. Unless

we know "the reasons why", we may not be very involved in using the

knowledge that may be instilled in us even by the most severe and direct

teaching.

Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal endeavor, whereby internalized

concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a practical

real-world context. This is also known as social constructivism. The teacher acts as a

facilitator who encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to

construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems.

A comparison of the Traditional classroom and the Constructivist

classroom

Traditional Classroom Constructivist Classroom

Teacher driven – instruction based. Learner centric – teacher is a facilitator

– students construct knowledge

through hands on activities and critical

thinking

Students work independently Encourages collaboration.

Curriculum is taught in parts – Curriculum is taught as a whole – in an

subjects are independent of one integrated format.

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 another.

Correct answers are taken as Teachers seek students point of view to

validation of learning seek students understanding of the

matter

Assessment of student learning is Assessment of student learning is

based on test and separate from interwoven with teaching.

teaching

Other learning theories have also been developed for more specific purposes than

general learning theories. Connectivism is a recent theory of networked learning

which focuses on learning as making connections.

Multimedia learning theory focuses on principles for the effective use of multimedia

in learning.

There is a theory that asserts learning is a process you do, not a process that is done to you,

which kids can teach themselves and also learn in unsupervised environments.

"Traditional education focuses on teaching, not learning. It incorrectly assumes that

for every ounce of teaching there is an ounce of learning by those who are taught."

"However, most of what we learn before, during, and after attending schools is

learned without it being taught to us. A child learns such fundamental things as how

to walk, talk, eat, dress and so on without being taught these things. Adults learn

most of what they use at work or at leisure while at work or leisure. Most of what is

taught in classroom settings is forgotten, and much or what is remembered is

irrelevant.

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Intelligence

There are probably many definitions of intelligence however simply put intelligence

is the ability to learn about, learn from, understand, and interact with one’s

environment. This general ability consists of a number of specific abilities, which

include these specific abilities:

• Adaptability to a new environment or to changes in the current environment

• Capacity for knowledge and the ability to acquire it

• Capacity for reason and abstract thought

• Ability to comprehend relationships

• Ability to evaluate and judge

• Capacity for original and productive thought

Additional specific abilities might be added to the list, but they would all be abilities

allowing a person to learn about, learn from, understand, and interact with the

environment. Environment in this case can also be something as small as a family,

the workplace, or a classroom.

The structure of the brain and the nervous system of an intelligent child are such that

when he comes in contact with a stimulant, his mind quickly reacts to it whereas a

dull child fails to react so quickly to such a stimulant.

Psychologists have given two comprehensive definitions of intelligence-

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‚Intelligence is the ability to undertake activities that are characteristics

by a) difficulty b) complexity c) abstraction d) economy e) adaptiveness to a

goal f) social value and g) the emergence of originals and to maintain such activities

under conditions that demand a concentration of energy and resistance

forces.‛(Stoddard-1943)

“Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act

purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his

environment.”(Wechsler)

Charles Spearman - General Intelligence:

British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863-1945) described a concept he referred to

as general intelligence, or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor

analysis to examine a number of mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that

scores on these tests were remarkably similar. People who performed well on one

cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, while those who scored badly

on one test tended to score badly on other. He concluded that intelligence is general

cognitive ability that could be measured and numerically expressed (Spearman,

1904).

Louis L. Thurstone - Primary Mental Abilities:

Psychologist Louis L. Thurstone (1887-1955) offered a differing theory of

intelligence. Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's

theory focused on seven different "primary mental abilities" (Thurstone, 1938). The

abilities that he described were:

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• Verbal comprehension

• Reasoning

• Perceptual speed

• Numerical ability

• Word fluency

• Associative memory

• Spatial visualization

Howard Gardner - Multiple Intelligences:

One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple

intelligences. Instead of focusing on the analysis of test scores, Gardner proposed

that numerical expressions of human intelligence are not a full and accurate

depiction of people's abilities. His theory describes eight distinct intelligences that

are based on skills and abilities that are valued within different cultures.

The eight intelligences Gardner described are:

 Visual-spatial Intelligence

 Verbal-linguistic Intelligence

 Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence

 Logical-mathematical Intelligence

 Interpersonal Intelligence

 Musical Intelligence

 Intra personal Intelligence

 Naturalistic Intelligence

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Robert Sternberg - Triarchic Theory of Intelligence:

Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed

toward purposive adaptation to, selection and shaping of, real-world environments

relevant to one’s life" (Sternberg, 1985, p. 45). While he agreed with Gardner that

intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability, he instead suggested some

of Gardner's intelligences are better viewed as individual talents. Sternberg

proposed what he refers to as 'successful intelligence,' which is comprised of three

different factors:

 Analytical intelligence: This component refers to problem-solving abilities.

 Creative intelligence: This aspect of intelligence involves the ability to deal with

new situations using past experiences and current skills.

 Practical intelligence: This element refers to the ability to adapt to a changing

environment.

It is possible to solve a problem only when knowledge is applied in the right manner

with the help of intelligence. According to Woodworth, ‚Intelligence means

intellectual put to use.‛

Attention and Interest

Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the

environment while ignoring other things. Examples include listening carefully to

what someone is saying while ignoring other conversations in a room or listening to

a cell phone conversation while driving a car.

Interest on the other hand is a feeling or emotion that causes attention to focus on an

object or an event or a process. In contemporary psychology of interest the term is

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used as a general concept that may encompass other more specific psychological

terms, such as curiosity and to a much lesser degree surprise.

The emotion of interest does have its own facial expression, of which the most

prominent component is having dilated pupils.

Psychologists of earlier days thought that attention can be increased by practice. But

modern psychologists do not subscribe to this concept they think that attention is a

mental process. By this mental process we respond to a certain stimulant after

selecting it from numerous other stimulants. Attention is selective. There are several

objects within the field of our consciousness. Most of these objects exist on the

threshold of our consciousness. If we bring one of these objects into the focus of our

consciousness and try to understand the true nature of it then we have to take the

help of a mental process which is called attention.

Attention is a must for knowing (Cognition), feeling (Affection) and doing

(Conation). We are conscious of many things but attend to only one thing which is in

the focus of attention. Attention improves efficiency, sensation, perception,

retention. Attention improves efficiency, sensation, perception, retention and as such

is a must for acquiring knowledge and skill.

To understand the true nature of attention we must have a clear idea about the

characteristics of attention:

 A student cannot pay attention to many things at a time. He selects only

one stimulant from numerous stimulants. Attention is thus selective.

Because shifting is one of the main characteristics selective.

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  We cannot attend to any one thing continuously for a long time,

because shifting is one of the main characteristics of the attention process.

The attention of children constantly changes from one thing to another.

They cannot listen to the teaching for a longer duration.

 Anxiety, tension, loud noise etc. disrupt the process of the student. He can

pay attention only when he gets used to external disturbances.

 While paying attention we experience some changes in physical gesture,

nervous system, sensory organs and in our muscle system.

 The area of attention is very limited. Because we cannot pay attention to

many things at a time.

 Attention is exploratory. Novelty, strangeness, unfamiliarity attract

attention. So, the teacher must employ variety of teaching techniques.

 Attention is purposive. One pays attention only to the thing one desires to

have. We are conscious of many things but we select and attend to those

things which we like to have.

 Attention establishes mutual relation between different things.

 Although attention always shifts its focus, there is some continuity in it. It

is a continuous and unified process.

 Attention is analytical and synthetically mental process.

 Loud noise, strong smell or bright colors attract attention. Teacher’s voice

should be loud enough to attract attention of pupils.

 The larger the size the greater will be its power to catch attention. Aids

used by the teacher should be large enough.

 Sudden change catches attention. Teacher must modulate his voice while

teaching.

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  Contrast always attracts attention. An ink blot on a white shirt

immediately arrests attention. The principle of contrast is essential in

preparing visual aids.

The word ‚interest‛, in Latin, means ‘it matters’ or ‘it concerns’, whatever creates

pleasant feeling within us becomes our object of interest. Interest can be native or

hereditary as well as acquired. The native drives or urges endow us with native

interest, for example, our interest towards food is native. When we cultivate interest

in something by practice then our interest is acquired.

There is close relationship between attention and interest. When we have interest in

something it attracts our attention very easily. There are some stimulants which

easily attract our interest. We do not need any mental preparation to attend to these

things. For example, a loud noise easily attracts our attention. This is, however, not

true for every stimulant. There are some stimulants which do not ordinarily attract

our attention on their own. But if we become interested in them, we then pay our

attention to them. Interest is thus the desire of mind to respond to some stimulant.

When the desire remains inactive or latent in our mind we call it attention. That is

why McDougall said, ‚Interest is latent attention and attention is interest in action‛.

By analyzing the nature of attention and interest Psychologists described attention as

a mental act with the help of which we respond to some stimulant. And interest is a

mental structure which controls this mental act of attention. According to

Psychologists Ross, ‚They (Attention and Interest) are, merely different ways of

looking at the same thing-like two sides of a coin. The fact underlying both is an

organized disposition in the mental structure. We use the word interest for the

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structure itself, while we use the word attention to describe the experience which the

structure is always ready to determine‛.

Motivation

Motivation refers to a state of a person that directs behavior of the individual

towards certain goals.

Some students seem naturally enthusiastic about learning, but many need-or expect-
their instructors to inspire, challenge, and stimulate them: "Effective learning in the
classroom depends on the teacher's ability ... to maintain the interest that brought
students to the course in the first place" (Ericksen, 1978, p. 3).

Unfortunately, there is no single magical formula for motivating students. Many

factors affect a given student's motivation to work and to learn (Bligh, 1971; Sass,
1989): interest in the subject matter, perception of its usefulness, general desire to
achieve, self-confidence, self-esteem, as well as patience and persistence. And, of
course, not all students are motivated by the same values, needs, desires, or wants.

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Some of your students will be motivated by the approval of others, some by
overcoming challenges.

Researchers have begun to identify those aspects of the teaching situation that
enhance students' self-motivation (Lowman, 1984; Lucas, 1990; Weinert and Kluwe,
1987; Bligh, 1971). To encourage students to become self-motivated independent
learners, instructors can do the following:

• Give frequent, early, positive feedback that supports students' beliefs that
they can do well.
• Ensure opportunities for students' success by assigning tasks that are neither
too easy nor too difficult.
• Help students find personal meaning and value in the material.
• Create an atmosphere that is open and positive.
• Help students feel that they are valued members of a learning community.

Research has also shown that good everyday teaching practices can do more to
counter student apathy than special efforts to attack motivation directly (Ericksen,
1978). Most students respond positively to a well-organized course taught by an
enthusiastic instructor who has a genuine interest in students and what they learn.
Thus activities you undertake to promote learning will also enhance students’
motivation.
General Strategies

Capitalize on students' existing needs. Students learn best when incentives for

learning in a classroom satisfy their own motives. Satisfying such needs is rewarding

in itself, and such rewards sustain learning more effectively than do grades. Design

assignments, in-class activities, and questions to address these kinds of needs.

(Source: McMillan and Forsyth, 1991)

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Make students active participants in learning. Students learn by doing, making,

writing, designing, creating, solving. Passivity dampens students' motivation and

curiosity. Pose questions. Don't tell students something when you can ask them.

The eight characteristics emerge as major contributors to student motivation:

• Instructor's enthusiasm

• Relevance of the material

• Organization of the course

• Appropriate difficulty level of the material

• Active involvement of students

• Variety

• Rapport between teacher and students

• Use of appropriate, concrete, and understandable examples

Motivation and Learning

A man cannot live without work. If we think about the cause why man cannot live

without working, we can say that there is a feeling of want or need behind every

work. When man feels some need, some kind of discomfort arises within him. To get

rid of this discomfort man works. Besides, doing some work helps him to achieve

some goal. Thus it can be said that man works to fulfill some purpose or to achieve

some goal. So, behind every work of man there is some need on the one hand and a

desire to achieve some goal on the other. Thus, the effort, work or act which is

determined by some need and governed by the purpose of achieving some goal is

called by the psychologists as ‘motivation’. Motivation, in other words, is the act of

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human being which is determined and governed by some need and the urge to

satisfy that need.

The need behind can be conscious or unconscious. Many of our biological functions

are governed by the unconscious needs. According to psychologists all human

behavior is motivated, while some of these motivations are conscious, some are

unconscious.

Motivation Theories

There are different factors that motivate individuals to learn and perform. Similarly,

children too possess various reasons and motives that urge them to participate in

classrooms, acquire knowledge and attain satisfactory grades. Since every child may

not share a common source of motivation, it is crucial to contemplate certain

Motivation Theories that discusses about various aspects that can motivate

individuals, including children. In order to comprehend a child’s psychology, it is

crucial for teachers to be cognizant of the factors that motivate their students to

learn. Knowledge of this can eventually allow the teachers to tap into specific

emotions of the child that will convince them to participate and pay attention

towards learning.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow (1943) asserted that every individual is motivated to fulfil a set of basic

needs. He structured the needs into a pyramid and the significance of each need

decreased as one crawls up the pyramid. He also believed that no two needs can be

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sated at the same time. Individuals had to accomplish each step of need, before

progressing to the next one.

According to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, individuals first need to meet the

physiological need for basic food, clothing and shelter.

Once the rudimentary needs are satisfied, individuals are then motivated to work

towards establishing personal safety and security. Hence, one may be motivated to

work overtime and effectively contribute in the workplace in order to ensure job

security.

Following the need for security, individuals may be motivated on the basis of social

belongingness and affection. A child keen on making new friends and belonging to

friend groups may be motivated to perform well and establish the image of a ‘smart’

kid. In fact, teachers can motivate children to learn by putting them in groups and

supporting teamwork. This will satisfy and hence motivate the students seeking

social participation, and lend them with a sense of belongingness and connection.

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The need for esteem can be related to one’s inclination towards being respected and

recognised by others. Thus, a child may be motivated to participate and perform

well because they want to be appraised by the teacher in front the whole class.

Consequently, teachers can choose to appreciate the students’ efforts and recognise

those who have performed well in certain tests or team assignments. This can further

motivate others to work harder and be rewarded like their fellow classmates.

Lastly, the need for self-actualization can be defined as the need to excel in every

way and constantly enhance and maximise one’s ability. This stage is mostly aimed

at self-satisfaction.

Relationship Building and Child Psychology

Learning is not just about conveying, acquiring and applying new information. The

learning process is in fact quite complicated. Although the learning process sounds

very easy, it is not. When a child is exposed to learning, their desire to learn is not

just influenced by the content being taught. Other external factors such as who is

teaching, how it is being taught, and relationships with the teacher also plays a

significant role. The relationship between teachers and students also shapes the

interpersonal communication between them. If a child is too shy, a lack of proper

relationship can make it difficult for the child to express their feelings and doubts to

the teacher. A subsequent communication gap can then hamper the learning process.

Social Penetration Theory

Psychologists Altman and Taylor’s (1973) Social Penetration Theory explains the

differences in communication in relation to the depths of interpersonal relationships.

According to this theory, relationships develop and deepen through self-disclosure.

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As the child gets closer to the teacher, they are more confident about revealing their

true opinions and feelings. It is important for a child to express themselves because

not being able to do so will make them uncomfortable and affect their learning

psychology.

Orientation stage: This is one of the initial stages when the child will observe the

teacher and develop a first-impression about her/him. At this stage, it is critical for

teachers to be friendly and supportive of the child’s perceptions. A negative attitude

will rapture the child’s confidence and instantly discourage the child from sharing

any further.

Exploratory stage: At this stage, the child has already developed a positive first-

impression of the teacher and is ready to discuss some information about

themselves.

Affective stage: By this stage, the child develops an affection for the teacher and is

more willing to ask questions and clarify doubts. The relationship between the child

and the teacher has immensely strengthened by this point.

Depenetration: This stage can occur if the teacher fails to remain patient and

understanding of the child’s problems and feelings. At this phase, the child will stop

communicating with the teacher and lose their overall confidence. This can

drastically affect their learning process and performance.

A child’s psychology is strongly shaped by the kind of relationships and

communication they conduct with their teachers and classmates. Appropriate

relationship building can thus provide them with a psychological assurance and

confidence. Teachers should not only concentrate upon a child’s existing

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psychology, but also consider factors that can influence their psychology in a

classroom setting.

Bullying, Abuse and Child Psychology

Bullying involves a real or perceived power imbalance amidst school-going children

from different age groups. Bullying occurs when a group of children use their

superior strength to target someone by making threats, spreading rumours,

physically and verbally attacking and purposefully isolating someone. Bullying

places significant effects on a child’s psychology, which consequently affects their

ability to focus in classes, participate in activities and perform well in exams.

Bullying has been a prevailing issue in schools all over the world, and it can be

responsible for eliminating a child’s interest, attention and motivation towards

learning. Some of the types of bullying are as follows:

Verbal Bullying: This includes teasing, name-calling, inappropriate sexual remarks

and threats to impose harm upon someone.

Social Bullying: This involves damaging someone’s reputation and relationships by

spreading rumours, isolating someone, embarrassing someone in public and

deliberately unfriending and isolating someone. Such actions can particularly affect

children who are motivated to fulfill their need for socialization and relationships.

Physical Bullying: This mainly comprises of inflicting physical injuries and wounds

upon someone through violent fights. It involves actions such as tripping, pushing,

mean hand gestures and breaking someone’s things. Physical bullying is extremely

dangerous as it can affect a child both physically and psychologically.

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Abuse

Child abuse is when anyone under the age of 18 is being maltreated, harmed or not

properly looked after. Bullying is a form of abuse. A child can be abused by their

family, friends and even teachers. Any form of abuse can place disastrous

psychological impacts that hampers a child’s ability to focus and learn. It is very

vital for teachers to study their students and look for signs of abuse.

Abused children often tend to be silent, scared, and some may even have visible

wounds and injuries. Some types child abuses are:

Physical abuse: This includes hitting, slapping, kicking, pushing, drowning,

suffocating and misusing medication.

Signs and symptoms include: unexplained injuries, burns, marks, covering injuries

with clothing even in hot weather.

Emotional abuse: This involves making a child feel inadequate and worthless,

unfairly blaming and bullying a child, and being made to feel frightened.

Signs and symptoms include: Reduced physical and emotional development,

continual self-depreciation and neurotic behaviour e.g. hair twisting or self-

mutilation.

Neglect: This occurs when a child is deprived of basic facilities such as clothing,

food, medical care, hygiene and protection from physical harm.

Signs and symptoms include: Constant hunger and tiredness, poor personal hygiene,

poor clothing and lack of social relationships.

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Psychological Effects of Bullying and Abuse

Depression and anxiety: Persistent isolation, rudeness and verbal abuses can damage

a child’s self-confidence. This can cause depression and anxiety because the child

will feel left out and unimportant. They will suffer from increased sadness and

loneliness, which will subsequently diminish the child’s interest towards learning

and participating in class activities.

Decreased academic achievement: A loss in interest will keep the child from focusing

on studies. This will affect their overall academic performance. Lower grades can

demotivate them further and augment their depression and anxiety.

It is extremely vital for teachers to be aware of any form of bullying or abuse, and

instantaneous steps must be taken to address issues associated to bullying.

Neglecting this can affect the long-term psychological wellbeing and academic

performance of many students as they will become more paranoid and depressed.

The aforementioned topics focused on the aspects related to a child’s psychology, the

theories attached to psychology, and the importance of understanding a child’s

psychology to develop pertinent curriculums. Hence, when attempting to study a

child’s psychology, tutors must be aware that a student’s silence, underperformance

and unprecedented behaviour can be a result of bullying.

In such contexts, teachers must amiably interact with the child, support their

opinions and try to extract the reasons behind the child’s unusual behaviour. This

supportive approach will not only render the child with psychological confidence,

but also enable the teacher to discover if bullying or abuse is occurring, and

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eventually inform the administration and employ methods to tackle bullying in the

school and classrooms.

Teachers must also try to support a victim of bullying by encouraging more

teamwork and urging the child to interact more with others. Enabling the child to

make new friends can help lift them out of depression.

Therefore, it is evident that teachers in today’s era should not just impart knowledge,

but also be equipped with the ability to interpret a child’s psychology.

Understanding a child’s psychology, feelings and level of intelligence will permit the

teacher to design germane class activities, assignments and curriculums. This will

make learning easier and effective.

Multicultural Classrooms and Child Psychology

In simple terms, psychology can be defined as the characteristics of the mind. A

child’s psychology is connected to their beliefs, thinking, attitude and behaviour

towards other people, objects and ideas. Every child owns a different mental

characteristic or psychology, and no two children can always think and behave in an

exactly similar pattern. Nonetheless, an individual’s, including a child’s

psychological construct may be directed by culture.

According to Geert Hofstede, culture can be defined as the ‚collective programming

of the mind distinguishing the members of one group or category of people from

others.‛ Culture comprises the beliefs, values, rituals, religion, dresses and food-

habits that individuals acquire from the older generations. These disparate values

and beliefs also molds an individual’s psychology and mindset.

Globalisation can be defined as the integration of economies, businesses, workers

and cultures on a global platform. Globalisation has enabled businesses to set up

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factories in other nations, and have also permitted workers to migrate to other

nations for better opportunities. As a result of migration, students often visit schools

in other countries.

Due to increasing globalisation and migration, classrooms nowadays consist of

students from different countries and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, while

teaching a multicultural classroom, teachers must be informed that the children’s

mental disposition and psychological thinking will greatly differ.

Geert Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions

Geert Hofstede surveyed IBM employees in different countries and noted six

national cultural dimensions that distinguishes one national culture from another.

Three of his dimensions are relevant for teachers and children in a classroom setting.

Individualism vs Collectivism: Individualistic individuals will primarily focus on

their own performance and achievement, whereas collectivist individuals prefer to

work and succeed in groups. Hence, children from individualistic countries will not

be inclined towards working in groups, and would like to work by themselves. If the

teacher forces them to work in groups, then the students’ reluctance may keep them

from making effective contributions.

Power Distance: This dimension studies the distribution of power between

authorities and subordinates. Children from a high power distance culture such as

China or Indian will be likely to listen to their teacher’s orders and follow them

without further questions. However, children from a low power distance culture

such as the United States will prefer expressing their opinions instead of simply

following the tasks set by the teachers. Therefore, when teaching students from a

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low power distance culture, teachers must not try to be very commanding. This can

demotivate the students’ motivation to learn and perform.

Uncertainty Avoidance: This dimension is related to an individual’s attitude towards

risks and uncertainties. Children from countries with uncertainty avoidance will

follow rules, constantly ask questions and prefer having their doubts clarified. On

the other hand, children from cultures with low uncertainty avoidance will prefer

learning new and difficult topics and be more imaginative.

Although globalisation has caused cultural integration, cultural differences still

prevail as many parents still expect their children to abide by the cultural values and

traditions. This is another vital component responsible for guiding a child’s

psychology. Consequently, it is imperative for teachers to study different cultures.

Knowledge of different cultures will prevent the occurrence of ethnocentrism

(stereotyping a particular group of people on the basis of the home culture’s

characteristics).

In order to be aware of other cultures, teachers must read more about other countries

and even attend cross-cultural training sessions for expanding their knowledge.

To sum it up, a child’s psychology is devised of numerous factors: intelligence,

attention, interest, motivation, culture and other environmental factors such as

bullying.

A child’s lack of attention or underperformance can be a consequence of various

reasons. Teachers must learn a child’s psychology and unveil the sources influencing

particular behaviour. Instead of making quick assumptions and conclusions,

awareness of the actual reasons will allow the teacher to relevantly reach out to the

child and offer them with an effective and intriguing learning experience.

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