Compendium of en 1993-1-1

Eurobuild in Steel
Compendium of EN1993-1-1
COMPENDIUM OF EN 1993-1-1
Forschungsvereinigung Stahlanwendung e.V. (Contractor)

Peiner Träger GmbH (Contractor)
University of Dortmund – Institute for Steel Construction (Sub-contractor)
This document is part of the ECSC EuroBuild project
Compendium of
EN 1993-1-1
Summary, design aids and flow charts
ECSC EURO BUILD IN STEEL PAGE 1 OF 84

Table of contents
1 BASICS 5
1.1 Symbols 5
1.2 Concept of design 8
1.3 Partial factors γ 9

1.3.1 Partial factor γF for loads 9
1.3.2 Partial factor γM for resistances 9
1.4 Materials 9
1.4.1 Design values of material coefficients 9
1.4.2 Material properties 10
2 BASIS OF DESIGN 11
2.1 Classification of cross-sections 11
2.2 Internal forces and moments 14

2.2.1 Influence of second-order analysis 14
2.2.2 Influence of second-order analysis: portal frames structures 14
2.3 Structural stability of frames 15
2.4 Imperfection 16
2.4.1 Global initial sway imperfection φ 16
2.4.2 Initial local bow imperfection 17
2.4.3 Imperfection for analysis of bracing systems 19
2.5 Structural analysis 21
3 ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE 23
3.1 General 23
3.1.1 Von-Mises yield criterion 23
3.1.2 Section properties and resistances 23
3.2 Structural analysis of cross-section 24

3.2.1 Tension 24
3.2.2 Compression 27
3.2.3 Bending moment about one axis 28

3.2.4 Bending moment about both axes 29

3.2.5 Shear 29
3.2.6 Torsion 31
3.2.7 Interaction of torsion and shear 32
3.2.8 Interaction of bending and shear 33
3.2.9 Interaction of uniaxial bending and axial force 34
3.2.10 Interaction of bi-axial bending and axial force 36
3.2.11 Interaction of bending, shear and axial force 36
3.3 Structural analysis of members 39

3.3.1 Buckling length Lcr 39
3.3.2 Uniform members in compression 40
3.3.3 Uniform members in bending – Lateral torsional buckling 44
3.3.4 Uniform members in bending and axial compression – I-, H- and
hollow sections 48
3.3.5 Interaction factor kij according to Annex B 51
4 DESIGN AIDS 53
4.1 Initial sway imperfection 53
4.2 Classification of cross-sections 54
4.3 Effective shear area AV 56
4.4 Interaction of bending and shear 57
4.5 Interaction of uniaxial bending and axial force 58
4.6 Reduction factor χ and χLT 61
5 FLOW CHARTS 63
5.1 Design of steel structures 64

Flow chart 5.1: General procedure of the design of steel structures 64
Flow chart 5.1 (1): Continuation of General procedure of the design of steel structures 65
5.2 Basis of design 66

Flow chart 5.2: Initial sway imperfection φ 66
5.2.1 Classification of cross-sections 67
Flow chart 5.3: Classification of one side supported compression parts 67
Flow chart 5.4: Classification of both-side supported compression parts 68

5.3 Structural analysis of cross-sections 69

Flow chart 5.5: Tension 69
Flow chart 5.6: Compression 70
Flow chart 5.7: Bending 71
Flow chart 5.8: shear 72
5.3.1 Interaction 73
Flow chart 5.9: Interaction bending and shear of I-sections V + M 73
Flow chart 5.10: Interaction bending and axial force N + My 74
Flow chart 5.11: Interaction bending about z-z axis and axial force N + Mz 75
Flow chart 5.12: Interaction of uniaxial bending, shear and axial force N + V + My 76
Flow chart 5.12 (1): Continuation of interaction N + V + My 77
Flow chart 5.12 (2): Continuation of interaction N + V + My 78
5.4 Structural analysis of members 79

Flow chart 5.13: Centrical compression – flexural buckling 79
Flow chart 5.14: Lateral torsional buckling 80
Flow chart 5.14 (1): Continuation of lateral torsional buckling 81
Flow chart 5.15: Bending and compression 82
Flow chart 5.15 (1): Continuation of Bending and compression 83
6 LITERATURE 84

1 Basics
1.1 Symbols
This chapter notes and describes the basic symbols. The extra list of indices al-
lows by a combination with the major symbols, that all notations could be men-
tioned in a short way.
Material properties
fy yield strength fyp yield strength of a pin
fu ultimate tensile strength fup ultimate strength of a pin
fyb yield strength of a bolt fur ultimate strength of a rivet
fub ultimate strength of a bolt
Variables of load, resistance and cross section

E force and load; modulus of γMi partial factor for resistance
elasticity γFi partial factor for material
R resistance ψ combination factor
G dead load A gross area of cross-section
Q variable load S first moment of inertia
F load; force I second moment of inertia
N axial force W section modulus
V shear force i radius of gyration
M bending moment b width of a cross-section
T torsional moment h depth of a cross-section
∆M additional moment from shift c width or depth of a part of a
of the centre of the effective cross section
area Aeff relative to the cen-
tre of gravity of the gross t thickness of a part of a cross
cross section section
eN,i shift of the centre of the area σ axial stress

Aeff relative to the centre of τ shear stress
gravity of the gross cross
a effective throat thickness
section

leff effective length d0 hole diameter for a bolt, a pin

or a rivet
d nominal bolt diameter
Variables of the system

Fcr elastic critical buckling load αcr amplification factor by which
for global instability mode the design loads have to be
based on initial elastic stiff- increased to reach elastic
nesses critical loads
Ncr elastic critical force for the λ non-dimensional slender-
relevant buckling mode ness
based on the gross cross
λ1 slenderness value to deter-
sectional properties
mine the relative slender-
Mcr elastic critical moment for ness
lateral torsional buckling
Indices
i; j general: variable, replace- LT lateral torsion, torsional
ment character buckling
x; y; z symbol of cross-section axes u; t ultimate, tension
k nominal value w welding
d design value b bolt, bearing, buckling
E stress v shearing
R resistance s slip
A exceeding f flange
ser serviceability w web
c cross section V reduced by the presence of
shear force
pl plastic
el elastic N reduced by the presence of
normal force
eff effectiv
⊥ vertical
net net
II parallel

Figure 1.1: Dimensions and axes of cross-sections

1.2 Concept of design

The safety concept considers temporal and spatial variations as well as
insecurities of the mechanical and stochastic models by using partial fac-
tor to reduce the resistance and to increase the forces, compare Figure
1.2. By this differentiated concept a more realistic design of steel struc-
tures is possible in comparison to the concept of the global factors of
older standards.
x
F(X) = ∫ f(x)dt
−∞
; f: density function
Figure 1.2: Density function f(x) of load E and resistance R
From this facts follow the concept of design for all checks:
General concept of design
EN 1990, 6.4.1(b)
Rk
Ed ≤ Rd ⇔ Ek ⋅ γ F ≤
γM
with
Ed: design value of loads in ultimate limit state
Rd: design value of resistance
Ek: characteristic value of loads
Rk: characteristic value of resistance
γFi: partial factor of loads
γMi: partial factor of resistances

1.3 Partial factors γ
1.3.1 Partial factor γF for loads
Table 1.1: Partial factor γF for loads for the design of ultimate limit state EN 1990, Table A.1.2 (B)
effects permanent load variable load
unfavourable γ Gj,sup = 1,35 γ Qsup = 1,50
favourable γ G j,inf = 1,00 γ Q,inf = 0
1.3.2 Partial factor γM for resistances
Table 1.2: partial factor γM for resistances EN 1993-1-1, 6.1

γM1 = 1,0
partial factor limit states
γM0 = 1,00 resistance of cross-sections
γM1 = 1,00 resistance of members due to instability
resistance of cross-sections in tension
γM2 = 1,25
to fracture
The partial factors γMi may be defined in the National Annex. In Germany
for example γM1 = 1,10 is recommend to DIN-FB 103 for the design of
bridges.
1.4 Materials
EN 1993-1-1, 3.2.6
1.4.1 Design values of material coefficients
• modulus of elasticity: E = 210.000 [N / mm 2 ]
E
• shear modulus: G= ≈ 81.000 [N / mm 2 ]
2 (1 − ν )
• Poisson’s ratio in elastic stage: ν = 0,3
• coefficient of linear thermal expansion: α = 12 x 10 −6 [K −1 ]
( for T ≤ 100 ° C)

1.4.2 Material properties
Table 1.3: Nominal value of yield strength and ultimate tensile strength for hot rolled
structural steel according to EN 1993-1-1, Table 3.1
EN 1993-1-1, Table 3.1
Steel grade nominal thickness t fy fu
proper thickness of material:
EN 10025 rolled
[mm] [N/mm²] [N/mm²]
t ≤ 40 mm 235 360
S 235
40 mm < t ≤ 80 mm 215 360 welded
t ≤ 40 mm 275 430
S 275
40 mm < t ≤ 80 mm 255 410
t ≤ 40 mm 355 510
S 355
40 mm < t ≤ 80 mm 335 470
t ≤ 40 mm 420 520
S 420 N/NL
40 mm < t ≤ 80 mm 390 520
t ≤ 40 mm 440 550
S 450
40 mm < t ≤ 80 mm 410 550
t ≤ 40 mm 460 540
S 460 N/NL
40 mm < t ≤ 80 mm 430 540
Table 1.4: Nominal value of yield strength and ultimate tensile strength for hot rolled
structural hollow sections according to EN 1993-1-1, Table 3.1
Steel grade nominal thickness t fy fu

EN 10210-1
[mm] [N/mm²] [N/mm²]
EN 1993-1-1, Table 3.1
t ≤ 40 mm 235 360
S 235 H
40 mm < t ≤ 65 mm 215 340
t ≤ 40 mm 275 430
S 275 H
40 mm < t ≤ 65 mm 255 410
t ≤ 40 mm 355 510
S 355 H
40 mm < t ≤ 65 mm 335 490

2 Basis of design
2.1 Classification of cross-sections
Table 2.1: Classification of the analysis on the basis of the class of cross-section EN 1993-1-1, 5.5.2
Class Criterion Structural analysis
Cross-sections with rotation capacity to

1 plastic-plastic
form plastic hinges and -zones
Cross-sections with limited rotation capac-

2 ity, but able to develop plastic moment elastic-plastic
resistance
Cross-sections which achieve the yield

3 strength in the outer compression fibre, elastic-elastic
without plastic moment resistance
elastic-elastic
Cross-sections which fail of local buckling
4 in consideration of local
before the yield strength will achieve.
buckling on EN 1993-1-5
The following four tables include the criterion of the width-and-thickness

for the cross-section classes 1-3. It differentiates compressed plates that
are supported at one or both sides respectively and angels and hollow
sections. If the criterion of a class 3 cross-section fails, the cross-section
has to classify to class 4. Then an analysis on the basis of EN 1993-1-5
is necessary.

Table 2.2: Maximum width-to-thickness ratio for both-side supported compression parts
EN 1993-1-1, Tab. 5.2,
sheet 1
Part subject to Part subject to Part subject to bending

Class
bending compression and compression
396 ε
α > 0,5 :
13α − 1
1 72 ε 33 ε
36 ε
α ≤ 0,5 :
α
456 ε
α > 0,5 :
13α − 1
2 83 ε 38 ε
41,5 ε
α ≤ 0,5 :
α
σ2
ψ =
σ1
with
σ1 maximum compres-
42 ε sive stress
ψ > −1 : The compressive stress
3 124 ε 42 ε 0,67 + 0,33 ψ is defined positive.
ψ ≤ −1 : 62 ε (1 − ψ ) (− ψ )
235 S235 S275 S355 S420 S460
ε =
fy 1,0 0,92 0,81 0,75 0,71
Table 2.3: Maximum width-to-thickness ratio for one side supported compression parts
EN 1993-1-1, Tab. 5.2,

sheet 2
part subject to part subject to bending and compression

Class compression Tip in compression Tip in tension
9ε 9ε
1 9ε
α α α
10 ε 10 ε
2 10 ε
α α α
14 ε 21 ε k σ
3
kσ see Table 2.6

Table 2.4: Maximum width-to-thickness ratio of angles

EN 1993-1-1, Tab. 5.2,
sheet 3
Class Section in compression
b+h
3 h / t ≤ 15ε : ≤ 11,5ε
2t
Table 2.5: Maximum width-to-thickness ratio of tubular sections
Section in bending and/or compres-

Class
sion
1 50 ε²
2 70 ε²
3 90 ε²
fy S235 S275 S355 S420 S460
ε² 1,0 0,85 0,66 0,56 0,51
Table 2.6: Buckling factor kσ for internal and outstand compression elements
Internal compression elements Buckling factor kσ on
ψ 1 1>ψ>0 0 0 > ψ > -1 -1 -1 > ψ > -3 EN 1993-1-5, Table 4.1
8,2 and 4.2
kσ 4,0 7,81 7,81 - 6,29ψ + 9,78ψ² 23,9 5,98 (1 - ψ)²
(1,05 +ψ )
Outstand compression elements –
Tip under compression σ2
ψ =
ψ 1 0 -1 1 > ψ > -3 σ1
kσ 0,43 0,57 0,85 0,57 – 0,21ψ + 0,07ψ² with
Outstand compression elements – σ1 maximum compres-
sive stress
Tip under tension
ψ 1 1>ψ>0 0 0 > ψ > -1 -1
0,578
kσ 0,43 1,70 1,7 - 5ψ + 17,1ψ² 23,8
(ψ + 0,34)

2.2 Internal forces and moments

First-order analysis
The internal forces and moments have to be determined in consideration
of the initial geometry of the structure with initial sway imperfections re-
placed by equivalent horizontal forces.
Second-order analysis
The internal forces and moments have to be determined in consideration
of the deformation of the structure and the imperfections, which are the
cause of an increasing moment.
2.2.1 Influence of second-order analysis

Structures, which fulfil the following conditions, are classified to stiff struc-
tures. Therefore the effects of the horizontal deformation does not have
to be considered. Accordingly a second-order analysis is not necessary.
For Structures, which don’t achieve this criterions, the second-order ef-
fects have to be considered.
• Elastic analysis
EN 1993-1-1,
Fcr
α cr = ≥ 10 (2.1)
equation (5.1)
FEd
• Plastic analysis
Fcr
α cr = ≥ 15 (2.2)
FEd
with
FEd design loading on the structure
π 2 ⋅ EI
Fcr =
Fcr elastic critical buckling load for global instability mode based on L2
initial elastic stiffnesses
2.2.2 Influence of second-order analysis: portal frames structures

Especially for portal frames constructions with a slope steeper of 1:2 or EN 1993-1-1, 5.2.1, (4)B
26° respectively, the mentioned criterions also apply. Additionally, the
non-dimensional slenderness of the beams or rafters has to restrain the
following condition and it has to be provided, that the ends of the system
length are hinged.

A ⋅ fy
Criterion: λ ≥ 0,3 (2.3)
NEd
The factor αcr is defined as follows:
⎛H ⎞ ⎛ h ⎞
α cr = ⎜⎜ Ed ⎟⎟ ⋅ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ≥ 10 bzw. 15
⎟ (2.4)
⎝ VEd ⎠ ⎝ δ H,Ed ⎠
Figure 2.1: Definition of HEd, VEd und δH,Ed
2.3 Structural stability of frames

The influences of a second order analysis and imperfections and the fol-
lowing analysis of stability can occur in three ways.
Table 2.7: Summary of the analysis of stability

Proper internal forces and mo-
Analysis Stability
ments
second order analysis in considera-
1 Resistance of cross-sections
tion of all imperfections
Buckling resistance with end
second order analysis in considera-
moments of the members
2 tion of the deformation released by
and buckling length = system
initial sway imperfection
length
Buckling resistance on the
basis of the appropriate
3 first order analysis
buckling length (= equivalent
column method)
Second order analysis by using the factor q for increase EN 1993-1-1, 5.2.2, (5)B
Criterion: α cr ≥ 3 (2.5)
If αcr complies with the requirement, the factor q can be determined:
EN 1993-1-1,
1 equation (5.4)
q=
1 (2.6)
1−
α cr

The analysis of the initial forces and moments is carried out by increasing
the horizontal forces Fh,Ed’.
II I
Fh,Ed = q ⋅ Fh,Ed (2.7)
with
Fh,Ed’ design value of the horizontal forces including the equivalent
horizontal forces of the initial sway imperfection
2.4 Imperfection
2.4.1 Global initial sway imperfection φ

If the following criterion is fulfilled, the initial sway imperfection does not
have to be considered.
Criterion: HEd ≥ 0,15 VEd (2.8) EN 1993-1-1, 5.3.2, (4)B
with
HEd sum of the horizontal forces at the bottom of the system
VEd sum of the vertical forces at the bottom of the system
Initial sway imperfection

φ = φ0 ⋅ α h ⋅ α m (2.9)
EN 1993-1-1, 5.3.2,
equation (5.5)
with
φ0 basic value: φ0 = 1/200
αh reduction factor for height h applicable to columns
2 2
αh = , but ≤ α h ≤ 1,0
h 3
h height of the structure in meters
αm reduction factor for the number of columns in one row
⎛ 1⎞
α m = 0,5 ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ m⎠
m the number of columns in one row including only those columns

which carry a vertical load NEd not less than 50% of the average
value of the column in the vertical plane considered

Figure 2.2: Equivalent initial sway imperfection
2.4.2 Initial local bow imperfection

A local bow imperfection is considered by a second-order analysis, if the
condition (1) or (2) is fulfilled.
(1)
EN 1993-1-1, 5.3.2, (6)
A fy
λ > 0,5 (2.10)
NEd
with Class 1up to 3:
λ the in-plane non-dimensional slenderness calculated for the λ =

A fy
Ncr
member considered as hinged at its ends (β =1)
(2)
at least one moment resistant joint at one member end
Figure 2.3: Initial bow imperfection
Table 2.8: Value of the initial bow imperfection e0

EN 1993-1-1, Table 5.1
e0
Buckling curves
elastic plastic
a0 l/350 l/300
a l/300 l/250
b l/250 l/200
c l/200 l/150
d l/150 l/100

Equivalent horizontal forces

The imperfections can also be considered by equivalent horizontal
forces. For multi-storey frame structures with the same geometry and
stiffness in each storey, the equivalent horizontal forces can be deter-
mined as shown in Figure 2.5.
EN 1993-1-1, 5.3.2, (7)
and
Figure 5.4
Figure 2.4: Replacement of initial imperfection by equivalent horizontal forces
Figure 2.5: Equivalent horizontal forces for multi-storey frame constructions
Initial bow imperfections for lateral-torsional buckling

For members, that should be checked for lateral-torsional buckling on the EN 1993-1-1, 5.3.4, (3)
basis of a second-order analysis and an analysis according to chapter 0,
initial bow imperfections about the minor axis have to be considered, see
(2.11). The resulting and additional moments have to apply by determin-
ing the buckling resistances.
~
e0 = k ⋅ e 0 (2.11)
with
e0 value of the initial bow imperfection about the minor axis
k reduction factor; k = 0,5 is recommended

2.4.3 Imperfection for analysis of bracing systems EN 1993-1-1, 5.3.3
Initial bow imperfection of the members to be restrained

equation (5.12)
L
e0 = α m (2.12)
500
with
αm reduction factor for the number of members to be restrained
⎛ 1⎞
α m = 0,5 ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ m⎠
m number of members to be restrained
Simplified, the initial bow imperfection can convert in an equivalent stabi-

lising forces as shown in Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6: Equivalent stabilising force q
Equivalent stabilising force q

EN 1993-1-1,
e0 + δ q equation (5.13)
q = ∑ NEd 8 (2.13)
L2
with
δq deformation of the bracing system
L length of the bracing system
NEd design value of the compression load in the flange or chord of
the members to be restrained, it can be accepted:
NEd = MEd / h
MEd maximum bending moment in the beam

h overall height of the beam

Bracing forces at splices

EN 1993-1-1,5.3.3, (4)
and Figure 5.7
φ = α m φ0
φ = 1/ 200
bracing system
splice 0
αm see equation (2.12)
force at the splice

2 φ NEd = α m NEd / 100
Figure 2.7: Local forces to bracing system
Sway imperfections of vertical members to be restrained

EN 1993-1-1, 5.3.2, (5)B
NEd NEd
1/2
for example: 1
h floor h
1
Hi = 1NEd Hi = 1NEd
NEd
1/2
NEd
nordnung der Anfangsschiefst fstellung für Horizontalkräfte
Hi: additional load on horizontal bracing members
Figure 2.8: Configuration of sway imperfections φ for horizontal forces on floor dia-
phragms

2.5 Structural analysis
Figure 2.9: Stress-strain relationship for elastic and plastic structural analysis
Elastic global analysis

The elastic global analysis admits redistribution of the support bending EN 1993-1-1, 5.4.1
and
moment in continuous beams, when they exceed the plastic bending re- 5.4.2
sistance of 15%. The requirements of a redistribution are:

5.4.1, (4)B
1. after the redistribution, the internal forces an moments remain in
equilibrium with the applied loads
2. all members in which the moment are reduced have Class 1 or 2
cross-sections
3. lateral torsional buckling of the members is prevented.
Figure 2.10: Criterion on redistribution of the support moment
Plastic global analysis

Requirements:
EN 1993-1-1, 5.4.1
1. The members have class 1 cross-sections with a sufficient rotation and
5.4.3
capacity.
2. Futhermore the stability of the members at plastic hinges has to
be assured.

The analysis of the internal forces and moments can be done by three
methods:
1. elastic-plastic analysis with plastified sections and/or joints as
plastic hinges
2. non-linear plastic analysis considering the partial plastification of
members in plastic zones
3. rigid plastic analysis neglecting the elastic behavior between
hinges

3 Ultimate limit states
3.1 General
3.1.1 Von-Mises yield criterion EN 1993-1-1,

2 2 2 equation (6.1)
⎛ σ x,Ed ⎞ ⎛ σ z,Ed ⎞ ⎛ σ x,Ed ⎞⎛ σ z,Ed ⎞ ⎛ τ Ed ⎞
⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ −⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ + 3⎜ ⎟ ≤1 (3.1)
⎜ f γ ⎟ ⎜ f γ ⎟ ⎜ f γ ⎟⎜ f γ ⎟ ⎜ f γ ⎟
⎝ y M 0 ⎠ ⎝ y M 0 ⎠ ⎝ y M 0 ⎠⎝ y M 0 ⎠ ⎝ y M 0 ⎠
The von-Mises yield criterion applies if no other criterion of interaction or
analysis will be mentioned.
3.1.2 Section properties and resistances
Table 3.1: Resistance against classes of section EN 1993-1-1, Table 6.7
Section properties Section properties 6.3.3, NOTE 3

Class Resistance
compression bending
1 plastic A Wpl,y, Wpl,z
2 plastic A Wpl,y, Wpl,z
3 elastic A Wel,y, Wel,z
resistance on the basis of
the effective cross-
4 Aeff Weff,y, Weff,z
section, see EN 1993-1-5
and Figure 3.1
The effective section properties Aeff and Weff have to be calculated on the
basis of a reduced cross-section due to local buckling, compare Figure
3.1, according to EN 1993-1-5.
Figure 3.1: Effective area Aeff of Class 4 cross-sections under bending and compression
From this, additional moments ∆My,Ed or/and ∆Mz,Ed , that depend on the
shift of the major axes of the effective section area as regards to the axes
of the gross cross-section area result. They must be calculated by multi-
plying the axial force with the distance to the new balance point.
∆M y,Ed = NEd ⋅ e Ny and ∆M z,Ed = NEd ⋅ e Nz

3.2 Structural analysis of cross-section

The assimilation of the analysis (el.-el., el.-pl., pl.-pl.) results from the
different classes in consideration of the cross-section properties and the
elastic or plastic analysis of the internal forces and moments. Respec-
tively, cross-sections with local buckling can be verified on the basis of
the following analysis, also, compare 3.1.2: Section properties and resis-
tances.
3.2.1 Tension
NEd EN 1993-1-1,
Check: ≤ 1,0 (3.2) equation (6.5)
Nt,Rd
⎧ A ⋅ fy
⎪ Npl,Rd = Nel,Rd =
⎪⎪ γ M0 EN 1993-1-1,
equation (6.6) and (6.7)
Nt,Rd = min ⎨ (3.3)
⎪ 0,9 ⋅ A net ⋅ fu
⎪ Nu,Rd =
⎪⎩ γ M2
with
A gross cross-section area
Anet net area along the critical fracture line
Nt,Rd for cross-sections with bolted connections of category C ac-

cording to EN 1993-1-8
The cross-section with a bolted connection of category C has to be veri-
fied in the critical fracture line, in addition to the above named analysis.
A net ⋅ fy
Nt,Rd = Nnet,Rd = (3.4)
γ M0
Net area Anet

For symmetric bolt connections, the critical fracture line is defined by the
line which runs rectangular to the axis of the member and through the EN 1993-1-1,6.2.2.2,(3)
maximum numbers of holes, compare Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2: Critical fracture line in symmetrical bolted connections
If the bolt connections are staggered, compare Figure 3.3. The area ∆A,
that has to deducted from the gross area, is the maximum of the follow-
ing two values (1) and (2).
Figure 3.3: Critical fracture line in staggered bolted connections
⎛ s2 ⎞
(1) ∆A = t ⎜⎜ n ⋅ d − ∑ ⎟ line 1, compare Figure 3.3 EN 1993-1-1,6.2.2.2,(4)
⎝ 4 p ⎟⎠
with
s spacing of the centres of two consecutive holes in the
chain measured parallel to the member axis
p spacing of the centres of the same two holes measured
perpendicular to the member axis
t thickness
n number of holes extending over the fracture line
d diameter of hole
(2) ∆A is like the deduction of non-staggered holes, line 2
Angels connected by one leg in tension

If the following criterions of bolted and welded connections are satisfied,
the eccentricity and the additional moments in the joints do not have to
be considered.
Bolted connections
EN 1993-1-8, 3.10.3
Figure 3.4: Configuration und pitches of holes

• connection with 1 bolt

2,0(e2 − 0,5d0 ) t ⋅ fu
Nu,Rd = (3.5)
γ M2
• connection with 2 bolts
β 2 ⋅ A net ⋅ fu
Nu,Rd = (3.6)
γ M2
• connection with 3 or more bolts
β 3 ⋅ A net ⋅ fu
Nu,Rd = (3.7)
γ M2
Table 3.2: Reduction factors β2 and β3
pitch p1 ≤ 2,5 d0 ≥ 5,0 d0
2 bolts β2 0,4 0,7
3 or more bolts β3 0,5 0,7
This factors may be interpolated linear, if the pitches p1 are different from
the defined values in the table.
Welded connections
EN 1993-1-8, 4.13
Figure 3.5: Definition of the area A for welded connection of angels by one leg
Block tearing
Tension members, which are connected with a connection plate by bolts, EN 1993-1-8, 3.10.2
have to achieve the analysis of block tearing, equation (3.8), additionally.
NEd
Check: ≤ 1,0 (3.8)
Veff ,1,Rd

fu ⋅ A nt f y ⋅ A nv (3.9)
Veff ,1,Rd = + EN 1993-1-8,
γ M2 3 ⋅ γ M0 equation (3.9)
with
Ant net area subjected to tension
Anv net area subjected to shear
Figure 3.6: Tearing of a symmetrical bolted connections under centrical force
3.2.2 Compression
For members in compression instability failure has to be analysed, com-
pare chapter 3.3.2: Uniform members in compression. Furthermore the
cross-sections at the end of the members have to satisfy equation (3.10).
EN 1993-1-1,
NEd equation (6.9)
Check: ≤ 1,0 (3.10)
Nc,Rd
Class 1, 2 and 3 cross-sections

A ⋅ fy EN 1993-1-1,
Nc,Rd = Npl,Rd = Nel,Rd = (3.11) equation (6.10)
γ M0
Class 4 cross-sections
A eff ⋅ f y
Nc,Rd = (3.12) EN 1993-1-1,
γ M0 equation (6.11)
The area of the cross-section or the effective area should be determined

without a deduction of holes due to fasteners. But all other holes have to
be considered.

3.2.3 Bending moment about one axis

MEd (3.13) EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.5
Check: ≤ 1,0
Mc,Rd
Class 1 and 2 cross-sections

Wpl ⋅ fy
Mc,Rd = Mpl,Rd = (3.14)
γ M0
Wel ⋅ f y
Mc,Rd = Mel,Rd = (3.15)
γ M0
Weff ⋅ f y
Mc,Rd = (3.16)
γ M0
The section modulus Wpl, Wel und Weff must be calculated for the respec-
tive axis.
Reduction in the tensile zone of the section

Reduction of the cross-section as a result of holes in the tension zone,
compare Figure 3.7, have to be considered by the analysis of the bend-
ing moment. If the requirement (3.17) for the flange in tension is not at-
tained, the section modulus Wy and Wz will be calculated by the consid-
eration of the new cross-section. Webs in tension have to be observed as
EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.5,
well. The mentioned criterion above must be applied to the whole tension (4)-(6)
zone, accordingly the flange and part of web in tension.
considering the holes in

the tension zone
Figure 3.7: Deduction of the flange

A f ,net ⋅ 0,9 ⋅ fu A f ⋅ fy
Criterion: ≥ (3.17)
γ M2 γ M0
with
Af,net net area of the tension flange
Af gross area of the tension flange
3.2.4 Bending moment about both axes

To combine the bending moment about the y-y and z-z axes in a conser- EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.1(7)
vative way, the utilisations have to be added, compare the von-Mises or
6.2.9.1(6), α = β = 1,
yield criterion (α = β = 1). This analysis can be applied to all classes of respectively
cross-section.
α β
⎡ M y,Ed ⎤ ⎡ M z,Ed ⎤
Check: ⎢ ⎥ +⎢ ⎥ ≤ 1,0 (3.18)
⎣⎢ Mc,y,Rd ⎦⎥ ⎣ Mc,z,Rd ⎦
For a differentiated analysis in consideration of the form of the cross-
section, the exponents α and β are defined in chapter 3.2.10: Interaction
of bi-axial bending and axial force.
3.2.5 Shear
EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.6, (7)
or
Class 1 and 2 cross-sections EN 1993-1-8, 3.10.2
respectively
VEd
Check: ≤ 1,0 (3.19) EN 1993-1-1,
Vc,Rd equation (6.17)
Vc,Rd = Vpl,Rd =
(
A v fy 3 ) (3.20)
equation (6.18)
γ M0
with
Av effective shear area, Table 3.3
Figure 3.8: Effective shear area of parallel to the web loaded cross-sections

Table 3.3: Effective shear area Av

EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.6, (3)
cross-section direction of load effective shear area Av
η = 1,0,
rolled I- and H-sections parallel to web A − 2bt f + ( t w + 2r ) t f ≥ η h w t w compare DIN-FB 103
tf flange thickness
rolled U-sections parallel to web A − 2bt f + ( t w + r ) t f tw web thickness
b overall breadth
rolled T-sections parallel to web 0,9 ( A − bt f ) h overall depth
hw depth of the web
welded I- ,H- and box sec- η ∑ (h w t w )
r root radius
parallel to web
tions
rolled I- and H-sections parallel to flange 2b t f
welded I- ,H- , U- and box A − ∑ (h w t w )

parallel to flange
sections
parallel to depth Ah /(b + h)

rolled rectangular hollow
sections parallel to width Ab /(b + h)
tubular hollow sections and

- 2A / π
tubes of uniform thickness

EN 1993-1-1,
τ Ed equation (6.19), (6.20)
Check: ≤ 1,0 (3.21)
fy (γ M0 3 )
VEd ⋅ S
τ Ed = (3.22)
I⋅ t
For I- and H-sections with a distinctive flange, which means that the ratio
EN 1993-1-1,
area of flange to area of web. Af/Aw ≥ 0,6 applies: equation (6.21)
VEd
τ Ed = (3.23)
Aw
with
Aw area of the web; A w = h w ⋅ t w
Shear buckling for web without stiffeners

hw ε
Ckeck: ≤ 72 (3.24) EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.6, (6)
tt η
235
ε=
with fy

η = 1,0 (conservative value)
Block tearing at ends of members EN 1993-1-8, 3.10.2

VEd
Check: ≤ 1,0 (3.25)
Veff ,2,Rd
0,5 ⋅ fu ⋅ A nt fy ⋅ A nv EN 1993-1-8,
Veff ,2,Rd = + (3.26) equation (3.10)
γ M2 3 ⋅ γ M0
with
Ant net area subjected to tension
Anv net area subjected to shear
Figure 3.9: Tearing under shear force
3.2.6 Torsion EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.7
For the verification of cross-sections loaded by torsion, the elastic yield-

criterion must be satisfied for all classes of cross-section.
For I-sections and other open cross-sections shear stresses subjected to
torsion result from St. Venant torsion moment and warping torsion mo-
ment, which arise from applicable bearing and furthermore from a chang-
ing torsional moment.
The analysis of I-sections evaluated by the shear stress and the geome-
try of the cross-section is defined as follows:
compare EN 1993-1-1,
fy equation (6.23) and
Check: τ Ed = τ t,Ed + τ w,Ed ≤ (3.27) (6.24)
3 ⋅ γ M0
with
τ t,Ed shear stress due to St. Venant torsion (maximum in the flange) For a calculation of
stress in I-section,
compare literature

Tt,Ed ⋅ t f
τ t,Ed =
It
τ w,Ed shear stress due to warping torsion

Tw,Ed ⋅ ω M ⋅ b / 4
τ w,Ed =
Iω
Tt,Ed design value of the St. Venant torsional moment

Tw,Ed design value of the warping torsional moment
For I-sections with warping normal stress the following analysis has to be
satisfied:
B Ed fy
Check: σ BEd = ≤ (3.28)
Iω γ M0
with
σB Ed normal stress to the bimoment
BEd bimoment
For an analysis of other cross-sections, design aids in literature may be
used.
3.2.7 Interaction of torsion and shear EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.7, (9)

VEd
Check: ≤ 1,0 (3.29) EN 1993-1-1,
Vpl,T,Rd equation (6.25)
The shear stresses must be determined in the shear loaded parts of the
section.
• I- and H-sections
EN 1993-1-1,
τ t,Ed equation (6.26) up to
Vpl,T,Rd = 1 − ⋅ Vpl,Rd
(
1,25 f y / 3 / γ M0 ) (3.30) (6.28)
• U-sections
⎡ τ t,Ed τ w,Ed ⎤
Vpl,T,Rd = ⎢ 1 − − ⎥ ⋅ Vpl,Rd
⎢⎣ (
1,25 f y / 3 / γ M0 )
f y / 3 / γ M0 ⎥⎦ ( ) (3.31)

• Hollow sections
⎡ τ t,Ed ⎤
Vpl,T,Rd = ⎢1 − ⎥ ⋅ Vpl,Rd
( )
⎢⎣ 1,25 f y / 3 / γ M0 ⎥⎦
(3.32)

The interaction of Class 3 and 4 sections results from the analysis of the
EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.7, (5)
yield criterion equation (3.1).
3.2.8 Interaction of bending and shear

EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.8, (2)
VEd
Criterion: ≤ 0,5 (3.33)
Vpl,Rd
If the condition is not satisfied, the interaction will take place by reducing
EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.8(3)
the loadbearing capacity of the shear loaded part of cross-section either or
6.2.10 NOTE
by respectively
1. reducing the yield strength f y,red = (1 − ρ ) ⋅ f y or
2. reducing the thickness t w,red = (1 − ρ ) ⋅ t w
2
⎛2V ⎞
ρ = ⎜⎜ Ed − 1⎟⎟ (3.34)
⎝ Vpl,Rd ⎠
General
Check: MEd ≤ M V,Rd ≤ Mc,Rd (3.35)
with
MV,Rd reduced design plastic resistance because of shear force
Double-symmetric I-cross-section with bending about the major

axis
EN 1993-1-1,
⎡ ρ Aw ⎤
2
equation (6.30)
W
⎢ pl,y − ⎥fy
⎢⎣ 4 t w ⎥⎦ (3.36) compare DIN FB 103,
M V,y,Rd = ≤ Mc,y,Rd 5.4.7, (103)
γ M0
This definition is valid for all classes of section. Therefore the limit value
Mc,y,Rd must be determined depending on the class of section, compare
chapter 3.2.3.

3.2.9 Interaction of uniaxial bending and axial force

Check: MEd ≤ MN,Rd (3.37)
• Rectangular sections
[
MN,Rd = Mpl,Rd 1 − (NEd / Npl,Rd )
2
] (3.38)
• I- and H-sections and sections with flanges

Bending about y-y axis
If the design value of the axial force does not apply to both conditions
given in (3.39), the bending moment resistance will have to be reduced. EN 1993-1-1, equation
(6.33) and (6.34)
⎧⎪0,25 Npl,Rd
Criterion: NEd < ⎨ with γM0 (3.39)
⎪⎩0,5 A w f yd
The reduced moment resistance must calculated in consideration of the

form of the cross-section. It must be differentiated between I, H sections
and hollow and welded box sections.
I- and H-sections
1− n
MN,y,Rd = Mpl,y,Rd ≤ Mpl,y,Rd (3.40) EN 1993-1-1,
1 − 0,5a equation (6.31)
with
NEd A − 2b t f
n= and a = ≤ 0,5
Npl,Rd A
Hollow and welded box sections

1− n EN 1993-1-1,
MN,y,Rd = Mpl,y,Rd ≤ Mpl,y,Rd (3.41) equation (6.39) and
1 − 0,5a w (6.40)
with
- hollow section: a w = (A − 2 b t ) / A ≤ 0,5
- box section: a w = (A − 2 b t f ) / A ≤ 0,5

Bending about z-z axis

EN 1993-1-1,
Criterion: NEd < A w f yd with γM0 (3.42) equation (6.35)
I- and H-sections
EN 1993-1-1,
equation (6.31)
⎡ ⎛n − a⎞ 2
⎤
n >a: MN,z,Rd = Mpl,z,Rd ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ (3.43)
⎢⎣ ⎝ 1 − a ⎠ ⎥⎦
n≤a: MN,z,Rd = Mpl,z,Rd (3.44)
with
NEd A − 2b t f
n= and a = ≤ 0,5
Npl,Rd A
Hollow and welded box sections

EN 1993-1-1,
1− n equation (6.39) and
MN,z,Rd = Mpl,z,Rd ≤ Mpl,z,Rd (3.45) (6.40)
1 − 0,5a f
with
- hollow sections: a f = (A − 2 h t ) / A ≤ 0,5
- box sections: a f = (A − 2 h t w ) / A ≤ 0,5
Class 3 cross-section
fy
σ x,Ed ≤ (3.46)
γ M0
The insertion of all variables follows: EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.9.2

or
EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.1, (7)
NEd MEd
Check: + ≤ 1,0 (3.47)
respectively
A ⋅ f y,d Wel ⋅ f y,d
NEd M + ∆MEd
Check: + Ed ≤ 1,0 (3.48)
A eff ⋅ f y,d Weff ⋅ f y,d
For the determination of ∆MEd see the descriptions in chapter 3.1.2: Sec-
tion properties and resistances.

3.2.10 Interaction of bi-axial bending and axial force

EN 1993-1-1,
α β equation (6.41)
⎡M ⎤ ⎡M ⎤
Check: ⎢ y,Ed ⎥ + ⎢ z,Ed ⎥ ≤ 1,0 (3.49)
⎢⎣ MN,y,Rd ⎥⎦ ⎣ MN,z,Rd ⎦
with
- I -and H-sections: α =2 β = 5n ≥ 1,0
- circular hollow sections: α =2 β =2
1,66
- rectangular hollow sections: α=β = ≤ 6,0
1 − 1,13n 2
NEd M y,Ed Mz,Ed
Check: + + ≤ 1,0 (3.50)
A ⋅ f y,d Wel,y ⋅ f y,d Wel,z ⋅ f y,d
NEd M y,Ed + ∆My,Ed Mz,Ed + ∆Mz,Ed EN 1993-1-1,
Check: + + ≤ 1,0 (3.51) equation (6.44)
A eff ⋅ f y,d Weff ,y ⋅ f y,d Weff ,z ⋅ f y,d
3.2.11 Interaction of bending, shear and axial force

Cross-sections, that are subjected to bending, shear and axial force have
to be checked, whether an interaction of the loads are necessary. In con-
sideration of the criterion in chapter 3.2.8, 3.2.9 and 3.2.10, the plastic
moment resistance Mpl,Rd has to be determined.
First of all, it must be checked, whether an interaction due to shear load
is required. If this is the case, the yield strength or the thickness of the
shear loaded section part has to be reduced by the factor (1-ρ), see
chapter 3.2.8. The reduced resistance has to be used also for the plastic
axial resistance. Finally the plastic moment resistance has to be reduced
by the shear and/or axial force.
For double-symmetric I- and H-sections, the interaction criteria are evalu-
ated for all classes of cross-section and forces, see Table 3.5 and 3.6.

Class Criterion Vz,Ed d 0,5 Vpl,Rd Criterion Vz,Ed ! 0,5 Vpl,Rd
N Ed 0,5 N pl,Rd N Ed 0,5 N V ,Rd

2
ª U Aw º
1 Wpl, y fy « Wpl,y » fy
or My,Ed d Mpl, y,Rd or
Vz,Ed and My,Ed
2 ¬« 4 t w ¼»
J M0 M y,Ed d M V ,y,Rd d Mc ,y,Rd
ECSC EURO BUILD IN STEEL

J M0
N Ed 0,25 A w f y ,d NEd 0,25 A V ,w fy ,d
NEd M NEd M
3 y,Ed d 1,0 y ,Ed d 1,0
Nc ,Rd Mc ,y,Rd Nc ,Rd MV , y ,Rd
always interaction always interaction
N+M N Ed M y,Ed 'M y ,Ed N+M NEd M y,Ed 'M y,Ed
4 d 1,0 d 1,0
N c ,Rd M c , y,Rd N c ,Rd M V ,y ,Rd
NEd t 0,5 Npl,Rd NEd t 0,5 NV,Rd
1 1 n 1 nV
and My,Ed d MN, y,Rd Mpl, y,Rd d Mpl, y,Rd and M y,Ed d MN,V,y,Rd M V,y,Rd d Mpl,y,Rd
2 1 0,5a 1 0,5a V
NEd t 0,25 A w f y,d NEd t 0,25 A V,w fy,d
NEd M NEd M y,Ed

3 y ,Ed d 1,0 d 1,0
Nc ,Rd Mc , y,Rd Nc ,Rd MN,V ,y,Rd
always interaction always interaction
N+M NEd M y,Ed 'M y ,Ed N+M NEd M y,Ed 'M y,Ed
4 d 1,0 d 1,0
N c ,Rd M c ,y,Rd N c ,Rd MN,V ,y,Rd
Table 3.4: Interaction of double symmetric I- and H-sections with the internal forces NEd,
web
web
⎝
ρ =⎜
MV,y,Rd =
N V ,Rd =
⎣⎢
⎡
PAGE 37 OF 84
⎜ Vpl, i, Rd
⎢Wpl,y −
⎛ 2 Vi, Ed
A w = hw ⋅ t w
γ M0
γ M0
n = NEd/Npl,Rd
section
a V = (1 − ρ ) ⋅ a
nV = NEd/NV,Rd
A red,V ⋅ f y
t red = (1 − ρ ) ⋅ t w
∆Mi,Ed = NEd ⋅ e Ni
thickness
⎠
⎟
− 1⎟
⎞
4 t w ⎦⎥
ρ Aw 2 ⎤
Aw area of web
2
⎥fy
A V ,w = (1 − ρ ) ⋅ A w
A red,V = A − ρ ⋅ A w
Reduction factor ρ
Additional moment
tance of axial
AV,w reduced area of
NV,Rd reduced resis-

Reducing the area of
a = (A − 2 b t f ) / A ≤ 0,5
Ared,V reduced area of
force as a result
shift of the major axes
class of cross-section.
Mc,y,Rd must be consid-
≤ Mc,y,Rd
∆MEd depending on the
of a reduced web
ered on the basis of the
Table 3.5: Interaction of double symmetric I- and H-sections with internal forces NEd, Vy,Ed
und Mz,Ed
º
»
»¼
Mc,z,Rd must be consid-
2
·
¸
¸
¹
ered on the basis of
«¬ © 1 a V
ª §n a
the class of cross-
section.
MV , z,Rd «1 ¨¨ V
d 1,0
d 1,0
M z,Ed d M V , z,Rd d M pl,z,Rd Reduction factor ρ
d 1,0
z,Ed d 1,0
2
⎛ 2 Vi, Ed ⎞
NEd Mz,Ed 'Mz,Ed
NEd Mz,Ed 'Mz,Ed

MV,z,Rd
Vy,Ed ! 0,5Vpl,Rd
ρ =⎜ − 1⎟
⎜ Vpl, i, Rd ⎟
N c ,Rd M V ,z,Rd
MV ,z,Rd
MV ,z,Rd
Nc ,Rd MV ,z,Rd
⎝ ⎠
M z,Ed
M
nV > aV: Mz,Ed d MN, V , z,Rd
nV d aV: Mz,Ed d MN,V,z,Rd

Reducing the area of
NEd
web
N Ed

t red = (1 − ρ ) ⋅ t w
Nc ,Rd
Nc ,Rd
Following to the reduc-
tion of the web thick-
ness, the section
modulus Wel,i,red,
Wpl,i,red, Weff,i,red must
calculated new.
always interaction
always interaction
A V , w fy
A V ,w fy
Wi,red ⋅ f y
Criterion
M V,z,Rd =
J M0
J M0
N+M
N+M
γ M0
NEd
NEd t
Aw area of a web
A w = hw ⋅ t w
AV,w reduced area of

ª § n a ·2 º
¸ »
«¬ © 1 a ¹ »¼
web
A V ,w = (1 − ρ ) ⋅ A w
Mpl, z,Rd «1 ¨
d 1,0
d 1,0
Ared,V reduced area of

Wpl,z fy
section
J M0
z,Ed d 1,0
z,Ed d 1,0
NEd Mz,Ed 'Mz,Ed
NEd Mz,Ed 'Mz,Ed

Vy,Ed d 0,5Vpl,Rd
Mpl,z,Rd
Mc ,z,Rd
Mc ,z,Rd
Nc ,Rd Mc ,z,Rd
Nc ,Rd Mc ,z,Rd
Additional moment
Mz,Ed d Mpl,z,Rd
∆MEd depending on the

n > a: Mz,Ed d MN, z,Rd
n d a: Mz,Ed d MN,z,Rd
shift of the major axes

∆Mi,Ed = NEd ⋅ e Ni
NEd
NEd

Nc ,Rd
Nc ,Rd
n = NEd/Npl,Rd
nV = NEd/NV,Rd
NV,Rd reduced resis-

always interaction
always interaction
tance of axial
force as a result
A w fy
A w fy
of a reduced
Criterion
J M0
J M0
N+M
N+M
web thickness
A red,V ⋅ f y
NEd
NEd t
N V ,Rd =
γ M0
a = (A − 2 b t f ) / A ≤ 0,5
Class
a V = (1 − ρ ) ⋅ a
1
2
1
2

3.3 Structural analysis of members

In the following explanations the analyses are presented in general. Re-
spectively, they have a validity for all classes of cross-section. Therefore
the resistances and sections properties have to be adapted to the appli-
cable class of cross-section, compare 3.1.2: Section properties and resis-
tances. But all limit states can be proved simplified by the elastic resis-
tances.
The buckling resistance check of members will be carried out at a single
span member regarded cut out of the system and in consideration of
1. the global deformation and the first-order analysis or
2. the internal forces and moments by a second-order analysis. Then
the buckling length is equal to the system length.
3.3.1 Buckling length Lcr

General
The buckling length Lcr will be equal to the length of the global deforma-
tion, if second-order effects are neglected (first-order analysis).
Generally, the condition (3.52) applies.
L cr = β ⋅ L (3.52)
with
β coefficient of buckling length
L system length
If the internal forces and moments are determined on the basis oft a sec-
ond-order analysis, the buckling length will be equal to the system length.
Triangulated and lattice structures

Annex BB.1
Table 3.6: Buckling length Lcr of triangulated and lattic structures
L = system length
Buckling
Members
in-plane out-of-plane
General Lcr = L Lcr = L
Chord mem-
I- and H-sections Lcr = 0,9 L Lcr = L
bers
Hollow section Lcr = 0,9 L Lcr = 0,9 L
General Lcr = 0,9 L Lcr = L
Triangulated
Angels,
structures Lcr = L Lcr = L
connected by one bolt
The stiffness of triangulated structures of angles, that are connected with

one bolt, must be considered by an effective non-dimensional slender-

ness. The slenderness for buckling about each axis should be taken as
follows:
- λeff ,v = 0,35 + 0,7 λv ; for buckling about v-v axis
- λeff ,y = 0,50 + 0,7 λ y ; for buckling about y-y axis
- λeff ,z = 0,50 + 0,7 λz ; for buckling about z-z axis

This specifications of the buckling length will be applicable, if no exact
length is assessed, see for example [13].
3.3.2 Uniform members in compression
Simplified assessment method for flexural buckling

EN 1993-1-1, 6.3.1.2, (4)
If the following condition is satisfied, i.e. the non-dimensional slenderness
Critical buckling force
is λ ≤ 0,2 , so flexural buckling does not occur. π 2 EI
Ncr = 2
L cr
NEd
Criterion: ≤ 0,04 (3.53)
Ncr
with
Ncr elastic critical force for the relevant buckling mode based on the
gross cross sectional properties
Flexural buckling
EN 1993-1-1,
NEd
Check: ≤ 1,0 (3.54)
equation (6.46) and
Nb,Rd (6.47) or (6.48) respec-
tively
χ ⋅ A ⋅ fy
Nb,Rd = (3.55)
γ M1
Class 4 sections with additional moments as a result of eccentricity of the
axial force must comply with the interaction, that is given in 3.2.9.

Reduction factor χ
• Non-dimensional slenderness λ
I-, H- and rectangular cross-sections
EN 1993-1-1, equation
A ⋅ fy L 1 (6.50) or (6.51)
λ = = cr ⋅ Class 1-3 cross-sections (3.56)
Ncr i λ1
A eff
A eff ⋅ f y L cr A Class 4 cross-sections (3.57)
λ = = ⋅
Ncr i λ1
with
A gross cross-section π 2 EI
Ncr = 2
L cr
Aeff effective cross-section
E
λ1 = π ⋅
Ncr elastic critical force for the relevant buckling mode based on the fy
gross cross sectional properties
Lcr buckling length for the plane considered; chapter 3.3.1: Buckling
length Lcr
i radius of gyration about the relevant axis, determined the proper-
ties of the gross cross-section
λ1 slenderness value
235
λ1= 93,9ε with ε =
fy
fy 235 275 355 420 460

λ1 93,9 86,4 76,0 70,4 66,7
For compression members, which are symmetrical to one axis or have a

restrained axis, for example T- and U- sections, it has to be verified,
which of the two failures, flexural or torsional buckling is the proper fail-
ure. Therefore both slenderness ratios λ and λT have to be assessed.
The maximum value must be used to analyses buckling.
Non-dimensional slenderness λT for torsional buckling
A ⋅ fy
λT = (3.58) EN 1993-1-1,
Ncr equation (6.52)

with
Ncr = Ncr,TF < Ncr,T
Ncr,TF elastic torsional-flexural buckling force Ncr ,T see [13]
Ncr,T elastic torsional buckling force

For the resistance against torsional buckling, the buckling curve, relates
to the z-z axis is valid.
• Imperfection factor α
First of all, the buckling curve must be selected on the basis of the ge-
ometry of the cross section and the loaded axis, therefore see Table 3.7.
1,1
1,0
0,9
a0
a
0,8 b
c
χ
0,7
Reduction factor χ
d
0,6
EN 1993-1-1, Figure 6.4
0,5 In addition to the known
buckling curve, a buck-
0,4 ling curve a0 for S 460 is
mentioned.
0,3
0,2
0,1
0,0
0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2,0 2,2 2,4 2,6 2,8 3,0
_
Non-dimensional slenderness λ
Figure 3.10: Buckling curves

Table 3.7: Selection of buckling curve for a cross-section

Buckling curve
Buckling S 235
Cross section Limits about S 275 EN 1993-1-1, Table 6.2
axis S 460
S 355
S 420
tf z
y–y a a0
tf ≤ 40 mm
h/b > 1,2

z–z b a0
Rolled sections
y–y b a
40 mm < tf ≤ 100
z–z c a
h y y
y–y b a
tf ≤ 100 mm
h/b ≤ 1,2
z–z c a
z y–y d c
tf > 100 mm
b z–z d c
tf tf y–y b b
tf ≤ 40 mm
I-sections
z–z c c
Welded
y y y y
y–y c c
tf > 40 mm
z–z d d
z z
hot finished any a a0

sections
Hollow
cold formed any c c
z tf
generally (except as
any b b
Welded box
below)
sections
h y y
tw thick welds: a > 0,5tf

b/tf < 30 any c c
z b h/tw <30
solid sections
U-, T- and
any c c
L-sections
any b b
Table 3.8: Imperfection factor α for buckling curves

Buckling curve a0 a b c d EN 1993-1-1, Tab. 6.1,
in addition: a0 for S 460
Imperfection factor α or αLT 0,13 0,21 0,34 0,49 0,76
• Reduction factor χ EN 1993-1-1,

equation (6.49)
1
χ = ≤ 1,0 (3.59) and
φ + φ 2 − λ2
6.3.1.2 (1)
The value φ is defined as follows:

φ = 0,5 [1 + α (λ − 0,2) + λ ² ] (3.60)
with
λ maximum of non-dimensional slenderness for buckling or tor-
sional buckling
In range of λ ≤ 0,2 , χ = 1,0.

3.3.3 Uniform members in bending: Lateral torsional buckling

Continuous lateral restraints
This simplified check of lateral-torsional buckling for structures with EN 1993-1-1, Annex B,
BB.2.1
trapezoidal sheeting profiles according to EN 1993-1-3 can be used, if
the profiles are connected with the beam at each rib. For profile, that are
connected only at each second rip, the shear stiffness has to be reduced
as 0,2 S.
⎛ π2 π2 ⎞ 70
S ≥ ⎜⎜ EI w 2 + GIt + EI z 2 0,25 h 2 ⎟⎟ (3.61)
⎝ L L ⎠ h2
with
S shear stiffness provided by the sheeting regarding its deforma-
tion in the plane and connected to the beam at each rib, see EN
1993-1-3
Iw warping constant
It torsion constant
Iz second moment of inertia of the cross-section about the minor
axis of the cross-section
L beam length
h depth of the beam
Continuous torsional restraints

EN 1993-1-1, Annex B,
Lateral-torsional buckling can also be avoided, if a rotation is restrained BB.2.2
by abutting members.
2
Mpl,k
Cϑ ,k > KϑKυ (3.62)
EIz
with
Cϑ,k rational stiffness provided to the beam by the stabilising contin-
uum and the connections
Kυ 0,35 for elastic analysis
Kυ 1,0 for plastic analysis
Kϑ factor for considering the moment distribution and the type of
restraint
Mpl,Rk characteristic value of the plastic moment of the beam

1 1 1 1
= + + (3.63)
Cϑ ,k CϑR,k CϑC,k CϑD,k
with
CϑR,k rotational stiffness provided by the stabilising continuum to the
beam assuming a stiff connection to the member
CϑC,k rotational stiffness of the connection between the beam and the
stabilising continuum
CϑD,k rotational stiffness deduced from an analysis of the distorsional
deformations of the beam cross sections, where the flange in
compression not restrained; where the compression flange is the
restrained or where distorsional deformations of the cross sec-
tions may be neglected (e.g. for usual rolled profiles) CϑD,k
= ∞.
For more information see EN 1993-1-3 or [13].
Table 3.9: Factor Kϑ for considering the moment distribution and the type of restraint
without with
Case Moment distribution translational translational
restraint restraint
1 M 4,0 0
M
2a 0,12
M
3,5
M M
2b 0,23
M
3 M 2,8 0
4 M 1,6 1,0
M
5 5M 1,0 0,7
5 -0,3
Simplified calculation method for lateral-torsional buckling

EN 1993-1-1, 6.3.2.4 (1)
compression
Figure 3.11: Definition of the regarded part of the cross-section in compression to use in
the simplified calculation method
k cL c M
λf = ≤ λc 0 c,Rd (3.64)
if , z λ1 My,Ed

with
My,Ed maximum design value of the bending moment within the re-
straint spacing
Wy ⋅ f y
Mc,Rd =
γ M1
Wy appropriate section modulus corresponding to the compression
flange
kc slenderness correction factor for moment distribution between
restraints; see Table 3.10
Lc length between restraints
if,z radius of gyration of the compression flange including 1/3 of the
compressed part of the web area, about the minor axis of the
section
λc 0 slenderness parameter of the above compression element; EN 1993-1-1, 6.3.2.4
NOTE 2B
λc 0 ≤ λLT,0 + 0,1 = 0,4 + 0,1 = 0,5
Table 3.10: Correction factors kc
Moment distribution kc
1,0
ψ=1
1
1,33 − 0,33ψ
-1 ≤ ψ ≤ 1
0,94
0,90
0,91
0,86
0,77
0,82
If the formula (3.64) is not satisfied, the following check has to be carried
EN 1993-1-1, 6.3.2.4 (2)
out:
MEd
Check: ≤ 1,0 (3.65)
Mb,Rd
Mb,Rd = k fl χ Mc,Rd ≤ Mc,Rd (3.66)

with
kfl modification factor accounting to the conservatism of the equiva-
lent compression flange method
kfl = 1,10
Mc,Rd design resistance for bending
Wy ⋅ fy
Mc,Rd =
γ M1
Reduction factor χ for the simplified calculation method
The reduction factor χ must be determined on the basis of equation
(3.59), that is comparable to the resistance of flexural buckling. But the
non-dimensional slenderness λ must be simply substituted by the non-
dimensional slenderness λf only. Moreover the imperfection factor α is
defined in Table 3.11.
Table 3.11: Buckling curve for the simplified calculation method of lateral-torsional buck- derived from
ling EN 1993-1-1, 6.3.2.4,
(3)B
Cross section Limits Buckling curve h overall depth of the
cross-section
h/tf ≤ 44ε d tf thickness of the
welded sections compression flange
h/tf > 44ε c
other sections - c
EN 1993-1-1, 6.3.2.1
Lateral torsional buckling
MEd
Check: ≤ 1,0 (3.67)
Mb,Rd
fy
Mb,Rd = χ LT ⋅ Wy ⋅ (3.68)
γ M1
Reduction factor χLT

• Non-dimensional slenderness λLT
For the determination
Wy ⋅ fy of Mcr see information
λLT = (3.69) in literature, for exam-
Mcr ple [13] or EN 1993
(1993), Annex F.
with

Mcr elastic critical moment for lateral-torsional buckling

Lateral-torsional buckling does not have to be considered, if the non-
dimensional slenderness will be λLT ≤ 0,4 .
• Reduction factor χLT for torsional buckling (general case)

The verification of the factor χLT is like the one for flexural buckling. But
the buckling curves are different, compare Table 3.12.
EN 1993-1-1, Table 6.4
Table 3.12: Selection of buckling curves to determine χLT (general case)
Cross sections Limits Buckling curves

h/b ≤ 2 a
rolled I-sections
h/b > 2 b
h/b ≤ 2 c
welded I-sections
h/b > 2 d
other cross sections - d
• Reduction factor χLT for torsional buckling of rolled sections and

equivalent welded sections
⎧ 1,0 EN 1993-1-1, 6.3.2.3
1 ⎪
χ LT = ≤⎨ 1 (3.70)
equation (6.57)
φLT + φLT ² − β λLT ² ⎪ λ ² hyperbola of Euler

⎩ LT
The value φLT is defined as follows:
φLT = 0,5 [1 + α LT (λLT − λLT,0 ) + β λLT ² ] (3.71)
with
λLT,0 ≤ 0,4 and β ≥ 0,75 .
For a simple determination, the reduction factor χLT is summarised tabu-
larly for λLT in chapter 4.6.
EN 1993-1-1, Table 6.5

Table 3.13: Selection of buckling curves to determine χLT according to equation (3.70)
Cross section Limits Buckling curve

h/b ≤ 2 b
rolled I-sections
h/b > 2 c
h/b ≤ 2 c
welded I-sections
h/b > 2 d
Cross sections, which are not classified for this method, for example
cross sections with larger dimensions then rolled sections have to be
proved in consideration of the general case.

3.3.4 Uniform members in bending and axial compression: I-, H-

and hollow sections
The interaction formulae are based on the modelling of simply supported
single span members with end fork conditions, which are subjected to
compression forces, end moments or transverse loads.
(1) Uniaxial bending and axial force
Members without torsional deformations
- Deflection normal to y-y axis EN 1993-1-1, equation
(6.61) interpreted for
NEd My,Ed + ∆My,Ed cross-sections without
+ k yy ≤ 1,0 susceptible torsional
NRk My,Rk (3.72) deformations
χy
γ M1 γ M1
- Deflection normal to z-z axis EN 1993-1-1, equation
(6.62) interpreted
Simplifying, it should be verified (kzy = 0): compare note in
table B.1 last line;
kzy = 0
NEd
≤ 1,0
NRk (3.73)
χz
γ M1
Members with torsional deformations

EN 1993-1-1, equation
- Deflection normal to y-y axis (6.61) and (6.62) inter-
preted
NEd M y,Ed + ∆M y,Ed
+ k yy ≤ 1,0
NRk M y,Rk (3.74)
χy χ LT
γ M1 γ M1
- Deflection normal to z-z axis
NEd M y,Ed + ∆M y,Ed
+ k zy ≤ 1,0
NRk M y,Rk (3.75)
χz χ LT
γ M1 γ M1

(2) Bi-axial bending and axial force

For bi-axial bending and axial force, the maxima bending moments My,Ed
and Mz,Ed must be used independently from their point of occurrence.
Members without torsional deformations

(6.61) and (6.62) inter-
NEd M y,Ed + ∆M y,Ed M + ∆Mz,Ed preted for cross-
+ k yy + k yz z,Ed ≤ 1,0 sections without sus-
NRk M y,Rk M z,Rk (3.76)
χy ceptible torsional de-
γ M1 γ M1 γ M1 formations

NEd M y,Ed + ∆M y,Ed M + ∆M z,Ed
+ k zy + k zz z,Ed ≤ 1,0
χz
γ M1 γ M1 γ M1
Members with torsional deformations

(6.61) and (6.62)
NEd M y,Ed + ∆M y,Ed M + ∆Mz,Ed
+ k yy + k yz z,Ed ≤ 1,0
χy χ LT
γ M1 γ M1 γ M1
NEd M y,Ed + ∆M y,Ed M + ∆M z,Ed
+ k zy + k zz z,Ed ≤ 1,0
χz χ LT
γ M1 γ M1 γ M1
with
χy; χz reduction factors due to flexural buckling according to equation
(3.59)
χLT reduction factors due to torsional buckling according to equation
(3.70)
kij interaction factors

3.3.5 Interaction factor kij according to Annex B
Table 3.14: Equivalent uniform moment factors Cm

EN 1993-1-1, Annex B,
Cmy, Cmz, CmLT Table B.3
Moment diagram range
Uniform loading Concentrated load
L distance between
−1 ≤ ψ ≤ 1 0,6 + 0,4ψ ≥ 0,4 the applicable re-
straint
0 ≤ αs ≤ 1 −1 ≤ ψ ≤ 1 0,2 + 0,8α s ≥ 0,4 0,2 + 0,8α s ≥ 0,4 Mh bending moment
at the restraints
0 ≤ψ ≤1 0,1 − 0,8α s ≥ 0,4 −0,8α s ≥ 0,4 Ms bending moment
−1 ≤ α s < 0 at the half length
α s = M s / Mh −1 ≤ ψ < 0 0,1(1 − ψ ) − 0,8α s ≥ 0,4 0,2(− ψ ) − 0,8α s ≥ 0,4 between the re-
straints
0 ≤ αh ≤ 1 −1 ≤ ψ ≤ 1 0,95 + 0,05α h 0,9 + 0,10α h
0 ≤ψ ≤1 0,95 + 0,05α h 0,9 + 0,10α h

−1 ≤ α h < 0
α h = Mh / Ms
−1 ≤ ψ < 0 0,95 + 0,05α h (1 + 2ψ ) 0,90 − 0,10α h (1 + 2ψ )
The part of the beam between the restraints and the bending moment,
that produces the corresponding failure are decisive for the assessment
of Cm.
- Cmy: My with restraints in z-z plane
- CmLT: My with restraints in y-y plane
- Cmz: Mz with restraints in y-y plane
Table 3.15: Interaction factor kij’for members not susceptible to torsional deformations
EN 1993-1-1, Annex B,
Interaction
Type of section Class 1 and 2 Class 3 and 4 Table B.1
factor
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ NEd ⎞⎟
⎜
(
Cmy ⎜ 1 + λ y − 0,2
χ
NEd
) ⎟
⎟
C my ⎜1 + 0,6λ y
⎜ χ ⎟
⎝ y NRd ⎠ ⎝ y NRd ⎠
I-sections
kyy
RHS-sections ⎛ N ⎞ ⎛ N ⎞
≤ Cmy ⎜1 + 0,8 Ed ⎟ ≤ C my ⎜1 + 0,6 Ed ⎟
⎜ χ yNRd ⎟⎠ ⎜ χ yNRd ⎟⎠
⎝ ⎝
I-sections
kyz 0,6 kzz kzz
RHS-sections
I-sections
kzy 0,6 kyy 0,8 kyy
RHS-sections
⎛ ⎞
(
Cmz ⎜⎜1 + 2λ z − 0,6
χ
)
NEd
⎟
⎟
⎝ zNRd ⎠
I-sections
⎛ N ⎞ ⎛ NEd ⎞
≤ C mz ⎜⎜ 1 + 0,8 Ed ⎟⎟ C mz ⎜⎜1 + 0,6λ z ⎟
⎝ χ N
z Rd ⎠ ⎝ χ zNRd ⎟⎠
kzz
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
(
Cmz ⎜⎜1 + λ z − 0,2
χ
)
NEd
⎟
⎟ χ
N
≤ C mz ⎜⎜ 1 + 0,6 Ed ⎟⎟
N
⎝ zNRd ⎠ ⎝ z Rd ⎠
RHS-sections
⎛ N ⎞
≤ C mz ⎜⎜ 1 + 0,8 Ed ⎟⎟
⎝ χ zNRd ⎠
NRk A ⋅ fy
with NRd = =
γ M1 γ M1

Table 3.16: Interaction factor kij’for members susceptible to torsional deformations

Interaction Type of sec- EN 1993-1-1, Annex
Class 1 and 2 Class 3 and 4 B, Table B.2
factor tions
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ NEd ⎞⎟
⎜
(
C my ⎜ 1 + λ y − 0,2
χ
NEd
) ⎟
⎟
C my ⎜ 1 + 0,6λ y
⎜ χ yNRd ⎟⎠
The factors kyy, kyz
and kz are identical
⎝ y NRd ⎠ ⎝
kyy I-sections with the factor of
⎛ N ⎞ ⎛ N ⎞ members without
≤ C my ⎜1 + 0,8 Ed ⎟ ≤ C my ⎜1 + 0,6 Ed ⎟ torsional deforma-
⎜ χ y NRd ⎟⎠ ⎜ χ yNRd ⎟⎠
⎝ ⎝ tions.
kyz I-sections 0,6 kzz kzz
⎡ 0,1λ z NEd ⎤
⎢1 − ⎥
⎣ (C mLT − 0,25 ) χ zNRd ⎦
⎡ 0,1 NEd ⎤ ⎡
≥ ⎢1 − ⎥ 0,05λ z NEd ⎤
⎣ (C − 0,25 ) χ z NRd ⎦
⎢1 −
(C − 0, 25 ) χ
⎥
z NRd ⎦
mlT
I-sections ⎣ mLT
kzy
⎡ 0,05 NEd ⎤
for λ z < 0,4 ≥ ⎢1 − ⎥
⎣ (C mLT − 0,25 ) χ z NRd ⎦
0,6 + λ z
0,1λ z NEd
≤ 1−
(CmLT − 0,25 ) χ zNRd
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ NEd ⎞
(
Cmz ⎜⎜1 + 2λ z − 0,6
χ
)
NEd
⎟
⎟ C mz ⎜⎜1 + 0,6λ z
χ
⎟
⎟
⎝ zNRd ⎠ ⎝ z NRd ⎠
kzz I-sections
⎛ N ⎞ ⎛ N ⎞
≤ C mz ⎜⎜ 1 + 0,8 Ed ⎟⎟ ≤ C mz ⎜⎜1 + 0,6 Ed ⎟⎟
⎝ χ zNRd ⎠ ⎝ χ zNRd ⎠
NRk A ⋅ fy
with NRd = =
γ M1 γ M1

4 Design aids
4.1 Initial sway imperfection
Table 4.1: Initial sway imperfection φ in· 10-3 (%)

m
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
h
≤4 4,330 4,082 3,953 3,873 3,819 3,780 3,750 3,727 3,708
4,2 4,226 3,984 3,858 3,780 3,727 3,689 3,660 3,637 3,619
4,4 4,129 3,892 3,769 3,693 3,641 3,604 3,575 3,553 3,536
4,6 4,038 3,807 3,686 3,612 3,561 3,525 3,497 3,475 3,458
4,8 3,953 3,727 3,608 3,536 3,486 3,450 3,423 3,402 3,385
5 3,873 3,651 3,536 3,464 3,416 3,381 3,354 3,333 3,317
5,2 3,798 3,581 3,467 3,397 3,349 3,315 3,289 3,269 3,252
5,4 3,727 3,514 3,402 3,333 3,287 3,253 3,227 3,208 3,191
5,6 3,660 3,450 3,341 3,273 3,227 3,194 3,169 3,150 3,134
5,8 3,596 3,390 3,283 3,216 3,171 3,139 3,114 3,095 3,079
6 3,536 3,333 3,227 3,162 3,118 3,086 3,062 3,043 3,028
6,2 3,478 3,279 3,175 3,111 3,067 3,036 3,012 2,993 2,978
6,4 3,423 3,227 3,125 3,062 3,019 2,988 2,965 2,946 2,932
6,6 3,371 3,178 3,077 3,015 2,973 2,942 2,919 2,901 2,887
6,8 3,321 3,131 3,032 2,970 2,929 2,899 2,876 2,858 2,844
7 3,273 3,086 2,988 2,928 2,887 2,857 2,835 2,817 2,803
7,2 3,227 3,043 2,946 2,887 2,846 2,817 2,795 2,778 2,764
7,4 3,184 3,002 2,906 2,847 2,808 2,779 2,757 2,740 2,726
7,6 3,141 2,962 2,868 2,810 2,770 2,742 2,721 2,704 2,690
7,8 3,101 2,924 2,831 2,774 2,735 2,707 2,685 2,669 2,655
8 3,062 2,887 2,795 2,739 2,700 2,673 2,652 2,635 2,622
8,2 3,024 2,851 2,761 2,705 2,667 2,640 2,619 2,603 2,590
8,4 2,988 2,817 2,728 2,673 2,635 2,608 2,588 2,572 2,559
8,6 2,953 2,784 2,696 2,641 2,604 2,578 2,557 2,542 2,529
8,8 2,919 2,752 2,665 2,611 2,575 2,548 2,528 2,513 2,500
9≤ 2,887 2,722 2,635 2,582 2,546 2,520 2,500 2,485 2,472
Initial sway imperfection: φ = φ 0 ⋅ α h ⋅ α m
φ0 = 1/200
2 2
αh = but ≤ α h ≤ 1,0
h 3
h: height of the structure in meters
⎛ 1⎞
α m = 0,5 ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ m⎠
m: the number of columns in one row including only those columns which carry a verti-
cal load NEd not less than 50% of the average value of the column in the vertical
plane considered

4.2 Classification of cross-sections

Table 4.2: Classification of IPE-sections
Compression Bending
IPE
S 235 S 275 S 355 S 460 S 235 S 275 S 355 S 460
80 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
100 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
120 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
140 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1
160 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1
180 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 1
200 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 1
220 1 1 2 4 1 1 1 1
240 1 2 2 4 1 1 1 1
260 - - - - - - - -
270 2 2 3 4 1 1 1 1
280 - - - - - - - -
300 2 2 4 4 1 1 1 1
320 - - - - - - - -
330 2 3 4 4 1 1 1 1
340 - - - - - - - -
360 2 3 4 4 1 1 1 1
400 3 3 4 4 1 1 1 1
450 3 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
500 3 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
550 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
600 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
650 - - - - - - - -
700 - - - - - - - -
800 - - - - - - - -
900 - - - - - - - -
1000 - - - - - - - -
Table 4.3: Classification of HEA-sections

Compression Bending
HEA
S 235 S 275 S 355 S 460 S 235 S 275 S 355 S 460
80 - - - - - - - -
100 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
120 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
140 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
160 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
180 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 3
200 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 3
220 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 3
240 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 3
260 1 1 3 3 1 1 3 3
270 - - - - - - - -
280 1 2 3 3 1 2 3 3
300 1 2 3 3 1 2 3 3
320 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 3
330 - - - - - - - -
340 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3
360 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
400 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 1
450 1 1 2 4 1 1 1 1
500 1 2 3 4 1 1 1 1
550 2 3 4 4 1 1 1 1
600 2 3 4 4 1 1 1 1
650 3 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
700 3 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
800 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
900 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
1000 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 2

Table 4.4: Classification of HEB-sections
Compression Bending
HEB
S 235 S 275 S 355 S 460 S 235 S 275 S 355 S 460
80 - - - - - - - -
100 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
120 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
140 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
160 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
180 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
200 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
220 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
240 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
260 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
270 - - - - - - - -
280 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
300 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
320 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
330 - - - - - - - -
340 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
360 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
400 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
450 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1
500 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1
550 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 1
600 1 2 3 4 1 1 1 1
650 2 2 3 4 1 1 1 1
700 2 2 4 4 1 1 1 1
800 3 3 4 4 1 1 1 1
900 3 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
1000 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
Table 4.5: Classification of HEM-sections
Compression Bending
HEM
S 235 S 275 S 355 S 460 S 235 S 275 S 355 S 460
80 - - - - - - - -
100 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
120 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
140 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
160 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
180 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
200 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
220 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
240 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
260 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
270 - - - - - - - -
280 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
300 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
320 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
330 - - - - - - - -
340 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
360 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
400 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
450 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
500 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
550 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
600 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
650 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1
700 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 1
800 1 2 3 4 1 1 1 1
900 2 3 4 4 1 1 1 1
1000 3 4 4 4 1 1 1 1

4.3 Effective shear area AV

I-sections: Loaded parallel to the web
Table 4.6: Effective shear area AV [cm²]

nominal
height
I IPE IPE a IPE o HEA A HEA HEB HEM
80 3,30 3,57 - - - - - -
100 4,72 5,06 - - 6,15 7,52 9,00 18,00
120 6,45 6,15 5,38 - 6,95 8,42 10,96 21,15
140 8,32 7,62 6,22 - 7,90 10,11 13,12 24,50
160 10,54 9,67 7,82 - 10,42 13,24 17,64 30,86
180 13,00 11,20 9,22 12,70 12,13 14,52 20,29 34,40
200 15,60 12,18 11,50 15,49 15,42 18,05 24,85 40,75
220 18,55 13,92 13,59 17,67 17,67 20,63 27,88 44,87
240 21,75 16,48 16,30 21,34 21,57 25,14 33,24 60,48
260 25,41 - - - 24,78 28,74 37,15 67,25
270 - 43,24 18,70 25,19 - - - -
280 29,43 - - - 27,50 31,78 40,73 71,87
300 33,75 50,70 22,22 29,02 32,36 37,75 47,35 90,45
320 38,34 - - - 35,42 40,77 51,43 94,80
330 - 59,05 26,95 34,87 - - - -
340 43,26 - - - 39,19 44,48 56,19 98,80
360 48,84 68,53 29,80 40,18 42,56 49,20 60,96 102,60
400 60,37 79,81 35,78 47,99 48,26 57,35 70,20 110,40
450 76,19 93,45 42,22 59,74 54,64 65,76 79,68 119,40
500 93,68 109,68 50,31 70,50 62,03 75,18 90,18 129,20
550 109,10 126,88 60,01 82,61 72,83 83,96 100,01 139,20
600 135,68 147,75 70,12 104,60 81,23 92,75 110,85 150,00
650 - - - - 90,64 103,55 121,70 160,00
700 - - - - 100,39 116,50 136,72 169,80
800 - - - - 123,32 139,00 161,58 194,00
900 - - - - 147,00 163,80 188,48 214,80
1000 - - - - 171,96 184,72 212,44 234,80

4.4 Interaction of bending and shear
Table 4.7: Reduction factor ρ dependent on the utilisation ratio n
n ρ (1-ρ) n ρ (1-ρ)
0,51 0,0004 0,9996 0,76 0,2704 0,7296
0,52 0,0016 0,9984 0,77 0,2916 0,7084
0,53 0,0036 0,9964 0,78 0,3136 0,6864
0,54 0,0064 0,9936 0,79 0,3364 0,6636
0,55 0,0100 0,9900 0,80 0,3600 0,6400
0,56 0,0144 0,9856 0,81 0,3844 0,6156
0,57 0,0196 0,9804 0,82 0,4096 0,5904
0,58 0,0256 0,9744 0,83 0,4356 0,5644
0,59 0,0324 0,9676 0,84 0,4624 0,5376
0,60 0,0400 0,9600 0,85 0,4900 0,5100
0,61 0,0484 0,9516 0,86 0,5184 0,4816
0,62 0,0576 0,9424 0,87 0,5476 0,4524
0,63 0,0676 0,9324 0,88 0,5776 0,4224
0,64 0,0784 0,9216 0,89 0,6084 0,3916
0,65 0,0900 0,9100 0,90 0,6400 0,3600
0,66 0,1024 0,8976 0,91 0,6724 0,3276
0,67 0,1156 0,8844 0,92 0,7056 0,2944
0,68 0,1296 0,8704 0,93 0,7396 0,2604
0,69 0,1444 0,8556 0,94 0,7744 0,2256
0,70 0,1600 0,8400 0,95 0,8100 0,1900
0,71 0,1764 0,8236 0,96 0,8464 0,1536
0,72 0,1936 0,8064 0,97 0,8836 0,1164
0,73 0,2116 0,7884 0,98 0,9216 0,0784
0,74 0,2304 0,7696 0,99 0,9604 0,0396
0,75 0,2500 0,7500 1,00 1,0000 -
V
Utilisation ratio: n = Ed
Vpl,Rd
2
⎛ 2 VEd ⎞
Reduction factor: ρ = ⎜ − 1⎟
⎜ Vpl,Rd ⎟
⎝ ⎠
reducing the yield strength f y,red = (1 − ρ ) ⋅ f y or
reducing the thickness t w,red = (1 − ρ ) ⋅ t w

4.5 Interaction of uniaxial bending and axial force
Table 4.8: Ratio a according to EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.9.1 (5)

nominal
height
I IPE IPE a IPE o HEA HEA A HEB HEM
80 0,35 0,37 - - - - - -
100 0,36 0,39 - - 0,25 0,29 0,23 0,20
120 0,37 0,39 0,41 - 0,24 0,29 0,22 0,20
140 0,38 0,39 0,39 - 0,24 0,27 0,22 0,20
160 0,38 0,40 0,40 - 0,26 0,26 0,23 0,21
180 0,39 0,39 0,40 0,39 0,25 0,26 0,23 0,21
200 0,39 0,40 0,40 0,39 0,25 0,27 0,23 0,21
220 0,39 0,39 0,40 0,39 0,25 0,27 0,23 0,21
240 0,40 0,40 0,40 0,40 0,25 0,28 0,23 0,21
260 0,40 - - - 0,25 0,28 0,23 0,21
270 - 0,40 0,40 0,38 - - - -
280 0,41 - - - 0,25 0,28 0,23 0,21
300 0,41 0,40 0,41 0,39 0,26 0,29 0,23 0,20
320 0,42 - - - 0,25 0,30 0,24 0,21
330 - 0,41 0,41 0,40 - - - -
340 0,42 - - - 0,26 0,32 0,25 0,22
360 0,43 0,41 0,39 0,40 0,27 0,33 0,25 0,23
400 0,43 0,42 0,41 0,41 0,28 0,34 0,27 0,25
450 0,44 0,44 0,42 0,43 0,29 0,36 0,28 0,27
500 0,44 0,45 0,43 0,44 0,30 0,39 0,30 0,29
550 0,43 0,46 0,44 0,45 0,32 0,41 0,31 0,31
600 0,45 0,46 0,44 0,45 0,34 0,43 0,33 0,33
650 - - - - 0,36 0,45 0,35 0,35
700 - - - - 0,38 0,47 0,37 0,37
800 - - - - 0,41 0,50 0,41 0,40
900 - - - - 0,44 0,50 0,43 0,43
1000 - - - - 0,46 0,50 0,46 0,46
A − 2b tf
Ratio of the web-area to the area of cross-section: a= ≤ 0,5
A

Table 4.9: Factor f in [kNm] to determine MN,y,Rd of I-sections, S 235

nominal
height
80 6,48 6,71 - - - - - -
100 11,40 11,51 - - 16,10 22,23 27,68 61,73
120 18,35 17,74 14,69 - 23,15 31,91 43,71 91,54
140 27,61 25,74 20,90 - 33,63 46,36 64,90 129,20
160 39,54 36,28 29,13 - 51,52 66,36 94,21 177,33
180 54,49 48,60 39,69 55,20 69,70 86,77 127,86 232,10
200 73,11 64,77 53,49 73,18 94,78 115,45 170,64 298,90
220 94,86 83,70 70,56 93,95 121,43 152,31 219,41 373,11
240 120,84 107,41 91,75 120,21 156,19 199,82 279,91 555,53
260 151,19 - - - 195,57 247,25 340,19 661,00
270 - 142,18 120,97 166,86 - - - -
280 186,46 - - - 239,11 298,96 407,46 776,34
300 225,68 184,86 159,86 216,55 293,22 373,12 497,40 1.066,51
320 271,31 - - - 331,11 437,23 570,19 1.164,31
330 - 237,98 208,16 276,28 - - - -
340 321,60 - - - 374,18 498,46 642,96 1.244,70
360 380,79 300,76 264,33 348,11 420,30 563,70 721,48 1.320,57
400 513,94 390,29 337,96 445,31 516,12 700,76 881,62 1.495,74
450 722,13 512,28 443,79 609,63 625,60 886,14 1.090,35 1.719,31
500 977,34 666,36 580,99 789,21 751,70 1.091,24 1.330,30 1.949,61
550 1.272,51 848,94 745,46 989,14 923,29 1.293,08 1.561,98 2.206,17
600 1.657,21 1.077,16 944,79 1.362,15 1.085,72 1.514,20 1.810,44 2.470,53
650 - - - - 1.265,13 1.754,68 2.084,65 2.747,63
700 - - - - 1.482,89 2.038,60 2.402,78 3.029,87
800 - - - - 1.948,93 2.575,89 3.015,67 3.666,00
900 - - - - 2.506,67 3.258,31 3.775,52 4.323,32
1000 - - - - 3.064,40 3.922,73 4.535,19 5.040,46
To determine MN,y,Rd use the following equation:

NEd
MN,y,Rd = (1 − n) ⋅ f with utilisation ratio n =
Npl,Rd

Table 4.10: Factor f in [kNm] to determine MN,y,Rd of I-sections, S 355

nominal
height
80 9,78 10,13 - - - - - -
100 17,21 17,39 - - 24,32 33,58 41,82 93,24
120 27,72 26,80 22,19 - 34,97 48,20 66,03 138,29
140 41,71 38,88 31,57 - 50,80 70,03 98,05 195,18
160 59,73 54,81 44,01 - 77,83 100,25 142,31 267,88
180 82,31 73,42 59,95 83,38 105,29 131,08 193,15 350,62
200 110,44 97,84 80,80 110,55 143,18 174,41 257,78 451,54
220 143,29 126,44 106,59 141,92 183,44 230,09 331,46 563,64
240 182,55 162,26 138,61 181,59 235,94 301,85 422,84 839,21
260 228,39 - - - 295,43 373,50 513,90 998,54
270 - 214,78 182,74 252,07 - - - -
280 281,67 - - - 361,21 451,62 615,52 1.172,77
300 340,92 279,26 241,49 327,13 442,95 563,65 751,39 1.611,11
320 409,85 - - - 500,19 660,50 861,35 1.758,85
330 - 359,50 314,46 417,37 - - - -
340 485,83 - - - 565,24 753,00 971,28 1.880,29
360 575,23 454,34 399,31 525,87 634,92 851,54 1.089,89 1.994,91
400 776,38 589,58 510,53 672,71 779,67 1.058,60 1331,81 2.259,53
450 1.090,88 773,87 670,41 920,94 945,05 1.338,63 1.647,12 2.597,26
500 1.476,41 1.006,62 877,66 1.192,21 1.135,55 1.648,47 2.009,60 2.945,15
550 1.922,30 1.282,43 1.126,13 1.494,23 1.394,76 1.953,38 2.359,59 3.332,73
600 2.503,45 1.627,19 1.427,23 2.057,72 1.640,13 2.287,41 2.734,92 3.732,08
650 - - - - 1.911,15 2.650,69 3.149,15 4.150,67
700 - - - - 2.240,11 3.079,58 3.629,73 4.577,04
800 - - - - 2.944,13 3.891,24 4.555,58 5.538,00
900 - - - - 3.786,67 4.922,13 5.703,44 6.530,98
1000 - - - - 4.629,20 5.925,82 6.851,04 7.614,32
To determine MN,y,Rd use the following equation:
NEd
MN,y,Rd = (1 − n) ⋅ f with utilisation ratio n =
Npl,Rd

4.6 Reduction factor χ and χLT
Table 4.11: Reduction factor χ for flexural buckling
Buckling curve
λ
a0 a b c d
0,2 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000
0,3 0,9859 0,9775 0,9641 0,9491 0,9235
0,4 0,9701 0,9528 0,9261 0,8973 0,8504
0,5 0,9513 0,9243 0,8842 0,8430 0,7793
0,6 0,9276 0,8900 0,8371 0,7854 0,7100
0,7 0,8961 0,8477 0,7837 0,7247 0,6431
0,8 0,8533 0,7957 0,7245 0,6622 0,5797
0,9 0,7961 0,7339 0,6612 0,5998 0,5208
1,0 0,7253 0,6656 0,5970 0,5399 0,4671
1,1 0,6482 0,5960 0,5352 0,4842 0,4189
1,2 0,5732 0,5300 0,4781 0,4338 0,3762
1,3 0,5053 0,4703 0,4269 0,3888 0,3385
1,4 0,4461 0,4179 0,3817 0,3492 0,3055
1,5 0,3953 0,3724 0,3422 0,3145 0,2766
1,6 0,3520 0,3332 0,3079 0,2842 0,2512
1,7 0,3150 0,2994 0,2781 0,2577 0,2289
1,8 0,2833 0,2702 0,2521 0,2345 0,2093
1,9 0,2559 0,2449 0,2294 0,2141 0,1920
2,0 0,2323 0,2229 0,2095 0,1962 0,1766
2,1 0,2117 0,2036 0,1920 0,1803 0,1630
2,2 0,1937 0,1867 0,1765 0,1662 0,1508
2,3 0,1779 0,1717 0,1628 0,1537 0,1399
2,4 0,1639 0,1585 0,1506 0,1425 0,1302
2,5 0,1515 0,1467 0,1397 0,1325 0,1214
2,6 0,1404 0,1362 0,1299 0,1234 0,1134
2,7 0,1305 0,1267 0,1211 0,1153 0,1062
2,8 0,1216 0,1182 0,1132 0,1079 0,0997
2,9 0,1136 0,1105 0,1060 0,1012 0,0937
3,0 0,1063 0,1036 0,0994 0,0951 0,0882

Table 4.12: Reduction factor χLT for lateral torsional buckling, equation (3.70)
Buckling curve
λLT
b c d
0,4 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000
0,5 0,9602 0,8126 0,6892
0,6 0,9171 0,7989 0,6783
0,7 0,8696 0,7798 0,6621
0,8 0,8171 0,7529 0,6382
0,9 0,7600 0,7158 0,6046
1,0 0,6997 0,6676 0,5605
1,1 0,6386 0,6101 0,5076
1,2 0,5792 0,5476 0,4494
1,3 0,5236 0,4851 0,3905
1,4 0,4728 0,4262 0,3343
1,5 0,4273 0,3728 0,2831
1,6 0,3868 0,3256 0,2378
1,7 0,3460 0,2845 0,1986
1,8 0,3086 0,2490 0,1651
1,9 0,2770 0,2183 0,1368
2,0 0,2500 0,1918 0,1131
2,1 0,2268 0,1690 0,0934
2,2 0,2066 0,1493 0,0769
2,3 0,1890 0,1322 0,0634
2,4 0,1736 0,1174 0,0522
2,5 0,1600 0,1045 0,0430
2,6 0,1479 0,0933 0,0354
2,7 0,1372 0,0835 0,0292
2,8 0,1276 0,0749 0,0241
2,9 0,1189 0,0673 0,0199
3,0 0,1111 0,0607 0,0165

5 Flow charts
The following flow charts should clarify the workflow for a structure analysis that
is defined in the chapters above. The first flow chart: General structural analysis
shows the complete workflow for the design of steel structures. The following
diagrams apply to the first, but they can be regarded separately also.
The sheets should be used as follows:
flow line:
yes It connects the sheets and shows the direction of
reading.
operation:
It determines the basic values for the structural
analysis.
junction:
It seperats the workflows on the basis of criterions.
beginning or ending:
It points the beginning and ending of the flow chart.
change:
It connects flow charts.
subprogram:
It chracterizes values, that have to be calculated by
another flow chart.
junction:
It separats workflows due to checks.

5.1 Design of steel structures
Flow chart 5.1: General procedure of the design of steel structures
1. Determination of the elastic decisive internal forces and moments
Definition of the load case combination for the ulitmate limit state and the serviceability limit state
Determination of the initial Determination of the internal forces and

Check, whether an first-
sway imperfection of the moments and the horizontal
order analysis is
structure and replacement by deformations by a first-order analysis in
permitted
equivalent horizontal forces consideration of the equivalent forces
Definition of the hori-

zontal deflection
Determination of α cr
(1) bracing structure
⎛ H ⎞ ⎛ h ⎟ ⎞
α cr = ⎜⎜ Ed ⎟⎟ ⋅ ⎜ yes
⎝ VEd ⎜ δ H,Ed ⎟
⎠ ⎝ ⎠ α cr ≥ 10
A first-order analysis is
permitted!
(2) other structures
(for example columns)
Fcr no
α cr =
FEd
Three way to consider the additional initial forces and moments due to effects of imperfections and second-order analysis
2. Consideration of the initial sway

3. The iternal forces and moments are
imperfections in a global structural
determined on the basis of an first -
analysis. The influences of the local
1. consideration of all imperfections and order analysis. The design of the
imperfections and the second -order
second-order effects in the global structure will be achieved by a member
analysis are comprehend in the analysis
structural analysis design according to EC 3, chapter 6.
of members. Futhermore the applicable
The buckling length corresponds to the
buckling length is equal to the system
global deformations.
length.
Internal forces and moments by Structural analysis according to

Internal forces and moments by
second-order analysis considering the iternal forces and moments
second-order analysis considering
the initial sway imperfections that are determined above (first-
the initial sway imperfections
order analysis)
Non-dimensional slender-
ness
A ⋅ fy L cr 1
Check, whether an additional bow Check, whether an additional bow λ = = ⋅
imperfection has to be permitted . imperfection has to be permitted . Ncr i λ1
Condition: Condition:
(1) no (1)
A ⋅ fy A ⋅ fy
λ > 0,5 ⋅ or λ > 0,5 ⋅ or
NEd NEd
(2) at least one moment resistant (2) at least one moment resistant
joint at one member end joint at one member end
yes yes
Determination of the local bow Determination of the local bow

imperfection e 0/l according to imperfection e 0/l according to
Table 2.12 and of the additional Table 2.12 and of the additional
iternal forces and moments iternal forces and moments

Flow chart 5.1 (1): Continuation of General procedure of the design of steel structures
2. Ultimate limit state
Analysis of members according

Analysis of cross-sections Analysis of members according to Flow chart 5.13 up to 5.15
according to Flow chart 5.5 up to Flow chart 5.13 up to 5.15 with Lcr = distance between the
to 5.12 (2) with Lcr = L (System length) turningpoints of the buckling
deformation
3. Serviceability limit state
Determination of the maximum horizontal and vertical deformations
The definition of limits for deflection should be specified for each project and agreed with the clients or
taken from ENV 1993-1-1 (1993), Table 4.1 and 4.2.2
Check
Vertical deflection
w ≤ w max
Horizontal deflection
u ≤ umax
3. Design of joints
Bolted connection welded connection
Determination of design loads of the connections and fasteners
Check of the bolted Check of the welded

connections connections
The design of the structure is totally done !

5.2 Basis of design
Flow chart 5.2: Initial sway imperfection φ
Determitation of height of the structure in meters
no yes
h≤4 h≥9
no
yes
2 2
α h = 1,0 αh = αh =
h 3
Determination of the average value of all columns in the vertical plane Nm for every
storey
m: number of columns
that achieves the
condition: NEd > 0,5 Nm
1⎛ 1⎞
αm = ⎜1 + ⎟⎟
2 ⎜⎝ m⎠
Initial sway imperfection
1
φ= ⋅α h ⋅α m
200

5.2.1 Classification of cross-sections

Through the following two flow charts, the classification of one and both Therefore it is possible
to classify the cross-
side supported compression parts of cross-section is given. The proce- sections in a more
favourable class of
dure has to be apply to all total or partial compression parts of cross- cross-section. The
criterions are given in
section. Finally, the cross-section is classified like the highest class of its EN 1993-1-1, 5.5.2,
compression part. (9)-(12).
Flow chart 5.3: Classification of one side supported compression parts

Determination of c/t
c c c c
t t t
t
nein
fy ε
Compression Compression and bending
235 1,0
275 0,92
355 0,81
no 420 0,75
Tip in compression Tip in tension
yes 460 0,71
yes
235
ε =
c/t ≤ fy
c/t ≤ yes yes
max c/t = 9 ε 9ε
α stress distribution
max c/t =
α
about a section part
no
yes c/t ≤
no
9ε
max c/t =
α α
c/t ≤
c/t ≤ yes yes
Class 2 cross-section 10ε no
max c/t = 10 ε
max c/t =
α
no k σ buckling value,
yes c/t ≤
nein
10ε Table 2.6
max c/t =
α α
c/t ≤ yes yes c/t ≤
max c/t = 14 ε max c/t = 21ε k σ no
no
no

Determination of vorh c/t
t t t
c c c
c
c
t t
no no
Compression Bending Compression and bending
yes
yes
ECSC EURO BUILD IN STEEL

no
α > 0,5 α ≥ 0,5
max c/t = 33 ε max c/t = 72 ε
yes
no no c/t ≤ c/t ≤
yes yes
396 ε Class 1 cross-section 36 ε
max c/t = max c/t =
c/t ≤ yes yes c/t ≤ 13 α − 1 α
no no
c/t ≤ yes c/t ≤

no no yes
456 ε Class 2 cross-section
41,5 ε
max c/t = max c/t =
13 α − 1 α
yes yes
c/t ≤ c/t ≤
Class 3 cross-section no no
no
no
ψ > −1 ψ ≤ −1
no
yes

Class 3 cross-section 42 ε
max c/t = 62 ε (1 − ψ ) (− ψ ) max c/t =
0,67 + 0,33ψ
Flow chart 5.4: Classification of both-side supported compression parts
no no
α
ε =
ψ =
with
σ2
σ1
fy
fy
235
PAGE 68 OF 84
460
420
355
275
235
sion stress
ε
1,0
0,71
0,75
0,81
0,92
stress distribution
about a section part
σ1 maximum compres-
5.3 Structural analysis of cross-sections
Flow chart 5.5: Tension

Design value of the axial force N Ed
no
Bolted connection Welded connection
yes
Npl,Rd or Nel,Rd respectively Determination of the cross-section area

A or Aeff for angels
A ⋅ fy Anet net area along the
Npl,Rd = Nel,Rd = connected by:
γ M0 - the smaller leg - the larger leg
critical fracture line
A = A gross A = A eff
Aeff
Cross-section has to be dimensioned new!
Determination of a net area of a

cross-section Anet
Determination of N u,Rd Npl,Rd or Nel,Rd respectively
0,9 ⋅ A net ⋅ fy A ⋅ fy
Nu,Rd = N t,Rd = Npl,Rd = Nel,Rd =
γ M2 γ M0
Angels connected by one leg
2,0(e2 − 0,5d0 ) t ⋅ fu
- 1 bolt: Nu,Rd =
γ M2
β ⋅ A net ⋅ fu
- more bolts: Nu,Rd =
γ M2
β see Table 3.2
γM0 = 1,00
γM2 = 1,25
Nt,Rd = min(Npl,Rd; Nu,Rd)
Check
no
NEd
≤ 1,0
Nt,Rd
ja
Cross-section is analysed!

Flow chart 5.6: Compression

Design value of the axial force N Ed
Classification of the cross-section according to Flow chart 5.3 and 5.4
yes Check of local buckling according to EN 1993-1-5

Class 4 cross-section ⇒ Determination of the effective cross -section
The cross-section has to be dimensioned new!
properties and the shift of the major axes e N
no
Class 1, 2, 3 cross-sections Class 4 cross-section
A ⋅ fy A eff ⋅ fy
Nc,Rd = Npl,Rd = Nel,Rd = Nc,Rd =
γ M0 γ M0 γM0 = 1,00
γM2 = 1,25
Check
no
NEd
≤ 1,0
Nc,Rd
ja
Cross-section is analysed!

Flow chart 5.7: Bending

Design value of the bending moment M Ed
Determination of the normal stress of the cross -section
Determination of the
Af area of flange
yes
Deduction in the tensile A f ,net ⋅ 0,9 ⋅ fu A f ⋅ fy no section modulus
zone of the cross-section? ≥ according to the
γ M2 γ M0 Af,net net area of the
deduction
tension flange
yes with deduction of
no the bolts
No deduction
The Cross-section has to be dimensioned new!
yes Check of local buckling, see EN 1993-1-5

Class 4
⇒ Determination of the effective cross-section properties
cross-section
and the shift of the major axes e N
no
no
Class 1 or 2
Cross-section
yes
γM0 = 1,00
Bending resistance M c,Rd Bending resistance M c,Rd Bending resistance M c,Rd
γM2 = 1,25
Wpl ⋅ f y Wel ⋅ f y W eff ⋅ f y
Mc,Rd = Mpl,Rd = Mc,Rd = Mel,Rd = M c,Rd =
γ M0 γ M0 γ M0
yes Bending M z,Ed about the

z-z axis
no
Check
no My,Ed Mz,Ed
+ ≤ 1,0
Mc,y,Rd Mc,z,Rd
yes
The cross-section is ananlysed!

Flow chart 5.8: shear

Design shear force V Ed
Determination of the normal stress of the cross-section
no
Class 1 and 2 Class 3 and 4 cross-
cross-section section
yes fy ε
235 1,0
Schub-
beulgefahr? no 275 0,92
Plate buckling, see EN 1993-1-5,
Effective shear area A v according to Table 3.3 ε
hw
≤ 72 chapter 5 355 0,81
tw η
420 0,75
ja
460 0,71
Shear resistance V c,Rd

η = 1,2;
I-, H-sections with no for S460 η = 1,0
A v ⎛⎜ f y / 3 ⎞⎟ Af/Aw ≥ 0,6
Vc,Rd = Vpl,Rd = ⎝ ⎠
γ M0
area of flange
ja Af = b ⋅ tf
Check Shear stress τ Ed Shear stress τ Ed area of web
no A w = hw ⋅ t w
VEd VEd VEd ⋅ S
≤ 1,0 τ Ed = τ Ed =
Vc,Rd Aw I⋅ t
γM0 = 1,00
yes
Check
no
fy
τ Ed ≤
3 ⋅ γ M0
yes
The cross-section is analysed!

5.3.1 Interaction
Flow chart 5.9: Interaction bending and shear of I-sections V + M
Design shear force V Ed and bending moment M Ed
Classifiction of the cross-section according to Flow chart 5.3 and 5.4
Av effective shear area

see Table 3.3
Plastic shear resistance V pl,Rd
Check
no
VEd A v ⎛⎜ f y / 3 ⎞⎟
≤ 1,0 ⎝ ⎠
Vpl,Rd Vpl,Rd =
γ M0
ja
Criterion of interaction
no
VEd Interaction is necessary!
≤ 0,5
Vpl,Rd
yes Reduction factor ρ

Querschnitt neu dimensionieren
2
⎛ 2V ⎞
ρ =⎜ Ed
− 1⎟
⎜ Vpl,Rd ⎟
Interaction isn’t necessary! ⎝ ⎠
y-y-axis
⎡ ρ Aw2 ⎤
⎢ Wpl,y − ⎥ ⋅ fy
⎢⎣ 4tw ⎥⎦
Elastic bending resistance M V,y,Rd =
γ M0
Wi ⋅ fy z-z-axis
Mc,Rd =
γ M0 MV,z,Rd: Dertermination by reducing Aw area of web
- the area t red = (1 − ρ ) ⋅ t or A w = hw ⋅ t w
- the yield strength fred = (1 − ρ ) ⋅ f y
of the shear loaded parts of the cross -section γM0 = 1,00
Check
no
Mi,Ed ≤ MV,i,Rd ≤ Mc,i,Rd
yes
Check
no Class 3 and 4 cross- no Class 1 or 2
MEd ≤ Mc,Rd sections cross-sections
yes yes
The cross-section is
Check of shear according to Flow chart 5.8
analysed!

Flow chart 5.10: Interaction bending and axial force N + My

Design normal force N Ed and bending moment M y,Ed
Plastic resistance to normal forces N pl,Rd

no yes
Class 1 or 2 A ⋅ fy
Class 3 or 4 cross-section
cross-section Npl,Rd =
γ M0
Check
no
NEd
≤ 1,0
Npl,Rd
yes
Aw area of web
Interaction is always Interaction isn’t
yes
NEd < 0,25 A w fy,d A w = t w ⋅ hw
necessary! necessary!
and
NEd
Npl,Rd
< 0,5 fy,d = fy/γM0
no
no Interaction is necessary!
Class 4 cross- Class 3 cross-
section section
yes
Factor r to reduce the plastic moment r additional definition

resistance Mpl,Rd
for an easier use;
1− n
r= The coefficient r
1 − 0,5 a
with
isn’t defined in
NEd EN 1993-1-1
n= a = (A − 2bt f ) / A ≤ 0,5
Npl,Rd
no no no
Check Check Check Check

Wi ⋅ fy
no
NEd My,Ed NEd My,Ed + ∆My,Ed Wpl,y ⋅ fy Mc , y,Rd =
+
Nc,Rd Mc,y,Rd
≤ 1,0
Nc,Rd
+
Mc,y,Rd
≤ 1,0 My,Ed ≤ Mc,y,Rd =
γ M0
My,Ed ≤ MN,y,Rd = r ⋅ Mpl,y,Rd ≤ Mpl,y,Rd γ M0
of the corresponding
yes yes yes yes class of cross-section

Flow chart 5.11: Interaction bending about z-z axis and axial force N + Mz
Design normal force N Ed and bending moment M z,Ed about the z-z axis
Determination of the normal stress
Plastic resistance to normal forces N pl,Rd

no yes
Class 1or 2 cross- A ⋅ fy
Class 3 or 4 cross-section
section Npl,Rd =
γ M0 γM0 = 1,00
Check
no NEd
≤ 1,0
Npl,Rd
yes
Aw web area
yes Interaction criterion

Interaction is always
Interaction isn’t necessary! A w = t w ⋅ hw
necessary! NEd < A w fy,d
fy,d = fy/γM0
no
no
Class 4 cross-section Class 3 cross-section Interaction is necessary!
yes
Reduced moment resistance M N,Rd
⎡ ⎛ n − a ⎞2 ⎤
for n > a zu : MN,z,Rd = Mpl,z,Rd ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎝ 1 − a ⎠⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
for n ≤ a zu : MN,z,Rd = Mpl,z,Rd
N
with n = Ed a = (A − 2bt f ) / A ≤ 0,5
Npl,Rd
no no no
NEd M + ∆Mz,Ed NEd M Wpl,z ⋅ fy

+ z,Ed ≤ 1,0 + z,Ed ≤ 1,0 Mz,Ed ≤ Mc,z,Rd = Mz,Ed ≤ MN,z,Rd ≤ Mpl,z,Rd
no Nc,Rd Mc,z,Rd Nc,Rd Mc,z,Rd γ M0
yes yes yes yes

Flow chart 5.12: Interaction of uniaxial bending, shear and axial force N + V + My
Design normal force N Ed, shear force VEd and bending moment M y,Ed
Determination of the normal stress

no
Class 1 or 2 cross-section Class 3 or 4 cross-section
yes
3 1 2

Flow chart 5.12 (1): Continuation of interaction N + V + My
3 1
Plastic shear resistance V pl,Rd

Av effective shear
area, see Table 3.3
A v ⎛⎜ fy / 3 ⎞⎟
γM0 = 1,00
Vpl,Rd = ⎝ ⎠
γ M0
Vz,Ed
≤ 1,0
Vpl,z,Rd
yes no
Interaction isn’t Interaction is
Vz,Ed
≤ 0,5
Vpl,z,Rd
Reduction factor ρ Aw area of web

⎛ 2V ⎞
2
A w = hw ⋅ t w
ρ = ⎜ i,Ed − 1⎟
⎜ Vpl,Rd ⎟
⎝ ⎠ tw web thickness
Determination of the reduced hw depth of the web
cross-section
Plastic resistance to Reduced resistance to normal

normal forces Npl,Rd forces due to shear force N V,pl,Rd
A ⋅ fy A red,V ⋅ fy
Npl,Rd = NV,pl,Rd =
γ M0 γ M0
Reduced resistance to bending

due to shear force M V,y,Rd
⎡ ρ A w 2 ⎤ fy
MV,y,Rd = ⎢ Wpl,y − ⎥⋅
⎢⎣ 4 t w ⎥⎦ γ M0
fy,d = fy/γM0
Criterion Criterion
of interaction of interaction AV,w reduced web
NEd < 0,25 A w fy,d no Interaction is Interaction is no NEd < 0,25 A V,w fy,d area
and necessary! necessary! and
NEd
< 0,5
NEd
< 0,5
A V ,w = (1 − ρ ) ⋅ A w
Npl,Rd NV,pl,Rd
yes yes
Coefficients Coefficients
NEd
tf flange thickness
NEd
n= nV =
Interaction isn’t Npl,Rd NV,pl,Rd
Interaction isn’t b overall breadth
and and
A − 2b t f A red,V − 2 b t f
a= ≤ 0,5 aV = ≤ 0,5
A A red,V
no no no
NEd
≤ 1,0 NEd 1 − n My,Ed NEd 1− nV My,Ed NEd
+
My,Ed
≤ 1,0
Wpl,y ⋅ f y
Npl,Rd +
Nc,Rd 1 − 0,5 a Mc,y,Rd
≤ 1,0 + ≤ 1,0 Nc,Rd MV,y,Rd Mc,y,Rd =
no VEd My,Ed
Nc,Rd 1 − 0,5 a V MV,y,Rd γ M0
≤ 1,0 ≤ 1,0 VEd VEd VEd
Vpl,Rd Mpl,y,Rd ≤ 1,0 ≤ 1,0 ≤ 1,0
Vpl,Rd Vpl,Rd Vpl,Rd
A ⋅ fy
yes yes Nc ,Rd =
yes yes
γ M0

Flow chart 5.12 (2): Continuation of interaction N + V + My
3 2
Interaction due to normal forces is always

necessary!
Av effective shear
area, see Table 3.3
Plastic shear resistance V pl,Rd γM0 = 1,00
A v ⎛⎜ fy / 3 ⎞⎟
Vpl,z,Rd = ⎝ ⎠
γ M0
Interaction due to shear ja no Interaction due to shear
force isn’t necessary! Vz,Ed force is necessary!

≤ 0,5
Vpl,z,Rd
Reduction factor ρ
2
⎛ 2 Vzi,Ed ⎞
ρ =⎜ − 1⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ Vpl,z,Rd ⎠
Reduced resistance to bending

moment due to shear force M V,y,Rd
⎡ ρ A w 2 ⎤ fy
MV,y,Rd = ⎢ Wpl,y − ⎥⋅
⎢⎣ 4 t w ⎥⎦ γ M0
no no
Class 3 cross-
Class 4 cross-section Class 4 cross-section
Class 3 cross- Wi ⋅ fy
section section Mc , y,Rd =
γ M0
yes
no no
yes
no A i ⋅ fy
Nc ,Rd =
Check Check Check Check γ M0
NEd My,Ed NEd My,Ed + ∆My,Ed NEd My,Ed + ∆M y,Ed NEd M y,Ed
+ ≤ 1,0 + ≤ 1,0 + ≤ 1,0 + ≤ 1,0
no Nc,Rd Mc,y,Rd Nc,Rd Mc,y,Rd Nc,Rd MV,y,Rd Nc,Rd MV,y,Rd
of the corresponding
class of cross-section
yes yes yes yes
Structural analysis of shear according to Flow chart 5.8

5.4 Structural analysis of members
Flow chart 5.13: Centrical compression – flexural buckling
Design value to normal forces N Ed; Determination of the material properties
yes local buckling, see EN 1993-1-5

Class 4 cross-
⇒ Determination of the effective cross -section
section
properties and the shift of the major axes e N
no
Buckling length L cr
Euler 1 2 3 4
- Lcr Buckling length is equal to the global deformations ,
for Euler it is : L cr = β ⋅ L
β 2,0 1,0 0,7 0,5
Non-dimesional slenderness
Class 1-3 Class 4 λ = max( λ ; λT ) λ1 = 93,3 ε

A ⋅ fy A eff ⋅ fy π 2EI
λ =
L
= cr ⋅
1
λ = Ncr = 2
Ncr i λ1 Ncr L cr
radius of gyration:
A
i=
Imperfection factor α Determination of the buckling curve I
no
according to the dimensions of the cross -
Curve a0 a b c d section and the direction of flexural λ ≤ 0,2
α 0,13 0,21 0,34 0,49 0,76 buckling, see Table 3.7
yes
Reduction factor χ
[
φ = 0,5 1 + α (λ − 0,2) + λ 2 ] χ=
1 χ = 1,0
φ + φ 2 − λ2
Design buckling resistance N b,Rd

no Has buckling
χ ⋅ A ⋅ fy χ = min χ y ; χ z ⊥ to z-z axis
Nb,Rd =
γ M1 be checked? yes
Check
no
NEd
γM1 = 1,00
≤ 1,0 Class Ai
Nb,Rd
1, 2, 3 A
yes
4 Aeff
The member is analysed!

Flow chart 5.14: Lateral torsional buckling
Design value of the bending moment about the y -y axis My,Ed; Determination of the material properties
Stress distribution of the

cross-section and the
definition of h*
Simplified assessment method for flexural buckling, EN 1993-1-1, 6.3.2.4
Compression area of the flange Corresponding moment of inertia I f,z

- Determination of the stress
with 1/3 of the compressed web About the minor axis
distribution
area 1
- Determination of the heigth h* of the 1 If ,z = ⋅ b ⋅ tf
3
compression web area A f = ⋅ h* ⋅ t w + t f ⋅ b 12

3
Corresponding radius of gyration

Distance Lc between the
Correction factor k c, see Table 3.10 If ,z
restraints i f ,z =
Af
Class Wi,y
1, 2 Wpl,y
Design resistance for bending moment Analysis
Mc,Rd yes
3 Wel,y
k c Lc
λf = Mc,Rd 4 Weff,y
Wi,y ⋅ f y if ,z λ1 λf ≤ 0,5
Mc,Rd = My,Ed
γ M1
no γM1 = 1,00
Determination of the buckling curve

- welded sections
Imperfection factor α
h / t f ≤ 44 ε
[ ]
d
φ = 0,5 1 + α (λf − 0,2) + λf 2 Curve c d
h / t f > 44 ε c
α 0,49 0,76
- other sections c
Design buckling resistance moment M b,Rd Check

Reduction factor χ
Mb,Rd = k fl χ Mc,Rd My,Ed yes
1 ≤ 1,0
χ= Mb,Rd
φ + φ 2 − λf 2 with kfl = 1,1
no
no
3 1 2

Flow chart 5.14 (1): Continuation of lateral torsional buckling
3 1 2
Structural analysis of lateral torsional buckling , EN 1993-1-1, 6.3.2.1

⇒ Determination of χ LT
Mcr elastic critical mo-

ment for lateral tor-
Wi,y ⋅ fy no sional buckling; For
λLT = λLT ≤ 0,4 Buckling curve, see Table 3.12
Mcr determination see for
example [13] or ENV
1993-1-1, Annex F
yes
Imperfection factor αLT

Reduction factor χ LT
χ LT = 1,0 Curve a0 a b c d
α LT 0,13 0,21 0,34 0,49 0,76
Design buckling resistance ⎧ 1,0
⎪
[ ]
moment Mb,Rd 1
χ LT = ≤⎨ 1 φLT = 0,5 1 + αLT (λLT − 0,4) + 0,75 λLT 2
fy ⎪λ 2
Mb,Rd = χ LT Wi,y φLT + φLT 2 − 0,75 λLT 2 ⎩ LT
γ M1
or see Table 4.6
Check
yes
M y,Ed The member is analysed!
≤ 1,0
Mb,Rd

Flow chart 5.15: Bending and compression
Design forces N Ed, My,Ed und Mz,Ed, of first or second order analysis; Determination of the material properties
Buckling length L cr
λ1 = 93,9 ε
- Lcr : Buckling length according to the global deformations , (first order analysis)
- Lcr : Buckling length is equal to the system length L , (second order analysis) fy ε
235 1,0
275 0,92
355 0,81
Non-dimensional slenderness λ (or λT )
420 0,75
Class 1-3 Class4 λ = max(λ ; λT )
460 0,71
A ⋅ fy L cr 1 A eff ⋅ f y
λ = = ⋅ λ =
N cr i λ1 N cr π 2EI
Ncr = 2
L cr
A
Imperfection factor α
Determination of the buckling curve
i=
according to the dimensions of the
no I
Curve a0 a b c d λ ≤ 0,2
cross-section and the direction of
α 0,13 0,21 0,34 0,49 0,76 buckling, see Table 3.7
yes
A new cross-section must be elected or the buckling length has be reduced.
γM1 = 1,00
Reduction factor χ
QSK Ai
1
[
φ = 0,5 1 + α ( λ − 0,2) + λ 2 ] χ=
φ + φ 2 − λ2
χ = 1,0 1, 2, 3 A
4 Aeff
or see Table 4.5
Mcr elastic critical mo-

ment for lateral tor-
sional buckling; For
no
Member with torsional A i ⋅ fy yes Has buckling to determination see for
NRd = ⊥ z-z axis
deformations γ M1 example [13] or ENV
be checked? no
1993-1-1, Annex F
yes
Wy ⋅ f y
Determination of χ LT λLT =
M cr
Class Wi,y
Imperfection factor αLT 1, 2 Wpl,y
Determination of the buckling curve no
according to the ratio h/b λLT ≤ 0,4
3 Wel,y
Curve b c d
see Table 3.12 4 Weff,y
αLT 0,34 0,49 0,76
ja
⎧ 1,0
[
φ LT = 0,5 1 + α LT (λLT − 0,4) + 0,75 λLT
2
] χ LT =
1 ⎪
≤⎨ 1
⎪λ 2
φ LT + φ LT − λLT
2 2
⎩ LT χ LT = 1,0
or see Table 4.6
3 1 2

Flow chart 5.15 (1): Continuation of Bending and compression
3 1 2
Mh1
ψ = Determination of the
Determination of the equivalent Mh 2
equivalent uniform moment factors
uniform moment factors Cmy and Cmz
Mh1= max M Cmy, Cmz and CmLT
Bending moment be-

tween the restraints
Ratio of the support and midspan
Linear moment
no Ms
bending moment Mh > M s ⇒ αs =
Mh
ψ = 1,0 Mh
M s > Mh ⇒ αh =
Ms
yes
Determination of Cmy, Cmz and CmLT

see Table 3.14
Determination of the interaction factors

kyy, kzz, kyz and kzy
see Table 3.15 (without torsional deformation) or
3.16 (with torsional deformation)
Design resistance Mi,Rd depending on the class

of cross-section and the direction of load
Wi ⋅ f y
Mi,Rd =
γ M1
γM1 = 1,00
Check Class Wi
Buckling ⊥ to y-y axis
1, 2 Wpl
NEd
+ k yy
My,Ed + ∆My,Ed
+ k yz
Mz,Ed + ∆Mz,Ed
≤ 1,0 3 Wel
χ y NRd χ LT My,Rd Mz,Rd χ = 1,0
LT 4 Weff
Buckling ⊥ to z-z axis
no My,Ed + ∆My,Ed M + ∆Mz,Ed

NEd
+ k zy + k zz z,Ed ≤ 1,0
χ z NRd χ LT My,Rd Mz,Rd
For members without torsional deformation should

follows: χ = 1,0 LT
yes
The member is analysed!

6 Literature
[1] CEN: Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Part 1-1: General rules and
rules for buildings. English version. prEN 1993-1-1:2003, November 2003
[2] CEN: Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Part 1-8: Design of joints.
English version. prEN 1993-1-8:2003, November 2003
[3] CEN: Eurocode 3: Bemessung und Konstruktion von Stahlbauten, Teil 1-1:
Allgemeine Bemessungsregeln und Regeln für den Hochbau. Deutsche
Fassung. prEN 1993-1-1:2003, November 2003
Bemessung von Anschlüssen. Deutsche Fassung. prEN 1993-1-8:2003,
November 2003
Allgemeine Bemessungsregeln und Regeln für den Hochbau. Deutsche
Fassung. DIN ENV 1993-1-1:1992, April 1993
[6] Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V.: DIN 18800: Stahlbauten, Teil 1:
Bemessung und Konstruktion, November 1990
[7] Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V.: DIN 18800: Stahlbauten, Teil 2:
Stabilitätsfälle, Knicken von Stäben und Stabwerken, November 1990
[8] Piechatzek, Erwin: Einführung in den Eurocode 3: Konzept, Bemessung,
Beispiele, Tabellen, Vieweg Braunschweig/ Wiesbaden 2002
[9] Vayas, Ioannis; Ermopoulos, John; Ioannidis, George: Bemessungs-
beispiele im Stahlbau nach Eurocode 3, Ernst & Sohn Berlin 2001
[10] Fritsch, Reinhold; Pasternak, Hartmut: Stahlbau: Grundlagen und Trag-
werke, Vieweg Braunschweig/ Wiesbaden 1999
[11] Falke, Johannes: Ingenieurhochbau: Tragwerke aus Stahl nach Eurocode
3 (DIN V ENV 1993-1-1): Normen, Erläuterungen, Beispiele, Beuth Verlag
GmbH, Berlin, Wien, Zürich und Werner-Verlag GmbH Düsseldorf 1996
[12] Schneider, Klaus-Jürgen: Bautabellen für Ingenieure mit Berechnungs-
hinweisen und Beispielen, Auflage 13, Werner Verlag Düsseldorf 1998
[13] Petersen, Christian: Statik und Stabilität der Baukonstruktion, Vieweg
Braunschweig/ Wiesbaden 1982
[14] Greiner, Richard; Lindner, Joachim: Die neuen Regelungen in der euro-
päischen Norm EN 1993-1-1 für Stäbe unter Druck und Biegung, Stahlbau
72 (2003) Heft 3, Ernst & Sohn Berlin 2003

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Eurobuild in Steel

Forschungsvereinigung Stahlanwendung e.V. (Contractor)

This document is part of the ECSC EuroBuild project

Summary, design aids and flow charts

ECSC EURO BUILD IN STEEL PAGE 1 OF 84

1.2 Concept of design 8

1.3 Partial factors γ 9

2.1 Classification of cross-sections 11

2.2 Internal forces and moments 14

2.3 Structural stability of frames 15

2.5 Structural analysis 21

3 ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE 23

3.2 Structural analysis of cross-section 24

ECSC EURO BUILD IN STEEL PAGE 2 OF 84

3.2.4 Bending moment about both axes 29

3.3 Structural analysis of members 39

4.1 Initial sway imperfection 53

4.2 Classification of cross-sections 54

4.3 Effective shear area AV 56

4.4 Interaction of bending and shear 57

4.5 Interaction of uniaxial bending and axial force 58

4.6 Reduction factor χ and χLT 61

5.1 Design of steel structures 64

5.2 Basis of design 66

ECSC EURO BUILD IN STEEL PAGE 3 OF 84

5.3 Structural analysis of cross-sections 69

5.4 Structural analysis of members 79

ECSC EURO BUILD IN STEEL PAGE 4 OF 84

Variables of load, resistance and cross section

eN,i shift of the centre of the area σ axial stress

ECSC EURO BUILD IN STEEL PAGE 5 OF 84

leff effective length d0 hole diameter for a bolt, a pin

Variables of the system

ECSC EURO BUILD IN STEEL PAGE 6 OF 84

Figure 1.1: Dimensions and axes of cross-sections

ECSC EURO BUILD IN STEEL PAGE 7 OF 84

1.2 Concept of design

Figure 1.2: Density function f(x) of load E and resistance R

ECSC EURO BUILD IN STEEL PAGE 8 OF 84

1.3 Partial factors γ

1.3.1 Partial factor γF for loads

1.3.2 Partial factor γM for resistances

Table 1.2: partial factor γM for resistances EN 1993-1-1, 6.1

ECSC EURO BUILD IN STEEL PAGE 9 OF 84

1.4.2 Material properties

Steel grade nominal thickness t fy fu

ECSC EURO BUILD IN STEEL PAGE 10 OF 84

2.1 Classification of cross-sections

Class Criterion Structural analysis

Cross-sections with rotation capacity to

Cross-sections with limited rotation capac-

Cross-sections which achieve the yield

The following four tables include the criterion of the width-and-thickness

ECSC EURO BUILD IN STEEL PAGE 11 OF 84

Part subject to Part subject to Part subject to bending

EN 1993-1-1, Tab. 5.2,

part subject to part subject to bending and compression

ECSC EURO BUILD IN STEEL PAGE 12 OF 84

Table 2.4: Maximum width-to-thickness ratio of angles

Class Section in compression

Table 2.5: Maximum width-to-thickness ratio of tubular sections

Section in bending and/or compres-

ECSC EURO BUILD IN STEEL PAGE 13 OF 84

2.2 Internal forces and moments