TANKER HANDBOOK

FOR

DECK OFFICERS

BY

CAPTAIN C. BAPTIST

GLASGOW
BROWN, SON & FERGUSON, LTD.
4-10 DARNLEY STREET
Copyright in all countries signatory to the Berne Convention
All rights reserved

First Edition - 1954

Fourth Edition - 1969
Fifth Edition - 1975
Sixth Edition - 1980
Seventh Edition - 1991
Reprinted Edition - 1993
Eighth Edition - 2000

ISBN 0 85174 672 1

2000 BROWN, SON & FERGUSON, LTD., GLASGOW, G41

2SD
Printed and Made in Great Britain
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TO THE EIGHTH EDITION

The author would like to express his appreciation to the many Companies and individuals listed
below for their permission and help in reproducing photographs and diagrams appearing in this
book. Also to the many Masters and Officers of Oil Tankers who have co-operated in helping to
obtain much of the information used.

Exxon Corporation Inc., U.S.A. and Affiliated Companies.

Mobil Oil Corporation and Affiliated Companies.
Gulf Oil Company and Affiliated Companies.
National Bulk Carriers Inc., U.S.A.
Lief Hoegh and Co., Norway.
Drysdalc and Co., Ltd., U.K.
Howaldtswerke, Hamburg A.G., Germany.
Maersk Tankers, Denmark.
Stolt-Neilsen Ltd., London.
Mirrlees (Engineering) Ltd., U.K.
Ferguson & Timpson Ltd., U.K.
Nautical Photo Agency, Beccles, U.K.
Newman, Hender & Co., Ltd., U.K.
The Western Mail and Echo, Cardiff, U.K.
Brown Lennox & Co., Ltd., U.K.
Burmah Oil Shipping Inc., U.S.A.
The Tanker Advisory Center, U.S.A.
Captain K. Riebensahm Marine Consultant, U.S.A.
Burmeister and Wayn Skibsvaerft A/S, Denmark.
Saab TankRadar System, Sweden.
While the author and publishers have taken every
precaution to ensure that the information provided
in this book is accurate, no responsibility can be
taken for errors or omissions.
 INTRODUCTION

The expansion of world energy has increased dramatically over the last hundred years and oil has
played a major part in meeting these needs. In terms of the industrial revolution. Coal was the
main fossil fuel but oil began to play an increasingly important role due to the convenience with
which it could be stored and handled.
With the gradual improvement of the refinery process and the development of products such
as kerosene for heating and lighting, the demand increased on a world wide basis. Sailing ships
carried kerosene in flimsy metal containers which frequently leaked and filled the holds with gas.
These case oil cargoes soon got a reputation for being dangerous, but it was not long before the
tanker which carried oil in bulk was developed.
The 8th edition of "The Tanker Handbook for Deck Officers" covers the development of the
oil tanker and the equipment used for handling oil up to the present, as well as Chemical and
L.N.G. Ships.
Gradually the transportation of oil by sea has become a vast industry and has been subjected
to a great deal of national and international regulation which is constantly being updated. Oil
tanker officers and crews have to be trained to meet these requirements.
The first edition of the "Tanker Handbook For Deck Officers" was first published in 1954.
Apart from the gradual expansion of the subject matter to meet modern requirements, the author
has retained much of the material covering older ships to provide the reader with a broader view
and an improved understanding of the oil tanker and its operation.
 CONTENTS

Page
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................... vii
CHAPTER 1 History of Oil Transportation at Sea............................................................... 1
CHAPTER 2 Pumps and Pumping Equipment....................................................................... 7
CHAPTER 3 Oil Tanker Cargo Systems................................................................................ 13
CHAPTER 4 Heating, Cooling and Ventilation Systems...................................................... 23
CHAPTER 5 Petroleum Products............................................................................................ 29
CHAPTER 6 Tank Cleaning and Gas Freeing....................................................................... 35
CHAPTER 7 Oil Pollution of the Sea — Regulations and Avoidance.................................. 42
CHAPTKR 8 Loading Crude Oil.............................................'................................................. 63
CHAPTER 9 Discharging Crude Oil....................................................................................... 73
CHAPTER 10 U.L.C.C, V.L.C.C. and Combined Carriers................................................... 81
CHAPTER 11 The Carriage of Refined Oils............................................................................ 90
CHAPTER 12 Special Cargoes.................................................................................................. 104
CHAPTER 13 Chemical Tankers............................................................................................... 109
CHAPTER 14 Liquid Petroleum Gas Carriers......................................................................... 117
CHAPTER 15 Oil Tankers in Ballast........................................................................................ 129
CHAPTER 16 Small Coastal Tankers, Inland Waterway Craft and Barges............................ 132
CHAPTER 17 Miscellaneous Pumping Data........................................................................... 138
CHAPTER 18 Lightering Operations........................................................................................ 146
CHAPTER 19 Oil Terminals Dock and Seaberths................................................................... 155
CHAPTER 20 Ship-Handling Problems and the Oil Tanker................................................... 171
CHAPTER 21 Tanker Documentation and Ship's Business.................................................... 185
CHAPTER 22 Tanker Emergencies, Training and Safety........................................................ 190
INDEX.................................................................................................................. 199
 CHAPTER 1

HISTORY OF OIL TRANSPORTATION AT SEA

TRANSPORTATION of oil by water was the indirect result of the first oil well. Mineral oil had been
known to exist below the surface of the earth for quite some time. There are indications that the
Chinese obtained small quantities from shallow mines several thousand years ago, but the small
quantities obtained by them and people inhabiting the Middle East could never have justified the time
and energy needed in developing it as a fuel for heating, lighting, and the multitude of other purposes
which man has found for oil in the present highly Industrial Age.
Primitive races generally used wood and animal droppings dried in the sun, together with other
material for heating and lighting purposes. However, some of these people lived in areas where wood
and fuel of other kinds are hard to come by, such as in the Far North. In these desolate frozen wastes,
all materials are derived from the animals that roam the region during the summer months, also from
birds, fish, and other sea creatures such as the walrus, seal, and whale, that inhabit the seas fringing
these northern lands. Oil derived from these creatures played a major part as fuel for heating and
lighting. Other people in warmer climates were responsible for the development of several different
types of vegetable oils, but except for pitch, very little use seems to have been made of the small
amounts of mineral oil available to earlier civilisations.
The first oil well was sunk in Pennsylvania in June, 1859, and it was brought in at a depth of some
seventy feet, on August 27th of the same year. This well was the forerunner of thousands of others
all over the world, some of which have been driven to depths of twenty-thousand feet in a search which
is never ending. It is extremely doubtful that any of the gentlemen concerned with the sinking of this
first well, however far sighted, visualised an industry such as has been developed over the course of the
last one hundred and twenty years.
The Elizabeth Watts is generally credited with being the first ship to carry a full cargo of oil across
the Atlantic. She commenced her career in 1861. Several factors tended to retard the development of
the early tanker, not the least of these was the attitude of owners and crews of the numerous wooden
sailing ships of that period. Not without cause they regarded oil as a dangerous cargo. Leakage from

Brilliant — Built 1901, 3,765 tons gross, 3,609 tons net, 352-5 feet long, 49-1 feet beam, 28-2 feet deep,
Poop 46 feet, Forecastle 37 feet long. Bound from New York to India with case oil. Photographed in the
Indian Ocean north of Durban. Port Lifeboat has been washed away during bad weather.
1
 TANKER HANDBOOK

S.S. Gluckauf— The Gluckauf is generally regarded as having been the prototype of the modern oil
tanker. She was the first vessel designed specifically to carry oil in bulk, in the skin of the ship, and was
built in 1886 by a British shipyard to the order of Wilhelm Riedemann.

barrels in the holds resulted in the spaces below deck becoming permeated with dangerous gas, which
slowly made its way into the living accommodation, this in turn meant disaster or extreme discomfort
as all lamps and cooking fires had to be extinguished.
The use of the iron hull to some extent offset these difficulties, and several sailing ships were built
and converted for this trade. Several were fitted with specially built tanks for the carriage of oil. The
future of the oil trade was then thought to lie in the large iron hulled sailing ship, fitted with iron tanks
and equipped with hand pumps for the rapid and safe discharge of cargo. The idea of using a steamer
for such cargo was as yet unthinkable, due to the danger of vapour reaching the coal fires in the
machinery spaces.
It must be remembered that though the ships of the period were only able to provide primitive
facilities for the carriage of oil, the oil industry as a whole was in its infancy, and refinery procedure
and equipment of those early days would hardly be recognisable as such in comparison with modern
equipment and technique. The principles of distillation were recognised, but the pipe still was a very
simple affair, designed principally for the production of kcrosine, there being as yet little call for
gasoline or fuel oil.
As the industry developed, so did the early tanker. In 1878, the first ship to use the hull or skin
as a container for oil was built. This vessel was called the Zoroaster, and her building marked a major
step in the development of the modern tanker. To the bolder minded, the advantages of a steam
powered tanker became apparent, apart from the question of propulsion, steam powered pumps were
an added advantage. In 1886, the Giuckauf was built as a sail assisted steamer for the carriage of
Petroleum in bulk.
Sailing ships continued to be used well into the next century, both as bulk and case-oil carriers.
Most of the bulk carriers were provided with a donkey boiler and steam powered pumps to discharge
the oil. As the number of steam driven tankers increased, it became inevitable that the oil fired boiler
should replace the coal fired boiler, but this was a slower process than one would imagine, in spite
of the increased efficiency and advantage of using as fuel one of the products the tanker carried as
cargo. The reason for this was the difficulty in obtaining fuel oil bunkers. Coaling stations were
provided all over the world, and a steamer could be reasonably sure of obtaining coal along all main
trade routes, but the same facilities were not available for the oil burning or motor ship, which meant
that she had to carry a lot more bunkers, and therefore less cargo. Coal burning steam tankers were
built right up to and including the period of the 1914-18 War.
With the exception of some early types and others built during both World Wars, the tanker's
machinery was in the after end of the vessel, and the cargo tank section was segregated by transverse
compartments called cofferdams. The silhouette of a tanker with funnel aft and the midship bridge
house was exceptional seventy years ago, but the present day tanker fleet makes up a very large
percentage of the world's total tonnage.
The Isherwood longitudinally stiffened centre line bulkhead tanker with engines aft made its
appearance just prior to the First World War. This type of vessel, by a design incorporating transverse
 HISTORY OF OIL TRANSPORTATION AT SEA

Diagram Ib. — Cross section showing Summer Tanks.

Diagram Ic. — Plan and Silhouette of an Oil Tanker.

framing with a special arrangement of stringers for longitudinal strength, reduced costs and weight
of material in tanker construction by a considerable amount. These vessels were provided with a
midship pumproom which generally contained two steam reciprocating pumps for handling cargo.
To control the flow of liquid when the vessel was rolling in a seaway, and to avoid large areas of
free surface, the tanks were provided with trunkways, which considerably reduced the area at the top
of the lank. Vessels, however, were often far short of their marks when loading light products, later
types began to incorporate the "summer tank" which was housed on the trunk deck and was generally
filled by means of a drop valve from the main tank below. (See Diagram la and Ib).
Towards the middle of the 1920's, the twin bulkhead ship made its appearance, and slowly but
surely the advantages of the new design made itself felt, and the centre line bulkhead type began to be
replaced in all but a few special types and coasters, where size made the twin bulkheads impracticable.
Welding was used in ship construction for a considerable period before World War II. However,
where hull construction was concerned, welding was always viewed with grave suspicion, but like all
new methods, material and techniques improved, and during World War II whole ships were
constructed on this basis. The advantage of the welded hull is fairly obvious. All the plates are welded
in a straight line, and there are no plate landings to restrict the flow of water along the hull as the
vessel is propelled through the water. In addition to this, rivets have a tendency to work, leaks from
this source arc quite frequent both in the hull and in the bulkheads separating the eargo tanks. Welding
has more or less eliminated leakage of this nature.
In the last ten to fifteen years, a great deal has been learnt about the use of metal in all types of
4 TANKER HANDBOOK

construction. Research into metal fatigue and wastage as well as the use of coatings to prevent this,
has helped considerably to simplify some of the problems encountered when carrying highly corrosive
hydro-carbon liquids. Large-scale models in ship model basins have assisted the ship designer to
examine stress problems and to simplify the design and layout of large tankers, thus reducing the cost
of construction.
Where once a large crude tanker could be expected to have a minimum of 36 cargo compartments
and a whole battery of pumps, pipelines and valves, the modern tendency is to reduce the number of
tanks and other equipment so that a ship of 200,000-tons d.w.t. built to A.B.S. or Lloyd's
specifications may only have 15 cargo compartments with individual tanks holding as much as 140,000
Bbls. or 20,000 tons of oil. The tendency is also to reduce the number of pumps and to instal fewer
and more powerful units with a higher capacity head. In some cases suction piping has largely been
eliminated by the introduction of the suction pipe ducts and/or sluice valves.
The extensive use of sluice valves has led to the name Free Flow System coming into general use
where suction piping has largely been eliminated. Such systems have certain definite advantages,
particularly in capital saving when the ship is built. There are however, definite disadvantages from an
operational standpoint; when more than one grade of oil is carried and when tank cleaning and
changing ballast.
Apart from the layout of the cargo compartments and pumping systems, there have been
significant changes in other directions, e.g. power operated valves and remote control are becoming
increasingly common. Properly used and maintained, such improvements show an economic return by
reducing manpower requirements and eliminating human error from a complex operation where
expensive equipment can be seriously damaged.
It would not be wise to neglect other areas where changes arc taking place. Nearly all the new ships
have no amidship house. The bridge and living accommodation arc located aft. Safety and economics
have been the main reason for this change and the arguments of Masters and Pilots who have opposed
it on navigational and ship handling grounds can find little support today.
In 1974 tankers were classified by size for freight purposes:—
1. General purpose vessels — 16,500/24,999 d.w.t.
2. Medium range - 25,000/49,999 d.w.t.
3. L.R1 (Large Range 1) 45,000/79,999 d.w.t.
4. L.R2 (Large Range 2) 80,000/159,999 d.w.t.
5. V.L.C.C. or Very Large Crude Carriers 160,000/320,000 d.w.t.
6. U.L.C.C. or Ultra Large Crude Carriers - 320,000 d.w.t. and above.
While V.L.C.C.s and U.L.C.C.s were, and always are, likely to be exclusively engaged in the
carrying of crude oil handy size and medium size vessels tend to cover a very large range of duties.
The larger vessels in the L.R2 range — i.e. over 100,000 d.w.t. tend to be crude carriers. They trade
between ports that arc restricted by draft or other limitations so that V.L.C.C.s or U.L.C.C.s cannot
be used.
L.R1 and L.R2 range vessels of less than 100,000 d.w.t, are mainly divided into two classes —
(a) Dirty product carriers, (b) Clean product carriers. The larger dirty product carriers are frequently
switched between the crude trade and carrying refined dirty products. After carrying crude the cargo
tanks have to undergo cleaning to remove wax and crude residue which might affect the flashpoint of
dirty products like fuel oil.
Some large dirty product carriers have their tanks coated to reduce corrosion from crude and water
washing and facilitate changing from one to the other.
Clean product carriers in the medium size range tend to be less than 50,000 d.w.l. Many are
purpose built with coated tanks and have sophisticated pumping systems capable of handling 12 or
more grades.
The largest dirty and clean product tankers have evolved from changing trade practices and
requirements and though some of these vessels may be involved in short haul coastal distribution of
refined products many are now involved in longer haul work.
General purpose tankers probably cover the largest range and variety of different cargoes carried.
This size range includes some chemical carriers as well as a host of purpose built clean and dirty
product carriers engaged in short haul and coastal distribution.
Tankers smaller than 16,500 arc generally clean or dirty product short haul coastal vessels, but
some are built to handle special products like bitumen, chemicals, acids as well as lubricating oil.
The big building programmes of the 1960's and early '70s were the result of high freight rates.
The large numbers of U.L.C.C.s and V.L.C.C.s which came into service received a lot of publicity and
to some extent hid the fact that the number of smaller ships produced was also significant.
 HISTORY OF OIL TRANSPORTATION AT SEA 5

The 1973 oil price increase was a major catastrophe which reduced oil consumption around the
world and made many ships of all sizes and classes redundant. The tanker building boom had
produced a spate of larger ships. Quite a number were over 500,000 d.w.t. Four of these vessels were
under the French flag, two were owned by Societe Maritime Shell and two by Compagnie Nationalc
de Navigation. All four had similar dimensions; the overall length was 1,359 feet and the beam over
200 feet. Each ship was driven by steam turbines and twin screws. The carrying capacity of all four
differed slightly but was in the region of 550,000 d.w.t.
All four of the above ships had relatively short lives under the French flag and were laid up and
eventually sold for scrap. As far as the author is aware, the biggest tanker produced in the building boom
was the Seawise Giant owned by the Island Navigation Company. She was originally built as the
Oppama before being enlarged in Japan. She had the highest recorded deadweight of 564,739 tons. In
1988 this vessel was reported on fire and severely damaged after a bombing attack in the Persian Gulf.
While the layup and scrapping of U.L.C.C.s and V.L.C.C.s received a lot of publicity all classes
and sizes of ships were affected by the reduced consumption of oil, even chemical tankers which might
have expected to escape the worst.
To understand the problem we must look beyond the immediate effect of the O.P.E.C. price rise.
During the 1960's studies show that as an energy source, oil consumption grew faster than any other
fuel. At over 60% in terms of growth it was by far the world's most popular fuel. As a result the oil
tanker increased in size and numbers. In the I970's oil was still very popular in spite of price increases.
As a percentage share of growth in world energy it grew by 44%, but it has to be said that most of
the recorded growth occurred in the first half of the decade.
During the first half of the 1980's the growth of world oil consumption was less than 10%), but
improved with the decline in oil prices in the second half of the decade.
The oil tanker and freight market are dependent on oil consumption. It has become apparent that
the 1973 price increase which triggered the world reaction, drastically reduced oil consumption. Apart
from oil tankers laid up and scrapped, many refineries were shut down and some dismantled. It
became clear that many oil companies saw the reduced consumption of oil as a long term, rather than
a short term, phenomena. Oil company fleets were drastically reduced in size, often by selling
individual ships to independent owners using charter back agreements as bait. When this failed even
modern ships were laid up and scrapped.
The seven year War between Iran and Iraq was responsible for the withdrawal of a lot of tankers
from layup. Many of these vessels were severely damaged and others lost. In spite of this, overall the
War had little effect on tanker freight rates when considered on a world basis. Insurance premiums For
trading in War zones reached astronomic proportions.
Towards the end of 1988 crude oil prices started to increase and by early 1989 had reached $19 a
barrel and freight rates responded as the demand for oil picked up. In turn, this resulted in a steady
reduction in the number of laid up tankers.
The crisis caused by Iraq invading Kuwait in August 1990 caused oil prices to rise significantly.
Light crude on the open market was selling for $30 a barrel and for a time looked as if it would reach
$40 a barrel. For a while a large number of oil tankers were withdrawn from lay up, but at the end
of the Gulf War prices gradually returned to normal and there was still a large surplus of oil
tankers.
Perhaps the most significant event in the recent oil transportation business was the U.S.A.'s passing
of OPA 90. This was new legislation which may have resulted from frustration at the slow progress
the I.M.O. were making. It came out in favour of double skin tankers and this had a tremendous effect
both on the type of tankers allowed to trade in U.S. waters but also put responsibility for pollution
squarely on the ship and its owners/operators. The U.S.A. uses approximately 1-6 million barrels of
oil each day and the majority of this amount is imported in oil tankers. Initially in 1991 the additional
insurance cost due to OPA for vessels trading to the U.S.A. increased premiums by an estimated 55
cents per GT. Longer term it is difficult to access the cost due to the unlimited liability laws which
apply in a number of individual U.S. States. The U.S. Federal Limits of OPA 90 on Tanker Financial
Liability are well defined.
(1) $1,200 per gross ton; or
(2) $10 million for tankers over 3,000 gross tons; or
(3) $2 million for tankers less than or equal to 3,000 gross tons.
The Federal Liability Regime also covers territorial waters and the exclusive economic zone which is
claimed by the U.S. and extends 200 miles from the shoreline. This is very important as the U.S. Coast
Guard have in recent years brought into operation a set of proposals in the Gulf of Mexico, which
arc far reaching.
6 TANKER HANDBOOK

These proposals would allow single skin tankers (subject to conditions laid down by the
U.S.C.G.), to bring oil from the Middle East and elsewhere to three separate areas sixty miles off the
Gulf Coast of the U.S.A., where the oil would be transhipped into smaller tankers which could enter
U.S. ports with a lower risk of pollution. Several environmentalists have pointed out that if single skin
tankers are a risk in U.S. ports and rivers, they are also a risk when engaged in lightening operations
sixty miles off the U.S. Coast and that heavy oil pollution in deep water represents a threat to the
ocean environment which could be longer lasting and more severe than the same pollution in coastal
waters.
Over time the U.S.C.G. have gradually made single hull tankers trading in U.S. waters turn
alternative wing tanks into segregated ballast tanks. The loss of oil capacity is the price paid for
obtaining certification to trade in U.S. waters. Obviously these vessels will be phased out as soon as
the availability of double hull vessels allows.
In addition to the above, the U.S. Coast Guard issued a ruling requiring all laden single hull oil
tankers over 5,000 gross tons transiting through Prince William Sound. Alaska and Puget Sound
Washington to be accompanied by two escort vessels. The Coast Guard is also evaluating other U.S.
coastal waters with the object of passing similar rulings for the areas concerned.
When looking at costs it is important to remember that many of the U.S. major ports are limited
to relatively shallow draft tankers by the depth of water. (Under 40 feet). Transhipment terminals and
lightening from large to smaller vessels is an expensive way of handling oil, but there is little alternative
as far as the U.S.A. is concerned. From the standpoint of the consumer, neither the increased cost of
insurance or the cost of lightening has had much effect so far. Oil prices in the U.S.A. are much better
than those in Europe and many other parts of the world. In chapter 7, OPA 90 and other new
pollution regulations are discussed in more detail.
 CHAPTER 2 PUMPS AND PUMPING

EQUIPMENT

THERE are several types of cargo pumps used on modern tankers:- Reciprocating Pumps,
Centrifugal Pumps, Rotary Displacement, and Screw Displacement Pumps. In recent years large
reciprocating pumps have been replaced by other types, such as the centrifugal pump and more
recently by the deep-well pump, though smaller reciprocating pumps are still used for stripping oil
from the cargo tanks.

Reciprocating Pumps

Reciprocating pumps are motivated by steam at working pressures from 100 to 250 Ibs. per sq. inch.
They can be simplex (single acting), or duplex (double acting), the latter being in more general use.
Manufacturers produce both horizontal and vertical versions through a fairly wide range. Each pump is
fitted with three gauges. One shows the steam pressure working the pump, another the delivery head
or back pressure, while the third shows vacuum or pressure conditions at the pump suction.
Large steam reciprocating pumps are often compound, which means that the steam passes through
an H.P. and L.P. cylinder in turn, thereby giving increased economy in operation.
The general principles of operation are familiar to most people and it is not proposed to deal with
the details of their operation at this stage. Reciprocating pumps were commonplace in all types of
oil tankers up to 1950. Since then they have been largely relocated to a secondary roll as stripping
pumps, etc.
Centrifugal Pumps
Steam Turbine driving a Two Stage Centrifugal Oil Pump.
These pumps can be By Courtesy of Drysdale & Co,
driven by steam turbines,
or by diesel and electric
motors. Unlike the steam
reciprocating pump, the
centrifugal pump is not a
positive displacement pump,
and uses centrifugal force
to transfer oil from the
pump into the discharge
pipe. In theory the pump
can be operated with the
discharge valve closed, the
impeller churning in the
liquid, but the clearances
arc generally so small that
the pump would rapidly
grow hot and damage
might result. In conjunc-
tion with cargo systems,
this pump seldom has more
than two stages, and in
order to start it, oil must be
present at the first stage.
The pump can be con-
structed with a vertical or
horizontal driving shaft ac-
cording to requirements.
8 TANKER HANDBOOK

When driven by a steam turbine, the pump can generally be run at variable speed to suit the
discharge facilities of the particular port. The speed is regulated in direct proportion to the amount of
steam that is admitted to the turbine. Reduction in the discharge head means automatic increase in
output. Turbine driven pumps are generally fitted with governors to prevent ovcrspeeding thereby
making their operation easier and safer.
Electrically driven centrifugal pumps arc sometimes designed to run at a constant speed, the
electric motor automatically compensating or adjusting itself to the load. Trip gear is generally
provided to guard the motor from harm as a result of too big or too small a load.
Centrifugal pumps are generally provided with all the gauges associated with reciprocating pumps.
In addition, however, the turbine driven pump generally has a tachometer so a check can be kept on
the pump and turbine revs., while the electrically driven pump will have a volt and amp. meter to
indicate the power and load respectively.

Rotary Pumps
The rotary pump is a positive displacement pump, which is driven in the same manner as a
centrifugal pump. There are several different types in use, but the general principle is the same in all of
them. One simple type has a driving shaft which is slightly off the centre line of the pump. The pump
chamber is fitted with a single drum, which has a number of vanes attached to it. These vanes are
not fixed but can move in and out of the slots into which they are fitted. When the pump is in motion,
centrifugal force throws the vanes out and away from the centre of the shaft. As the shaft rotates,
the casing forces the vanes back into their slots whenever they are on the side of the shaft which is
closest to the casing, centrifugal force throws them out again as the distance to the cover increases.
The oil enters the pump and is trapped between the vanes as they rotate, and thrown out under
pressure via the delivery outlet. In actual fact the vanes squeeze the oil out of the pump. Other types
employ one, two, and sometimes three interlocking gears to obtain the same effect.
The rotary pump is not a very popular pump, and where it is to be found, is generally relegated to
the status of a standby, or additional stripping pump. The reasons why this type of pump is not in
general use in tanker pumping systems are twofold. The moving parts are subjected to a great deal of
wear, and the pump has a tendency to lose suction if used for prolonged periods.
Screw Pumps
As seen in the illustration on page 8 the basic elements of
design in this particular type of pump are three screws,
consisting of a central power rotor and two idle rotors. The
thread surfaces are so shaped that they form a tight seal both in
relation to themselves, and the sleeve. As the screws rotate, the
seal formed by the threads moves axially and quite uniformly,
thus acting as a piston moving continuously in one direction.
The advantages of this type of pump is its self priming, and it
does not.set up vibration or pulsation even at high speeds.
So far very few tankers, other than lubricating oil ships or
vessels carrying vegetable oils, utilise this or any other type of
screw pump in their cargo systems, the reason being that the
makers of such pumps design the pumps to handle liquids free
from abrasives and having definite lubricating qualities, a type
of duty for which this pump is particularly suitable.

Deep-well Pumps
In recent years Deep Well Pumps have become increasingly Screw Pump. By Caurlesy
popular in product tankers and medium-size crude ships. Depend- of Mirrlees (Engineers) Ltd.
ing on the type of ship and purpose for which they are designed,
these pumps can be located in a pumproom or an actual cargo tank. The pump operates in a well or casing,
and is self-priming as long as the well is full of liquid. They can be normally driven by a steam turbine or
electric motor housed on deck and connected to the pump by a long vertical drive shaft. Hydraulically
deep-well pumps are now quite popular with multi product tankers and a pump in each tank.
 PUMPS AND PUMPING EQUIPMENT

The well of a Deep Well Pump.

Deep Well Pump. Showing Discharge pipe and casing for hydraulic drive.
 10 TANKER HANDBOOK

It is important that the pump well remains full at all times, or there is a danger of damaging the
pump from over-heating. The main advantage of such pumps are their self-priming capabilities which
enable them to be used in relatively simple pumping systems and in multi-product or chemical service
where stripping systems and pumps might be an added source of contamination. Some vessels arc
equipped with a small pump and pipe which serves to prime or empty the pump well or casing. It can
also be used to discharge cargo from one tank to another in case a deepwell pump in any tank fails.

Immersed Pumps

Immersed pumps are normally used in special service, such as L.N.G., where the pumps are
actually submerged in the tanks together with the electric motors which drive them. Immersed pumps
can also be operated hydraulically.

Cargo Line Piping Systems

Pumping systems are composed for the main part of steel pipe which varies in size from four to
thirty-six inches, according to requirements. This type of piping is the cheapest, and is used extensively
in spite of the fact that it has a far shorter life than cast iron pipe. Corrosion generally makes the most
progress in the lower section of pipe, and for this reason it used to be general practice to turn pipelines
a quarter of a turn at regular intervals so as to lengthen the life of the pipe. The present day cost of
labour and the ever increasing size and number of pipelines in modern tankers have virtually put a stop
to this practice. Several different methods are employed to join the various lengths of piping together.
Some are bolted together throughout their length, provision being made for expansion with specially
constructed telescopic expansion joints. Others arc secured by means of victaulic joints or couplings, in
which case no special provision has to be made for expansion as the ordinary couplings are designed
to compensate for contraction and, expansion.
Some large vessels and V.L.C.C.'s are equipped with a central suction duct which runs along the
length of the vessel. All the pumps take suction from this duct instead of individual pipelines. Such a
system has the advantage of providing better suction flow conditions while discharging, but is
somewhat limited for carrying and discharging more than one grade, as the duct represents a
considerable volume of liquid in terms of contamination even if one grade is loaded and discharged at
a time.

Strums

Strum is the name given to the funnel shaped appliance which is fitted to the end of suction pipes
and through which the liquid is drawn to the pump. There are several different types in use, but all are
designed to allow the pump to draw the maximum amount of oil out of the tank without admitting
air to the system. For this reason the bottom edge extends to within approximately an inch of the
plating when fitted to main line suctions, and a little lower when fitted to stripping line suctions. The
shape is largely dictated by the fact that the area or floor space available on the bottom of a tank is
restricted by the small longitudinal floors that run the length of the tank.

Valves

A cargo system in a modern oil tanker contains a large number of valves which control the flow
of liquid. The most common valve in use is the gate or sluice valve, and is produced in two different
forms. The first type has the gate or wedge secured firmly to the spindle, while the valve wheel is
engaged but not secured to the top of the spindle. When the valve wheel is turned in an anti-clockwise
direction, the spindle slowly lifts the gate up into the cover, and the spindle begins to protrude above
the valve wheel. When the valve is fully opened, the gate or wedge is clear of the pipe and hidden in
the valve cover, leaving the pipe completely clear for the passage of liquid. When in the closed
position, the gunmctal ring or face on either side must fit tightly against the corresponding faces in the
body of the valve or the valve will leak.
PUMPS AND PUMPING EQUIPMENT 1
1
 In the other version of this valve, the spindle is directly
attached to the valve wheel, while the spindle is engaged in
the thread of a square nut on top of the gate. The gate or
wedge is hollow, and when the valve wheel is turned in a
clockwise direction, the gate rises on the threaded spindle
until it is completely in the cover. The former type is
generally found in the pumproom, and such places where it
will not be exposed to the weather, as corrosion on the
exposed threaded spindle or damage from other sources
would make the valve difficult to operate.
Other types of valves, mostly non-return valves of one
kind or another, are utilised extensively. The angle stop
valve is very often fitted in stripping systems, as, when it is
open only a few turns, it will allow oil to be drawn from the
tank, but will not allow it to run back should the pump lose
suction.
Valves in the suction lines serving the cargo tanks are
fitted with extended spindles. The lowest section of rod or
extended spindle is either keyed direct to the valve spindle,
or alternatively a yoke is used to give additional leverage,
and the lower section of the reach rod is forked and fits into
two slots in either end of the yoke. The next section is
jointed to the rod below by means of a universal joint, and
by using these joints and angling the upper lengths of rod, it
is possible to pierce the deck in the most advantageous
position. Where the extended spindle pierces the deck, a
watertight gland or stuffing box is arranged to keep the A Gale Valve, tfy
water out of the cargo compartment below. Courtesy of Newman, Ilcnder & Co.
The butterfly valve is in widespread use in modern tankers. A quick operating valve, it lends itself
to power operation and remote control.
Essentially the gate or disc is mounted on a fixed spindle, and is opened or shut by turning the
spindle a quarter of a turn. The seal is obtained by the valve making contact with the sealing rims on
either side of the body of the valve when operated to the closed position. The scaling rim and matching
face of the valve arc frequently lined with hard wearing material like tuflon, which protects the metal
working faces and provides an improved seal.

Discharge Connections of The Meridian Lion.

i: TANKER HANDBOOK
 Some of the older, loss-well designed butterfly valves have been a source of trouble when loading
at high-loading rates. There is also considerable evidence that some types are prone to leakage.
Improved design has gone a long way to eliminate these faults, but because size for size the butterfly
valve is cheaper than a gate valve or most other types, it is widely used, particularly with large ships
where pipelines arc bigger.

Valve Identification

When valves are a part of the pipeline system, their wheels are painted for identification purposes.
Several different systems are used in various companies, but, as a rule, suctions in the port tanks
generally have their wheel spokes painted red, while those in the starboard tanks are green. The centre
tank suctions may have half the spokes green, and half the spokes red, or be painted another colour,
according to the identification system used in that particular ship.
Master valves are so called because they master off or segregate the different tanks on any one
section of line. The valve wheels arc generally given a distinctive colour, as in ships carrying several
grades it is important that the right master valves are shut and that they are not mistaken for other
valves. Crossover valves are so called because they are located on a connecting piece between different
lines, and here again easy identification is as important as in the case of the master valves.

Open and Shut Indicators (Telltales)

All valves should be fitted with telltales. A telltale is a small threaded ring which is fitted to a
section of the extended spindle above deck level. A metal strip of two small bars placed in a vertical
line with a small gap between them keeps the pointer on the threaded ring always pointing in one
direction, and the ring is only free to move vertically up and down the spindle. When fully open, the
telltale is at the lop of the thread and the indicator, or pointer, points to the word "open". When at
the bottom, the indicator points to the word "shut". Experienced personnel learn to tell by the position
of the telltale on the thread whether the valve is open or not. In Chapter 3, automated pumping
systems are discussed, including remotely operated valves.
Open and Shut Indicators.
By Courtesy of Newman, Hender &
Co.
 CHAPTER 3 OIL TANKER

CARGO SYSTEMS

THE arrangement of loading and discharge lines is collectively known as the Ship's Cargo System.
The first oil tankers to carry petroleum products in bulk were equipped with very simple pumping
systems. For the most part they had a single line which ran forward and aft from a midship
pumproom, in which were housed two steam reciprocating pumps. One pump served the tanks forward
of the pumproom, while the other dealt with the oil from the tanks aft of this pumproom. Some of
the more simple types with their engines amidships, provided pumps in the engine room to handle the
cargo, or alternatively the mainline was extended the length of the machinery spaces to feed the pumps
housed in a small pumproom just forward of the engine room. In both cases these vessels were
unsuitable for the carriage of low flash products.

Circular Line or Ring Main

The pipeline system illustrated in Diagram 1 is better suited to the centre line bulkhead type ship.
Each tank or oil compartment has two suctions — one Direct suction, and one Indirect suction. The

Diagram 1.
14 TANKER HANDBOOK
direct suctions for the port tanks arc all on the port cargo line, and feed the port cargo pump. The
indirect suctions for the port cargo tanks feed the starboard cargo line and the starboard cargo pump.
Master valves are provided on each line between the tanks, so as to isolate each tank from the other
when necessary. This particular vessel is not fitted with a stripping line and pump.
This type of pumping system providing for the handling of several different types of oil, was a
natural development from the earlier types which were really only suitable for one grade of oil. As
previously mentioned, the summer tanks were fitted with drop valves, which when opened allowed the
oil to flow into the main tank below. Some vessels, however, were provided with small 6-in. lines which
served the summer tanks through separate suctions, and these tanks proved very useful for small
parcels of oil. To drain the oil from the main tanks it was necessary to list first one way, and then the
other, so as to keep the strum covered and to help the flow of oil towards the suction.
Diagram 2 shows a vessel fitted with a Circular Line or Ring Main, but adjusted for the twin
bulkhead type of vessel. This ship is also fitted with a stripping system. Inspection of the pipeline
system shows that the pipeline travels around the ship in the wing tanks, crossing over from one side
to the other in Nos. 1 and 9 centres. Each wing tank has a suction on the line which passes through it.
The centre tanks have two suctions, one on either side leading to the port and starboard lines
respectively. It will be noted that the master valves provide separation between the tanks as in the
earlier system. The main fore and aft pipeline is 12 in., but reduces to 10 in. at the suctions.
Due to their size, the main cargo pumps arc not really suitable for draining tanks, wear and tear
being excessive, therefore when the level of the oil in any particular tank has fallen to a foot or less,
the main pumps are switched to another full tank, and the stripping pump is brought into operation.
This stripping pump is served by a 6-in. stripping line which reduces to 4 in. in the transverse lines
which feed the suctions. The stripping pump can deliver oil ashore on a separate connection, or gather
all the strippings into No. 6 centre by means of a special delivery line into this tank.
Two main risers 12 in. in diameter connect the pumps with the pipeline system on deck, these risers
are on either side of the pumproom and are connected by means of crossover lines in case it is
necessary to use both pumps on a common discharge line. Each riser faces outboard immediately
above the main deck, and is fitted with a "Y" piece, on which are mounted the gate valves and 8-in.
reducing pieces which provide connections for the shore hoses.
Some vessels were fitted with a 12-in. deck line which runs aft to the stern discharge. At one time
in quite a number of ports, vessels moored stern on to the dock with both anchors down forward and
ropes ashore aft, the stern discharge was used to pump cargo ashore. This still applies to some Italian
and other Mediterranean ports.

Discharge manifold of a modem clean-oil carrier.

OIL TANKER CARGO SYSTEMS 1
5
Ring Main with Two Pumprooms

Diagram 3 shows a vessel fitted with a Ring Main or Circular Line, and two cargo purnprooms
each containing two cargo pumps. This arrangement gives the vessel more pumping power and
provides facilities for handling four grades of oil at once. The positioning of the purnprooms between
tanks Nos. 2 and 3, and Nos. 6 and 7 split the ship into three sections which means that even when
the vessel is troubled with leaky bulkheads and lines, she can still rely on the purnprooms to act as
cofferdams when carrying different grades. Another feature in this system is the crossover line at every
tank. This in effect means that to load the port, centre, and starboard compartments of any particular
tank, it is no longer necessary to travel right round the loop. The disadvantages of this type of system
as compared with the earlier types, are mainly one of costs, as obviously more piping and valves have
to be provided. If the vessel is engaged in carrying several parcels of oil, the advantages are likely to
more than compensate for the original outlay.
Vessels of this type were often fitted with special loading pipelines which serve the centre section
directly. These lines have no connection with the lines in cither pumproom, and offer greater security
from contamination than would normally be possible.

The Effect of Centrifugal Pumps on Cargo Pumping System

So far we have dealt with Ring Main or Circular Line systems serving one or more midship
pumprooms in which are housed steam driven reciprocating pumps, the steam for these pumps being
supplied by the boilers in the engine room spaces at the after end of the vessel. Large numbers of oil
tankers propelled by diesel engines were dependent on small Scotch boilers of limited capacity for
steam to drive the pumps. Often one or more cargo pumps had to be shut off or run at a reduced
speed. Prior to the last war, this was the accepted state of affairs. It was argued that as the regulations
at most ports required tankers discharging low flash petroleum products to extinguish all tires, and
use shore steam, small boiler capacities did not matter provided they could supply sufficient steam for
everyday needs at sea.
During Ihe war and after it, large number of tankers were constructed with steam turbine or turbo
electric propulsion engines. This in turn necessitated the use of high pressure water tube boilers. In this
way high pressure steam and electrical power became available for driving centrifugal pumps, and
these pumps became increasingly common where suitable power was available to drive them. As few,

V.L.C.C. Julian.
16 TANKER HANDBOOK

if any, oil terminals had steam at sufficiently high pressure or electrical power sufficient to supply
the needs of these vessels, it became normal practice for vessels of this type to use their own power
when discharging.
Centrifugal pumps fitted in midship pumprooms must of necessity be constructed with vertical
driving shafts connecting them to the turbines or motors in a deck house immediately over the pumps.
Obviously this arrangement is far from satisfactory, as there are numerous problems such as the size
of steam and exhaust lines from the boilers in the after end to the pumps in the midship deck house,
and the trouble in keeping these lines in the good condition necessary for the use of high steam
pressures when the pipes are exposed to all weathers. Then there is the question of suitable gas tight
glands or stuffing boxes where the pump driving shaft pierces the deck. All this tends to suggest that
the most suitable place for centrifugal pumps to be installed is in a pumproom immediately forward of
the engine room, and between it and the after cargo tanks. In this way, the turbines or motors can
be in the engine room, while the pumps themselves are housed in the pumproom, the connecting shaft
passing through a gas tight gland or stuffing box in the bulkhead.

Pumping Systems — With Pumprooms Aft the Cargo Tanks

Centrifugal pumps and the location of the pumproom between the engine room and the cargo
tanks, automatically lead to considerable modification in pipeline systems.
Vessels have been constructed with pumprooms aft using electrically driven centrifugal pumps, as
long ago as 1930. These vessels were centre line bulkhead ships with eleven main cargo tanks and five
summer tanks. The cargo systems were similar to the one shown in Diagram 1 though the summer
tanks were served by a 6-in. line and independent suctions. The two main cargo lines led directly aft to
the pumproom which housed three centrifugal pumps for use on the main lines, and two rotary
stripping pumps which were served by a 6-in. stripping line and a single suction in each main tank.
These rotary pumps could collect the strippings into No. 11 main tank, or discharge direct ashore.
These vessels were capable of carrying approximately 19,000 tons of cargo, and of discharging at
over 1,000 tons per hour.
For the main part, however, centrifugal pumps and pumprooms situated between the engineroom
and the cargo tanks were not common prior to 1940. The reasons for this have already been discussed
in detail, but can briefly be put down to lack of sufficient or suitable driving power.

T2 Type Tanker

The first type of tanker to be built in any number with centrifugal pumps and an after pumproom
was the T2 type tanker, which was designed and built in America during the last war.
The T2 type tanker was designed to carry oil faster than the average pre-war tanker, and also to
pump its cargo ashore in the quickest possible time, thus minimising the congestion in Allied ports.
This type of tanker carries approximately 15,000 tons of oil when loaded to its summer marks. It
is a standard twin fore and aft bulkhead type ship, with pumproom aft. However, there is one slight
modification at No. 1 cargo tank. Owing to the extremely fine lines, it was found easier to divide No. 1
tank into port and starboard compartments, instead of port, centre, and starboard compartments.
Inspection of Diagram 4 shows three main 12-in. cargo lines. Each of these lines serves a separate
cargo pump, situated aft in the cargo pumproom. The oil is delivered from each of these cargo pumps
through three 12-in. lines up on deck to manifolds situated just abaft the midship house. The starboard
main suction line serves tanks Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4 across, the centre line serves Nos. 5 and 6 across,
while the port pump serves Nos. 7, 8 and 9 across. Further inspection shows two crossover valves
controlling the link between the starboard and centre lines at No. 5 centre. A similar link between the
port and centre lines is located at No. 7 centre. Master valves are located on each line and give
isolation between tanks.
This type of vessel was designed to handle three grades at once, provided that the crossover valves
situated at Nos. 5 and 7 are shut and that crossovers in the pumproom and at the manifolds are
similarly shut. One grade goes direct down the starboard line via the pumproom to the forward section
of tanks, the second grade on the centre line can be loaded direct through the loading line at No. 5
tank into Nos. 5 and 6 across. The third grade is also provided with a direct loading line into the after
section of tanks.
OIL TANKER CARGO SYSTEMS 1
7
 T2 Esso Cardiff 6,321 tones net, 10,684 tons gross. Built in 1945

T2 to the V.L.C.C.

The basic T2 pumping system set a trend which has been followed with modifications and
improvements in successive generations of newer and larger tankers. The number of pipelines and
pumps may have been increased as well as the size and capacity, but the after pumproom and general
pipeline arrangement frequently bears a startling resemblance to the T2 pumping system.
With the exception of the multi product clean ship which is designed to handle 10 or more grades
with separate pumps and lines for each product, most conventional oil tankers under 50,000 d.w.t.
started life as crude carriers. Due to the passage of time and the increase in tanker size, they gradually
became uneconomic, and many of them have been equipped with heating coils, and commenced

hauling dirty refined products.

With few exceptions these vessels
were all built with 30 or more cargo
tanks and their cargo piping systems arc
similar to a T2. A few had reciprocating
pumps, but these were steadily becoming
unpopular because of the vibration
reciprocating pumps can cause when
discharging through rigid metal arms
and flow booms, as well as lower overall
discharge rates.
Large vessels are nearly all used in
the crude trade. Some of these ships are
constructed on the old multi-tank
system, but from 1960 onwards, most
vessels began to be equipped with fewer
and larger cargo tanks and simplified
Cargo piping Systems. Part of the Cargo Control System of the Meridian Lion.
18 TANKER HANDBOOK

As mentioned previously, the V.L.C.C. is exclusively a crude ship and covers ships of 160,0007
320,000 d.w.t. while U.L.C.C.s are over 320,000 d.w.t. In Chapter 10 these ships are discussed in
detail.

Stripping Systems

The main function of a stripping system is to handle liquid or ballast left in the cargo tanks after
the main pumps have discharged the bulk.
The second, but no less important function is to handle tank drainings and wash water which
gathers in the bottom of the cargo tanks when tank cleaning is undertaken.
A stripping system generally consists of a pipeline, sometimes two or more, which serve all the
cargo tanks. Normally the stripping system is separate from the main suction piping, though
frequently connections are provided, by which the stripping pumps and lines can be used to wash the
main suction lines.
Stripping pipelines vary from 6 in. in smaller ships to 12 in. in larger vessels. They are generally
served by one or more positive displacement pumps which can either be steam-driven reciprocating or
electrically-driven rotary pumps. The pumps arc generally connected up so that they can strip on the
main suction lines if need be. On the discharge side, stripping pumps are normally cross-connected to
discharge directly ashore via the main delivery lines, overboard or into one or more slop tanks.
In some cases the stripping pipeline system is eliminated and the vessel's stripping pumps are used
on the main suction lines. This frequently means a longer discharge.
Some vessels are equipped with eductors which can be used to assist stripping of cargo tanks.
Eductors used in conjunction with a cargo pump are fast and reliable. They make a major contribution
when tank cleaning, as they save wear and tear on the stripping pumps, as scale and sludge can be
handled without damage to valves and impellers.
Where reciprocating main pumps are fitted or if Deep Well or other self-priming pumps are
installed, stripping systems arc generally eliminated for purposes of cargo handling.

Automated Pumping Systems

The last ten to fifteen years have seen the gradual evolvement of the automated pumping system
as tankers got larger and larger. Of course the term automated is still relative and covers a trend, or
move away from manual and visual .operated pumping systems, towards the power operation of
valves, remote control or valves or pumps, together with instrumentation for data gathering and
remote read-out of liquid levels in the cargo and ballast tanks.
Historically a considerable amount of trouble has been experienced with the reliability of many
of the earlier systems which were -installed, and this has coloured the viewpoint of many ship owners
and operators, as well as sea-going staff. It is a fact of life that frequently equipment which has
performed well ashore becomes temperamental when required to operate at sea.
It would be unfortunate if such failures and disappointments were allowed to retard the
development of the optimum in automated pumping systems, or if it is permitted to discredit modern
technology. It is the author's considered opinion that the concept of central control, coupled with
adequate instrumentation and communication, is essential to the efficiency of operating a large
tanker's cargo system. Some large vessels have highly sophisticated cargo pumping systems which have
operated well over a reasonable period of time, and are a tangible proof that the right equipment
can be made to work and will give a reasonable degree of accuracy and reliability if proper
maintenance is provided.
Before passing on to discuss the component parts of an automated pumping system, it might be
of considerable advantage to discuss the need for adequate control of the ship's cargo system, together
with control concepts.

The Cargo Control Room

The cargo control room ideally should not be located in the pumproom, in the past there has been
a tendency to locate the control room in the top of the vessel's pumproom. It should be a large room
with a clear view of the main deck, and space to arrange all the control panels and instrumentation.
The control room should be free of mechanical noises such as are caused by pump turbines and forced
 OIL TANKER CARGO SYSTEMS 19

draft fans. It should not be used as a ship's office for the conducting of normal ship's business, but
should be manned at all times by the officer controlling cargo operations.
A normal control room has the following communication media:—
1. Internal phone direct to the engine room and/or pumproom.
2. External phone or radio contact with shore installation.
3. Public address for communication with personnel on the main deck or mooring stations.
4. General Emergency Alarm switch.
5. Fire alarm panel and controls for any automated fire equipment provided.
6. V.H.F. transmitting receivers for contact with personnel on deck who are equipped with
portable V.H.F. sets.
7. Inert gas monitoring and control panel.
Normally the main feature of any control room is a big board showing the cargo tanks and piping
arrangement, together with the individual valves. In some cases the pumproom and all ballast and
water tanks arc included. The valves are sometimes marked by coloured lights which show green when
the valve is open, and red when it is closed.
Where a vessel is fitted with remote controlled power operated valves, a control panel is fitted
below the above-mentioned board. This control panel houses the individual controls for each valve.
Depending on the system fitted, the valves are activated by levers or switches and a light glows
green while the valve is opening, or red while it is shutting. In early models the open and shut indicator
lights were motivated by the same contact as levers on the control board. The appearance of the green
light did not necessarily mean that the valve had in fact been opened, but merely that the power
operator had been motivated to open the valve. In later models this possible source of problems has
been eliminated.
Either included on the control panel or located to one side is the cargo pump control board from
which the operation of the cargo and stripping pumps are controlled. In most cases the main cargo
pumps are large, centrifugal pumps operated by steam turbines. Each pump is clearly identified. Two
tachometers indicate the pump and turbine revolutions and the usual back pressure and suction
gauges. In many cases the pumps have to be started from the engine room on an individual basis, but
can be stopped or slowed from the control rooms. Emergency stop controls are sometimes fitted both
in the control room, and in certain instances on deck.
To complete the instrumentation required for a well-equipped control room it is necessary to have
a system by which the liquid level in the cargo tanks can be ascertained quickly and accurately. It is
in this area that the biggest problems and obstacles to automation have been encountered. In fairness
to the manufacturers of such equipment, it is easy enough to develop systems to measure liquid levels
in cargo tanks ashore, but the environment aboard the large crude ship is another matter. With a
few exceptions, major problems have been encountered with most systems, both in terms of accuracy
and reliability.
As we will be discussing some of these systems at a later stage, it should be sufficient to mention
here that there arc some big incentives in favour of a workable system which allows the liquid level in
the cargo tanks to be ascertained quickly in the control room even if it has to be frequently calibrated
and checked out by hand. With more and more vessels being equipped with Inert Gas Systems, ships
have to be loaded and discharged with a closed venting system, and it is becoming increasingly difficult
to use manual methods for tank gauging.
Partly as a result of the problems encountered in obtaining accurate remote read-out gauging
systems, some vessels have been equipped with high- and low-level alarms or indicators. Obviously
when installed in the control room they give the officer on watch an accurate check on the liquid level,
apart from their main function which is to give warning and allow the operator time to reduce the
loading or discharge rate, or to stop all operations as required.
A well-equipped control room may have a number of other instruments, a list of such equipment
is given below: —
1. Oil in water detector. (Connected to overboard discharge piping).
2. A loadicator or electronic calculator which permits the operator to calculate the effect of
various cargo layouts, in terms of bending moments and shearing forces.
3. An instant draft recorder fore and aft.
4. A constant monitor of the air and gas mixture in the pumproom and cofferdams. (This may
incorporate an Inert Gas System).
5. Pump bearing and casing temperature gauges.
20 TANKER HANDBOOK

6. The pressure/vacuum gauges for individual cargo tanks.

6. A computer which co-ordinates all loading and discharge operations, and monitors all
operations throughout the discharge.

Remote Control and Power-Operated Valves

The majority of oil tankers which are equipped with power-operated valves utilise a hydraulic
system. This type of system includes a hydraulic fluid reservoir and pump. The valve is opened and
shut by hydraulic fluid pressure generated by the pump when the switch is activated. Individual
systems and valves vary, but the valve has to be linked to the pump and fluid reservoir by small bore
piping to allow the passage of the hydraulic fluid. Because ships are getting so large and the tanks so
deep, it is no longer practical to use extended spindles and reach rods to turn valves from a position on
the deck immediately over the valve. It is therefore, quite normal to dispense with hand-valves and
provide hydraulic controls on deck or in the control room.
An increasing number of vessels arc utilising hydraulically-opcrated valves through the cargo
system which includes all valves in the pumproom and the cargo manifold. In most cases the
hydraulically operated valve submerged in the cargo tank gives little or no trouble, but occasionally
failure can be experienced. Loss of pressure by damage to the hydraulic fluid line is the most frequent
cause of failure, but occasionally a valve will jam in the open or shut position. If this happens it can
be quite a problem. In most cases the cargo system is designed so that a single valve will not prevent a
vessel from completing loading or discharging. Normally there is more than one valve in a cargo tank
even if the second valve is only a stripping valve, and the cargo compartment can be discharged even
if it has to be at a reduced rate.
Most hydraulically-operated valves and the associated hydraulic system are fitted with pressure
monitors and valves which allow faults to be detected, and leaking hydraulic lines to be isolated so that
the loss of hydraulic fluid is kept to a minimum.

Remote Control of Cargo Pumps

Most of the older, smaller tankers still in existence, have little or no remote control of cargo pumps
and pumping systems. In such ships, to enable the pumps to be used efficiently and to allow the
operators to monitor performance, a limited amount of instrumentation is provided at the pumps
and/or at the pumproom top. In the case of reciprocating pumps, steam pressure gauges as well as
gauges showing the back pressure against which the pump is pumping, and Vacuum/Pressure gauges
to monitor flow conditions on the suction line are normal.
Where turbine or electrically-driven centrifugal pumps arc provided with much the same
instrumentation, it is necessary to instal tachometers to monitor the turbine' and pump speeds though
sometimes the tachometers are only mounted in the engine room. In all cases controls are located in
pumproom and/or engincroom.
As ships got bigger and control rooms became more popular, more and better instrumentation
was provided as well as the means of stopping and starting the pumps from a control room. In many
cases the instrumentation included gauges for each pump, which indicated the temperature of the
impeller casing and bearings.
The ultimate in control is, of course, the ship which is fitted with a computer to control the
pumping system, and which monitors the discharge, giving a printed read-out of actual performance
every ten minutes. In such a case, the computer is programmed with the known facts about the
discharge facilities ashore, and the pumps arc started by activating the computer. From that point on,
the computer opens and shuts all valves and starts and stops all pumps.

Liquid Level Data-Gathering Systems

To ascertain the liquid level in a tanker's cargo oil tanks, it is necessary to measure manually,
mechanically or electronically:—
(a) The amount of liquid in the tank, measuring from the bottom of the tank to the surface of
the liquid. The resulting measurement is known as 'The Sounding".
(b) The amount of space between the top of the tank (ullage plug) and the surface of the liquid.
This measurement was known as "The Ullage".
 OIL TANKER CARGO SYSTEMS 21

In the older tankers, ullaging with a tape or ullage stick was common practice. Fast loading or
discharging with numerous tanks open at once, meant that several members of the crew had to be out
on deck to check the liquid level in the tanks at frequent intervals. The amount of manpower required
was considerable, particularly when loading fast. The risks of affixiating personnel continuously
leaning over open ullage hatches could not be ignored.
Automatic tank gauging systems used in oil tankers are largely adapted from similar systems used
by the oil industry ashore.
The Whessoe Float System was probably the most common of the automated tank gauge systems.
In the earlier versions, the float was suspended from a special hatch by means of an ordinary ullage
tape. The tape was passed over a flywheel directly under a clear view screen complete with screen
wiper. The other end of the tape was secured to a weight suspended in a tube filled with cleaning
solvent, extending to the bottom of the tank.
The Float is heavier than the weight in air, but when the tank is being filled or emptied it floats
on the top of the liquid rising or falling as the liquid level alters. The tape records the ullage
automatically.
The Float System is tried and reliable, and a broken tape at once lets the operator know he must
revert to hand-ullaging. A reasonable amount of maintenance will keep the system trouble-free.
The steel tapes provided by the manufacturers have the measurement scales either painted on them,
or embossed on the actual metal. The latter type are less likely to be defaced by contact with inert
gas or other corrosives.
Larger and more modern ships fitted with the Float Ullage System are equipped with a remote
read-out in a central control room. There are a large number of automated tank-gauging systems
based on hydrodynamic principles. Such systems have a marked similarity, and it should suffice if we
cover them in outline.
Each tank is fitted with one or more open-ended pipes connected to a read-out gauge and reservoir
in the control room. The length of the gauge and the type of liquid with which it is filled, depends
on the accuracy required. A small gauge using a heavy liquid like mercury, can be used where accuracy
is not required. Where accuracy is required, such as when topping-up tanks, a larger gauge and a
lighter liquid are used together, with a separate pipe to cover the upper section of the tank.
How do such systems work? The open-ended pipe in the tank is connected to a liquid reservoir in
the base of the gauge glass. Nitrogen, or another suitable gas is inserted into the pipe until it has
purged all the air and fills the whole length of pipe. The end of the pipe is restricted, but the gas is
allowed to leak out of the open end in the tank. Changes in liquid level within the tank result in
changes of pressure on the gas in the tube, which is in turn transferred to the liquid in the gauge glass,
and the liquid level can be read off the calibrated gauge.
Experience with a number of gauge systems manufactured in different parts of the world, has been
varied. While some have been reasonably accurate, others have proved to be undependable and are
mistrusted by tanker officers, some of whom continue to ullage by hand in preference to utilising such
systems.
It is not possible to determine here the relative merits of individual systems, but before condemning
equipment, the operator should take all the necessary steps to service, check out, and calibrate
equipment according to the manufacturers instructions. Lack of use and disinterest are certain not to
lead to the successful ironing out of problems in the system.

Electronic Ullaging Devices

At one time there was considerable reservation about the use of electronic sensors either for use as high
and low liquid level alarms, or for ullaging. Improved technology combined with a better understanding
of the problem has been instrumental in producing some remarkably accurate equipment.
The author inspected a fully-automated vessel which had two independent electronic ullage systems
fitted in each tank. If the two systems differed more than 3 cm. a warning signal was given. A more
recent development in this field was introduced by a Swedish Company which used in-tank radar to
measure ullages and soundings.

Liquid Cargo Measurements In Closed Tanks

From time to time Independent Petroleum Inspectors are hired to measure the quantity of oil
loaded at the loading port or discharged at the discharge port. Their duties will vary according to the
22 TANKER HANDBOOK
type of tanker. In a conventional tanker the time honoured method was to inspect the tanks visually
to make sure that all the ballast water had been pumped out and the bottom of each tank was dry.
This was done by inspecting the tank bottom, generally with the aid of an intrinsically safe gas tight
torch, to sec it was reasonably dry. If there was any free water or oil residue, this was measured by
lowering a bob manually into each tank and then calculating the amount of residue/free water in each
compartment.
"Load on Top" and the use of inert gas in closed tanks has led to the development of some special
portable equipment which has been approved as intrinsically safe and can be used if the ship's
equipment is malfunctioning or the Petroleum Inspector needs to use it, This equipment can consist of
an ullage probe, an interface probe as well as a temperature probe, which is used in conjunction with
a vapour control valve. This valve is fitted to a tube which ean be mounted on top of the ullage plug
and through which the various probes can be passed without serious loss of inert gas pressure.

Saab TankRadar System.

 CHAPTER 4 HEATING, COOLING AND

VENTILATION SYSTEMS

IN addition to the provision of cargo compartments, pipelines and pumps for handling the oil, the
oil tanker must also provide adequate heating systems for some types of oil and cooling systems for
others. Properly constructed ventilation systems arc necessary in all oil tankers in order to avoid
excessive loss of cargo from evaporation and to control the escape of dangerous gases.

Cargo Heating Systems

Heavy fractions, such as fuel oil become very thick and sluggish when cold, and, in order that such
oils can be loaded and discharged without delay it is necessary to keep them heated.
Today the oil trade is so vast and wide spread, that the average oil tankers may be trading in the
tropics one voyage, and in Arctic conditions the next. It is therefore necessary that cargo heating
systems be designed to cope with extreme conditions.
Due to the fact that a loaded tanker has comparatively little freeboard, the temperature of the
sea water through which the vessel is passing is of major significance. Cold water washing around the
ship's side and bottom, and across the decks, rapidly reduces the temperature of the cargo and makes
the task of heating it much harder. Warm sea water, however, has the reverse effect, and can be very
useful in helping to maintain the temperature of the cargo with a minimum of steam.
Steam is used to heat the oil in a ship's tank. It is piped from the boilers along the length of the
vessel's deck. Generally the cat walk or flying bridge is used for this purpose, the main cargo heating
steam and exhaust pipes being secured to cither the vertical or horizontal girder work immediately
below the foot treads. At intervals, manifolds are arranged from which the steam for the individual
cargo tanks is drawn. Each tank has its own steam and exhaust valves, which enables the steam to be
shut off or reduced on any of the tanks at will. Generally the main steam lines are well lagged, but
obviously it would not be a practical proposition to lag the individual lines leading from the manifold
to the cargo tanks. In a conventional tanker which uses the hull or vessel's outer skin to contain the
oil in the cargo tanks.
The heating arrangements in the actual cargo tanks consist of a system of coils which are spread
over the bottom of the tank at a distance of six to eighteen inches from the bottom plating. In wing
tanks it is the usual practice to extend the coil system as far as the turn of the bilge but not up the
ship's side.
When it becomes necessary to heat cargo, the steam is turned on the individual tanks. The coils
in the bottom of the tanks become hot, heating the oil in the immediate vicinity. The warm oil rises
slowly and is replaced by colder oil, thus setting up a gradual circulation system m each tank.
The wing tanks insulate the centre tanks on both sides, while they arc subject themselves to the
cooling action of the sea, not only through the bottom plating, but through the ship's side. It is
therefore advisable to set the steam valves so that the wing tanks obtain a larger share of the steam
than the centre tanks. This is particularly true in some of the more modern vessels, where the coils are
passed through the longitudinal bulkheads between the centre and wing tanks. Vessels fitted with
double bottoms under the cargo tanks, as well as double skin tankers, may have the coils fitted in the
double bottoms under the tank bottom plating. This type of ship requires considerably less heat for
its cargo as there is no direct contact with sea water outside the vessel. The actual tanks are also clear
of heating coils and this allows the actual oil to drain to the pump with fewer obstructions. It also
facilitates easy tank cleaning when this is necessary.
Heavy fuel oils are generally required to be kept at a temperature ranging between 12()' J F. and
135° F. Within this temperature range they are easy to handle. Lubricating oils of which the heavier
types require heating, are always the subject of special instructions as they vary widely in quality,
gravity and viscosity.
Some types of Heavy Virgin Gas Oil or Cat Feed have very high pour points, and it is necessary
to keep the cargo well heated to avoid it going solid. Provided the temperature of this type of oil is
twenty to thirty degrees above its pour point, it offers no difficulty when loading or discharging
though a wax skin will form on the sides and bottom of the ship.
23
24 TANKER HANDBOOK

Some crude oils which contain paraffin wax or have high-pour points are also heated when
transported by sea. The main reason for this is to stop excessive deposits of wax forming on cooling
surfaces. The heating requirements for such cargoes varies considerably. Waxy crudes with pour points
over 100° F. may require heating to 120° — 135° F.
Bitumen cannot normally be carried in ordinary ships, as it requires far more heat than the normal
cargo system is capable of. For this reason, bitumen ships are generally designed so that the cargo
tanks arc insulated by wing tanks which arc reserved for ballast, and by double bottoms under the
cargo tanks. This coupled with extra coils, arranged on platforms at different levels, helps to keep the
bitumen heated.
In ships carrying heavy lubricating oils which require heating, the coils are generally ordinary steel
pipe, but vessels carrying crude oils which have to be heated, are now equipped with cast iron or alloy
coils. The reason for this is that the heating surfaces arc subjected to excessive corrosion from the
lighter fractions in the crude, and ordinary steel pipes do not stand up to the corrosive action so well
as the other materials mentioned.

Heat Exchangers

While steam coils continue to be in general use, some vessels are fitted with heat exchangers.
Thermo Oil is heated and then pumped through the coil system. In the case of chemical ships
individual tanks are sometimes filled with stainless steel coils to guard against leaks, but heat
exchangers located in the individual tanks through which heated thermo oil is pumped are increasingly
popular.
In some cases, particularly vessels fitted with individual deep well pumps, the piping system is
arranged so that when necessary the individual cargo pump can circulate cargo through a heater in
each tank.
"U.L.C.C.s & V.L.C.C.s seldom have coils fitted throughout their cargo tanks, but they often have
coils fitted in their slop tanks to help heat the oil and water mixture and thus facilitate the separation
of oil from water, as when healed the oil tends to float to the surface of the water."

Cargo Cooling Systems

All mineral oils are subject to expansion and contraction with the rise and fall of temperature.
The coefficient of expansion of heavy oil at 60° F. is in the region of -00035, whilst the lighter oils such
as motor spirit, etc., have a coefficient of expansion of approximately -00070 at the same
temperature.
As a rule there is little or no trouble in loading a vessel with the heavier types of oil. There is
generally plenty of room for expansion, and indeed more often than not some of the tanks are empty,
but where the lighter products are concerned this is a matter of major importance.
Normal practice is to load a tanker's cargo tanks to 98 per cent, of their capacity, 2 per cent, being
allowed for normal expansion and contraction, which may be experienced as a result of change in
latitude or simply daily fluctuations of temperature.
Vessels loading very light products have of necessity to be very exacting about ullages. It is often
very difficult, and on short voyages often impossible to put the vessel down to her marks. It is
therefore very important to be able to estimate correctly what the vessel may experience in the way of
high temperature, and to make extra allowance for cargo expansion where necessary.
To keep the temperature of the cargo in reasonable limits and also to avoid excessive loss through
evaporation, some vessels are fitted with a sprinkler system.
A sprinkler system is merely a number of fixed nozzles or water roses, which are stationed at
intervals throughout the length of the vessel in the immediate vicinity of her cargo tanks. The
sprinklers arc connected to the deck service line, through which cool sea water is pumped to counteract
the effect of the sun on the ship's steel deck plating.

Oil Tanker Ventilation System

When subjected to heat, oil not only expands but gives off vapour, and loss through evaporation
with spirit cargoes would be considerable if natural ventilation were allowed. On the other hand, if the
vessel's cargo tanks were completely sealed and then subjected to a rise in temperature, the cargo
 Diagram 5a. — Pressure Vacuum Ventilation Valve.
By Courtesy of Ferguson & Timpson Ltd.

Diagram 5.
By Courtesy of Ferguson & Timpson Lid.
By Courtesy of Ferguson & Timpson Ltd. Diagram 5b. — Pressure Vacuum Ventilation Valve.
 HEATING, COOLING AND VENTILATION SYSTEMS 25

would gradually give off more and more vapour, until the vapour exerted a pressure on the liquid
surface of the cargo, and on the surrounding plating and other component parts of the cargo
compartment. If the temperature should increase further, eventually the pressure would release itself
by fracturing the weakest portion of the cargo tank.
Oil tanker ventilation systems must aim at three things:—
1. The controlled escape of any excessive pressure of vaporised oil.
2. The safe disposal of these dangerous vapours in the atmosphere outside.
3. The provision of air to replace any partial vacuum caused by a contraction of the liquid oil
in the tank.
Early tankers had ventilation systems of two distinct types the Independent Venting System, and
the Common Venting System.

Independent Venting System

The independent venting system as fitted in some types of vessels consists of a 3-in. pipe fitted to
each tank, and generally located on top of the tank, coaming. This pipe extends approximately 3 feet
to a wire gauze covered cowl or flame trap. Halfway up the venting pipe a spring-loaded valve lifts if
the pressure in the tank exceeds 2 Ib. and closes again immediately the pressure in the tank drops
below that figure. The pressure valve incorporates in its design another valve, the function of which is
to allow air to flow into the tank, should a vacuum be created by any contraction in the cargo.
The advantage of this system is mainly one of cost, as large lengths of gas line are not required.
Its main disadvantage is that with volatile cargoes it does not discharge the vapour sufficiently high
enough for it to disperse quickly. Another disadvantage is that either valve can be jammed by scale or
wax deposits, with little or no indication that anything is wrong.

Common Venting System

This type of venting system has a gas line or pipe serving each cargo compartment. These gas lines
serve a larger line which runs the length of the main cargo deck, utilising the catwalk or flying bridge
for support. It eventually ascends both masts to two flame traps well above the deck. At the base of
each mast, a pressure vacuum valve is fitted into the system to control the escape of gas and the inflow
of air. Each of the tanks has an ordinary sluice valve which has to be manually closed to isolate it from
the rest of the tanks. The advantages of this type of system are, that in comparison with the
independent system, all gas is discharged well above deck level. Its disadvantages are firstly;
contamination via the system, a possibility when carrying several different parcels; secondly, should
the pressure valves at the base of either mast fail or jam open, evaporation would not affect just a
single tank, but the whole cargo, and the loss through this cause might be very considerable.

Grouped Type Venting System

Most modern oil tankers have the venting system divided up in much the same manner as the
pumping system, In this way a separate gas line together with a separate flame trap are available for
each section of tanks. Each of the tanks is served by a pressure and vacuum valve on similar lines to
one or other of the two types shown.

The "D" Type Pressure and Relief Valve

The "D" Type Tiros Pressure and Relief Valve shown on opposite page is so constructed that the
valve performs both operations, allowing excessive pressure to escape up the gas line, and in the case
of a contraction of cargo, it allows air to enter the tank via the gas line. When the valves arc opened
up for inspection, testing or cleaning purposes, the pressure and vacuum adjustments can be made by
thc-nuts provided for this purpose.
26 TANKER HANDBOOK
The Independent Inlet and Outlet Type Relief and Pressure Valve

The main difference between this valve and the "D" type is thai this is really two separate valves.
One valve allowing excessive vapour pressure to escape via the gas line, and the other allowing air to
enter direct from the atmosphere without using the gas line, thus avoiding any possibility of
contamination from the ventilation system.

Ventilation while Loading and Discharging

The question of ventilation while loading and discharging is an extremely important one when
viewed from the point of view of safety. A proportion of the accidents that occur on oil tankers where
oil or dangerous vapours are ignited, can be traced to the misuse or failure of the ventilation system.
Safety regulations require vessels loading and discharging at most oil terminals to keep ullage
hatches and inspection ports secure on all tanks into which cargo is not being loaded or discharged.
Those cargo compartments which are actually in use should be fitted with proper wire gauze screens,
or spark arresters, to be in place over all ullage hatches and inspection ports while cargo is actually
entering or leaving any tank. Sometimes Port Regulations require the cargo ventilation system to be
used while loading or discharging, and the ullage hatches to be secured for the entire time that cargo is
being transferred.
When a vessel is fitted with an Automatic Ullage System, it is easy to comply with these
regulations. Indeed other than when the ullages and samples are taken and when the tanks are being
drained dry on the completion of a tank, the ullage hatches need never be opened, but when vessels arc
not equipped in this manner, and some vessels in service today are not, it is not always so easy; ullage
hatches have to be opened from time to time to ascertain the level of the oil in the tank in order to
avoid overflows, etc. In addition, unless the gas lines are large enough loading rates are restricted. It is

Inert Gas Distribution System.

 HEATING, COOLING AND VENTILATION SYSTEMS 27

for this and other reasons that most oil terminals allow the use of spark arresters for the purpose of
covering ullage and inspection hatches in tanks that arc actually in use, but always subject to
conditions which are now normal tanker practice.
It is a standard practice to shut all doors and port holes overlooking the vessel's cargo tanks. In
addition, boats other than those specially equipped with diesel engines, and craft such as dumb barges,
are prohibited from coming alongside a tanker when she is loading, discharging or taking ballast.
Vessels loading spirit are sometimes required to put out their fires and use shore steam for driving
deck machinery and necessary engine room auxiliaries. Cooking stoves which use coal and oil must
be shut down, and if the vessel is not equipped with the necessary electric safety stoves, all cooking has
to be done ashore. In this way, danger from petroleum vapour is reduced to an absolute minimum.

Inert Gas Systems

An increasing number of vessels are being built with Inert Gas Systems, and many of the larger
ships which were built without an Inert Gas System have subsequently had them fitted.
The use of Inert Gas to fill the space between the surface of the oil and the tank top, is a major step
forward from a safety standpoint as the explosive atmosphere normally found in this space is
eliminated. The risk of fire and explosion is greatly reduced if the vessel is involved in a collision or
other type of accident.
Most Inert Gas Systems make use of the waste gas which would normally pass up the funnel and
be discharged into the atmosphere. Instead, such gas is passed through a scries of cleaning devices or
scrubbers, by means of which the more corrosive elements are removed, and thence by a special piping
system to the cargo tanks.
The Inert Gas System is fitted with a series of valves and controls. When the ship is loaded, the
demand is small and inert gas is fed into the tanks only when space becomes available, as a result of
contraction of the liquid cargo or vapour loss caused by venting during rolling, etc.
The Inert Gas System is a complex piece of equipment. The objective of all this equipment is to
reduce the amount of oxygen in all the cargo tanks to 5% or less.
The flue gases are monitored for oxygen content. If the oxygen level reaches 8%, automatic
isolation valves come into operation and the flue gas is recirculated through the scrubbers. Inert gas
consists of various gases and other substances depending on the quality and type of fuel used in the
boilers.
Nitrogen is the major component, while carbon dioxide is present in significant quantities. Sulphur
dioxide and ash in small quantities arc also present. If the equipment is working properly the amount
of oxygen present will be in the region of 4% of the total volume of gas produced. A ship which has
been gas freed can expect to have air in the cargo tanks which contains at least 20% oxygen.
Prior to loading, the cargo tanks should be filled with inert gas to displace and/or dilute the oxygen
content, Each tank has to be tested with an oxygen meter to check the oxygen content and to make
sure it is within the limits permitted prior to loading.
The original air content of the tanks is displaced to atmosphere by the inert gas and when this is
accomplished the tanks should be sealed by shutting down the ventilation system. If the tanks are
reasonably air and gas tight this should insure that the inert gas is retained without any increase in
oxygen level till the ship is ready to load.
During loading the valves on the venting system have to be opened to allow the incoming oil to
displace inert gas. As the liquid level increases the ullage space decreases and the liquid hydrocarbon
vapours given off by the incoming oil becomes more concentrated and some hydrocarbon vapour is
forced out with the inert gas.
When the tanks are topped up and the loading operation stops, the level of oxygen and the
explosive limits of the ullage space should be checked. Some vessels have this capability built in.
The risers should now be closed to atmosphere and the P.V. valves which arc normally set to open
or shut should be brought into operation and adjusted as required. Each tank should now be
pressurised via the inert gas system. This will take care of any loss of inert gas during the voyage
caused by rolling or temperature changes. Discharging the same cargo makes a heavy demand on the
inert gas system as the liquid level decreases, more inert gas is required to fill the vapour space.
Tank cleaning with high pressure machines built into the individual tanks should only be
undertaken when the tanks arc full of inert gas and the oxygen and explosive range of the tank
contents meet requirements.
As previously stated, the Inert Gas System is a complex piece of equipment and requires regular
maintenance to insure its safe operation. The pipes leading from the scrubbers are fitted with a number
28 TANKER HANDBOOK
 of fail safe devices to guard against hydrocarbon liquid or vapour reaching the machinery spaces.
These deck seals and non-return valves have to be checked at regular intervals.

U.L.C.C.S and V.L.C.C.s Venting Systems

This type of vessel tends to load and discharge cargo at rates far beyond the capability of smaller
vessels. When loading fast, the incoming liquid displaces the air and gas mixture (in the case of incrted
ships — inert gas) in considerable volume. This can create hazards and cause problems to personnel
on deck and in the vicinity of the ship, in a still atmosphere, unless ways are found of helping the gas
disperse.
Currently the problem has been handled in two ways:—
1. The conventional method with large vent lines and mast head venting, in which the principle
is to release the gas at a level well above the deck.
2. The use of special vent valves fixed on individual standpipes a few feet above deck level. A
number of different valves have been produced to meet this requirement, such as the lotta
Valve, Milne, and others. The idea is to use the velocity of the gas to jet it to a safe altitude
above the deck. To do this, such valves provide a variable size of orifice according to the
pressure of the gas escaping. As the pressure increases, so the orifice increases in size, allowing
the gas to escape at the same velocity. A loss of pressure means a reduction in the size of the
outlet, so the gas escapes at the same velocity.
The International Safety Guide
for Oil Tankers & Terminals is
the result of close co-operation
between the International Chamber
of Shipping, Oil Companies Marine
Forum and The International As-
sociation of Ports and Harbours. It
was first published in 1978 and
the fourth edition produced in
1996. The loading and discharge
of certain types of oil, particularly
those containing high levels of H2 S
or Hydrogen Sulphide or with a
high Reeds Vapour Pressure is a
matter of concern, not only for
those On board such a tanker, hut
the Port and Harbour Authorities
where the operation is taking place.
Special equipment has to be used
and the necessary precautions have
to be taken.
One of the subjects covered by
this edition is the uncontrolled emis-
sions of gas while loading and
discharging ballast and as well as oil
cargo. The subject has become more
complex as the result of changes and
developments on board tankers over
the years.
The International Safety Guide
attempts to provide guidance on
these matters so that the master
and crew of a tanker are aware of
the problems and can use recom-
mended safe practices in any given
situation.
n— T-'T—a-f -- - ---- ...:-::.--:

Gas Vents on the Meridian Lion.

 CHAPTER 5

PETROLEUM PRODUCTS

IN order to ensure the operation of an oil tanker in a safe and efficient manner, it is essential for the
ship's officer to have a working knowledge of the products the vessel is likely to carry. To gain some
knowledge of crude oil and the refined products that are derived from it, it is useful to examine briefly
the refining processes used in the oil industry today.

Crude Oil

Crude oil can be described as a mixture of several liquid hydro-carbons which may have paraffin,
naphthcnic, aromatic and asphaltic origins. In colour, the majority of crude oils are dark brown or
black, though some have yellow and greenish tints. It varies considerably in gravity and viscosity. The
structure of any particular crude oil is of major importance, as this determines the quantity and type
of finished products that will be obtained from it, as well as the best method of obtaining these
products.

Distilling Crude Oil

When crude oil is distilled, it is first passed through a pipe still, in which it is heated to
temperatures of up to 750° F. After passing out of the pipe still, the crude oil is fed into a series of
fractionating towers where it is separated into the various liquid and vapour hydro-carbons of which it
is composed.

Fractionating Towers

Fractionating towers are towers which separate the different fractions of crude oil by taking
advantage of the different boiling points of the various fractions. When the oil enters the fractionating
tower, the lighter fractions immediately ascend through a series of mushroom type valves set in trays
at different levels until eventually each fraction reaches a tray on which it condenses. The heavier
fraction follows a similar process at the lower end of the tower, and in this manner the first of a series
of sorting operations takes place.
The fractions at the top of the towers are the lighter ones, such as gas, naphtha, and motor spirit.
Lower down we find kerosene and similar products, lower still are the middle distillates such as gas
oil. At the bottom of the tower are left the lubricating oil distillates and the heavy base material from
which the fuel and bitumen are derived.

Cracking

While distillation can be summed up as the process by which the crude oil is separated into various
grades or fractions, cracking is the transformation or structural rearrangement of the particular
hydro-carbons used as fuel. Cracking is employed to produce a larger quantity of lighter fractions than
would be possible by distillation alone.

Thermal Cracking

This method of cracking utilises high temperatures and high pressures to break down the hydro -
carbon used as fuel. The large molecules are broken up into small molecules and then on leaving the
cracker arc sorted by another fractionating tower.
29
30 TANKER HANDBOOK
Catalytic Cracking

Catalytic cracking makes use of a catalyst to assist in the cracking process. A catalyst is a
substance which helps in the process of breaking up of large molecules, thus avoiding the high
temperatures and pressures required in a Thermal Cracking Plant. The motor spirit and other products
of this type of plant are of extremely high quality.

Purification of Refined Products

In addition to hydrogen and carbon, crude oil may contain sulphur, nitrogen and oxygen, which
may be present in the form of corrosive or harmful salts and acids. The presence of some of these
elements may be undesirable. For instance, machinery may be subjected to abnormal corrosive action
from the presence of too much sulphur. The presence of too much sulphur also results in unpleasant
odours. For these and other reasons, a proportion of the refining plant is used to remove or neutralise
any undesirable qualities from refined products. Two such plants arc the Hydrodesulphurisation Plant
and the Copper Sweetening Plant.

Reforming Plant

Reforming low quality motor spirit can be accomplished in either a Thermal Reformer or a
Catalytic Reformer. In these plants, motor spirit from the Fractionating Towers is partially cracked to
obtain better quality motor spirit and gases such as propane and butane.
To sum up, the refining process can be described as a series of sorting and cracking operations,
followed by special purification processes that culminate in the production of a scries of high quality
products. These arc in turn blended and chemically treated to conform to certain definite
specifications.

Sampling

After the oil is refined and in the refinery storage tanks, it is sampled and tested. Whenever oil is
transferred either from a ship to shore storage tanks, or the reverse, sampling takes place before the
operation is commenced and after it is completed.

The Navahoe and the Iroquois at New Orleans in 1930. In 1907 the Iroquois and the barge Navahoe, with
a total deadweight of 17,000 tons, were built at Belfast. They plied across the Atlantic with great
success, making 148 crossings between 1907 and 1917. After the First World War the vessels returned to
the run and continued on it until 1930 when the Navahoe became a storage hulk in the Caribbean. The
Iruquois was not broken up until 1947.
 PETROLEUM PRODUCTS 31

Initial Samples

If a vessel is about to load a cargo of oil, the ship's tanks are first inspected and passed as fit for
the particular grade or grades with which it is intended to load her. At the same time, the oil in the
shore tanks is sampled and tested to make sure that it is not contaminated or deteriorating from the
result of storage. After the vessel has started to load, the initial samples arc taken. In this way, any
drop in the specification of the oil will be checked before much of the cargo is loaded, and if necessary
the loading operations can be stopped before too much oil is contaminated. With special grades of
oil the sampling may be repeated several times during the course of the loading operations.

Final Samples

These arc the samples that are taken on the completion of the loading operations. They are the
final check on the quality of the oil loaded, and form the basis from which the chemists obtain the data
for the Quantity and Quality Sheet or Specification Sheet, a copy of which is put on board before
the vessel sails. In addition, sample cans containing samples of each of the oils loaded are sealed and
dispatched with the vessel to her destination.

Composite Samples

Composite samples are generally taken in the case of cargoes such as crude oil. The sampler merely
taking a portion of the sample obtained from each individual tank, pouring it into a larger sample
can containing similar samples from other tanks.

Individual Samples

When a vessel is loaded with several different types of oil, the procedure is to have a separate
sample can or bottle for each individual tank. The sampler then takes samples from the top, bottom
and middle of the tank, an equal portion of each being poured into the sample can for the particular
tank concerned.

Sampling Devices

There are several different devices used for obtaining samples of oil at different levels in a tank.
The principle behind them, however, is much the same in every case. In its simplest form, the
apparatus consists of a bottle, or can, which is weighted to allow it to sink to the bottom of the tank.
The container is lowered by means of a line which is secured to the stopper as well as the container
itself. If the container is lowered gently, the stopper remains in place, but when the container has
reached the desired depth, the cord or line is jerked sufficiently to remove the stopper, and allow the
container to flood. The container is then drawn up.
More complicated versions of the sampler allow three samples to be taken at once, the sample
can filling a third full at each level. The whole thing being controlled by a special valve designed for
this purpose.

Sounding for Water

Water is sometimes present in a ship's tanks in addition to the oil that should be there. This water
may be the remains of the ballast left in the pipeline system after deballasting, or it may have found
its way into the ship as a result of small leaks in the vessel's hull. Sometimes it even comes in with the
cargo that is being loaded, held in suspension and only settling out over a period of time.
Water which collects underneath the oil in the bottom of a tank is known as free water. Its presence
can be detected and the quantity measured by using a sounding rod to which is attached a strip of
litmus paper, or alternatively, a rod covered with water-finding paste. The litmus paper or paste
discolours to the exact level of the water, and the number of inches or feet of water can be read off
easily when the sounding rod is drawn up.
32 TANKER HANDBOOK

Should the oil on top of the water be heavy fuel oil or something of a similar character, the
sounding rod together with the paste or litmus paper will be coated with a heavy covering of oil, and
this might prevent it registering the correct amount of water, if it indicates the presence of water al all.
When water is present in suspension, this can only be traced and measured by sampling at different
levels, and testing it properly under laboratory conditions.

Testing Oil

Testing oil, like refining, covers a large field indeed. However, there arc some basic tests, etc.,
which are not without significance to the tanker officer. A knowledge of the relative weight, volume,
colour, flashpoint and viscosity, governs the stowage and handling of the various products he may be
called upon to carry.

Specific Gravity

A specific gravity of a liquid is its density relative to the density of water. A hydrometer, similar
in principle to that used for testing the density of sea water, is the instrument used to determine the
specific gravity of any particular oil.
When the specific gravity of an oil is known and also the temperature of the oil, it is possible to
work out the weight of a given volume, or alternatively the amount of space a weight of oil will need.
The specific gravity is of little or no use without the temperature of the oil.
In U.S. Ports the specific gravity is generally replaced by the American Petroleum Institute or
A.P.I. Gravity. The relationship is best expressed as follows:—

A.P.I. Gravity at 60° F. =--- - -.„ ^ 14.—777-777^-^- 131-5

J
Specific Gravity 60°/60° F.

Flash Point

The flash point of a liquid is the temperature at which the liquid gives off sufficient vapour to form
an ignitable mixture.
The following table gives some approximate flash points for petroleum products: —
Product Minimum Temp.
Most Crude Oils ......................1 Flash at Atmospheric
Motor Spirit, etc.......................J Temperature
Power Kerosene (Vap. Oil) . . . 90° F. 85° F.
White Spirit (Turps. Sub.)_____ 105° F.
Kerosene................................... — 115° F.
Gas Oil..................................... — 155° F.
Most Fuel Oils.......................... 175° F.
Special Fuel Oils....................... — 150° F.
Lubricating Oils........................ — +200° F.
In the United Kingdom the Regulations for the handling and storage of Petroleum divide these
products into three groups according to their flash points.
(a) Dangerous products such as Motor Spirit with flash points below 73" F.
(b) Products such as Kerosene with flash points between 73° F. and 150° F.
(c) Comparatively safe products such as Fuel Oil with flash points over 150° F.
Testing the flash points of petroleum products is an operation which must be carried out in a
laboratory. Several different types of apparatus are in use for testing the flash points of oil over a very
wide range. Two types used widely are the Abel and the Pensky-Martens closed cup apparatus.
Flash point should not be confused with ignition point. Ignition point is the temperature which
when reached is sufficient to cause combustion even if the original source of heat is removed.
A mixture of gas and air are not necessarily inflammable. The mixture has to be within certain
definite limits, these limits vary slightly with the type of hydrocarbon, but with normal crude oils the
PETROLEUM PRODUCTS 3
3
 Inserting a lank cleaning hose into one of the cargo tanks.

lower limit is about 2 per cent, gas to 98 per cent, air, while the upper limit is about 10 per cent, gas
to 90 per cent. air.

Vapour Pressure

Petroleum products vary considerably in their ability to give off gas or vapour, but generally those
with low flash points produce the largest amount of gas. Their ability to give off gas depends to a very
large degree on temperature. In a given size container or tank, the same petroleum product will give
off more vapour at a higher temperature than a lower, though other factors also have some influence.
If the surface of the liquid petroleum is agitated this can help to increase the amount of vapour given off.
If subjected to an increase in temperature in a closed container or tank, petroleum products
particularly those with low flash points, will tend to build up a vapour or gas pressure. If the ullage
plug in a cargo tank is open, the petroleum gas or vapour, will tend to displace the air in the tank as
the temperature of the liquid increases, and more vapour or gas is given off. If the temperature remains
unchanged, the liquid petroleum product will give off a certain amount of gas, after which it will cease
to displace the air and the quantity of gas and air will remain unchanged, or in equilibrium.
Obviously a petroleum product's ability to give off gas is important, from the stand point of safety
as well as refining and storage problems.

The Reid Vapour Pressure Test

The Reid Vapour Pressure Test provides a method of comparing the ability of various petroleum
products to give off vapour under standard conditions. The container or apparatus used has a liquid
to vapour space in the ratio of 1 to 4, and the test is conducted at 100° F.
In the United States regulations for the handling and storage of Petroleum Products utilise Reids
Vapour Pressure and Flash Point to help classify individual types and grades of petroleum.
They are divided into two types:—
1. Combustible Products.
2, Inflammable Products.
34 TANKER HANDBOOK,

In the Inflammable Range there are three types: -

(a) Products with an R.V.F. of 14 Ibs. or over.
(6) Products with an R.V.P. of over 8-5 Ibs. but less than 14 Ibs.
(c) Products with an R.V.P. of 8-5 Ibs. or less and a Flash Point of 80° F. or below.
In the Combustible Ranges there are two types:-
(d) Products with a Flash Point above 80° F. but below 150° F.
(e) Products with a Flash Point at or above 150° F.

Viscosity

Viscosity is the internal resistance a liquid has to flow. The viscosity of a liquid is not constant,
but may change considerably with an increase or a decrease in temperature.
In Great Britain, Redwood's Viscometers and Scales arc in general use in the petroleum industry.
Oil which flows freely is said to have a low viscosity, and may be less than a hundred seconds on the
Redwood Scale. Thicker oils, which are heavy and sluggish when in motion, may be quoted in
thousands of seconds, and are said to have a high viscosity.

Viscosity Index

Viscosity Index is a numerical reference scale, which indicates reaction of a particular oil to heat.
A petroleum product with a low Viscosity Index Number can be expected to be thick and sluggish at
low temperatures, but quite the reverse when heated. Similarly, an oil which does not change but
retains relatively the same viscosity, is said to have a high Viscosity Index Number.

Colour

Oils which have no colour specification can be loaded into tanks which would not be suitable for
other types of oil. Similarly, white spirit cannot be loaded through a line which has served for the
transfer of a dirty product. These are but two of the more obvious situations where colour plays an
important part in the handling of different types of oil.
For finer shades of difference, laboratory apparatus is needed. Some types of apparatus use colour
shade glasses for comparison. A special receptacle being used for the oil, so that the colour is in
proportion to a given depth or volume of oil.
With petroleum products such as fuel oil, colour has no major significance, but in the case of oils
such as kerosene, white spirit, and a large number of lubricant oils, it is a matter of major
importance.
There arc some nine colour scales in use universally. The better known are the U.S. National
Petroleum Associations Colour Reference, which uses an alphabetical scale in association with
common descriptive terms, such as — Water White (B); Orange Pale (O); Dark Red (R). Saybolts
Colour Chronometer uses a numerical reference with +30 or —30, above or below a base,
corresponding approximately to Standard White on the previous scale.

Milipour

This is a colour reference used to check the quality of turbojet fuels. It is measured on a numerical
scale of 1-10. Milipour tests are undertaken in a Laboratory, and indicate how adversely the jet fuel
has been affected by impurities such as rust, salt, other petroleum products, and bacteria.
 CHAPTER 6 TANK CLEANING AND

GAS FREEING

GAS freeing is the name given to the operation of freeing an oil tanker's cargo tanks of any dangerous
vapour they may contain. Tank cleaning covers the removal of all oil residue and scale, etc., so that
the tanks may remain gas free. Gas freeing and tank cleaning arc really inseparable if a vessel is to be
properly cleaned, as for instance when she is to enter a repair yard for overhaul.
It is a useful exercise to look at the development of tank cleaning and gas freeing over the last 50
years. It has to be remembered that a 15,000 d.w.t. ship was a large ocean going tanker during the last
World War and there were, and still are, a lot of ships and barges much smaller than 15,000 d.w.t., all
of which have to have their tanks cleaned and gas freed from time to time. In Chapter 7 oil pollution
and the National and International regulations cover 1920 to the present time, are discussed.
In this chapter we arc concerned with the practical developments in the field of tank cleaning and
gas freeing.

Tank Cleaning and Gas Freeing After Spirit Cargoes

A number of older vessels were not equipped with mechanical tank washing machines, and as a
result had to rely entirely on other means to gas free and tank clean. Such a vessel after discharging a
cargo of motor spirit or a similar product would fill a number of her cargo tanks with salt water
ballast and proceed on her way to the loading port for another cargo. On the way she would be
expected to clean and gas free her tanks and in the process remove rust and scale by hand from all
cargo tanks. Slops were pumped overboard as long as the ship was clear of the land, in the belief that
wave action would disperse any oil harmlessly.

Gas Freeing Ventilation System

On leaving the discharging port, the ventilation system would be cleared of any dangerous vapour.
This was generally done by removing the blank flanges at the ends of all the venting pipes and opening
the drain cocks at the foot of each mast, steam would then be passed through all the gas pipes to
displace any petroleum vapour that may be lingering there. After this, all pressure-vacuum valves and
flame traps would be inspected to sec that they had not become clogged with scale which might
prevent them functioning properly.

Steaming Tanks

Care had to be taken not to steam too many tanks at once. To obtain the best results it was
necessary to have sufficient volume of steam available to completely fill the whole area of each tank
being steamed. To guard against accidents and avoid subjecting the tanks to accidental pressure, care
had to be taken to leave the ullage hatches open and fit spark arresters in position. The time each
individual cargo tank was steamed would depend upon the size of the tank and the amount of steam
available, but with a reasonable steam supply two or three hours was generally quite sufficient.
Immediately after the tank had been steamed out, the tank lid would be raised and the tank
allowed to cool sufficiently for the bottom to be sighted. As soon as it is cool enough for this, the
bottom would be hosed down, preferably with hot water. This was done from the deck, and never from
the ladder leading into the tank. While the tank bottom was being hosed down, the suction would be
open and a pump would be running with just sufficient speed to keep the bottom of the tank
uncovered.
35
36 TANKER HANDBOOK
 Gas Freeing with Windsails.

Windsails

After the bottom has been properly washed, the tank was ventilated. This could have been done
either by means of windsails or gas ejectors, according to the type of equipment supplied.
A windsail is a portable canvas ventilator which is rigged so that one end is passed through the
tank lid to within ten feet of the bottom, while the other end is hoisted by means of a tackle well clear
of the deck, it can be trimmed like a sail to catch the wind. Fresh air is directed in this way to the
bottom of the tank where it displaces any dangerous vapour which may still be lingering on. The
effectiveness of the windsail is proportionate to the force of the wind. With a good stiff wind, it is
probably more effective than the best of gas ejectors, but in still air it is worse than useless.
Windsails are not in common use today. They have largely been replaced by Gas Ejectors and
water driven extractor fans. Occasionally they are used to ventilate pumprooms and other areas where
modern equipment is not as effective or cannot be used.

Gas Ejectors

Gas ejectors perform the same operation as windsails, but their operation docs not depend on the
vagaries of the wind, as a result they arc much more dependable. Most gas ejectors are steam powered.
The steam is passed through a nozzle and then allowed to expand rapidly. The rapidly expanding
steam creates a vacuum which is utilised to draw the gas and air out of the tank below.
There are two types of gas ejectors in use. The first and more common type is bolted to a special
stand on the deck immediately above the tank about to be gas freed. The stand is the end of a pipe
which extends to within a few inches of the bottom of the tank. A portable steam hose is used to
connect it to the deck steam line and the steam is turned on. As the gas and air at the bottom of the
tank are ejected via the pipe, the ejector is very effective, but has to be rigged on each individual tank,
and though it soon clears the tank, it does not gas free the pumping system.
The second type of gas ejector is a larger more powerful unit, and is generally a fixture with
permanent steam connections. It is connected directly into the vessel's pumping system at a point
where it can draw from both the suction and deck delivery lines. The pumping system must be drained
clear of all liquid, and the suction strums in the tank to be gas freed must be clear of any water which
may be lying in the bottom of these tanks. The ejector performs the same operation as the one
previously described, but instead of using a special pipe in each tank, it uses the vessel's pumping
system and can be used to gas free the vessel's lines after they have been flushed with water.
TANK CLEANING AND GAS FREEING 3
7
 Essu London Using a water driven extractor fan, gas is being pumped out of a cargo tank. The
officer is using an explosimetcr which will detect any gas still remaining.

Testing for Gas

After the tanks have been properly ventilated, the atmosphere inside caeh tank must be tested with
an Explosimeter before men are allowed to enter it. An Explosimeter is an instrument for testing the
atmosphere in a tank. It will register whether the tank is fit for men to enter, or if the atmosphere is
dangerous or highly dangerous. Should the test with the Explosimeter be satisfactory, the men ean be
sent down to remove scale, and, if necessary, mop up any water or oil remaining in the tank.

Removal of Scale

Ships engaged in carrying petroleum spirit in uncoated tanks generally have considerable quantities
of scale, both on the bulkheads and bottoms of all the vessel's cargo tanks. It is necessary to remove
loose scale on each ballast passage as a routine measure, to ensure that the limber holes remain free so
that the vessel will drain properly. Scale absorbs considerable quantities of spirit which, unless it is
removed, may contaminate subsequent cargoes. While men arc working in a tank they should be
constantly watched by a responsible person from the deck. Equipment used during tank cleaning must
be of the non-spark variety, but attention must be drawn to the fact that wooden tank shovels often
become impregnated with spirit or oil and can themselves be dangerous when stowed away after the
tank cleaning operations have been completed. Each rating should be made to account for any rags or
38 TANKER HANDBOOK
other material he may have used during the operation, so that there is no danger of these materials
blocking the limber holes and getting under valves, etc.
Vessels in the clean oil trade do not as a rule keep their cargo heating system connected. Unless
suddenly switched from one trade to the other, the usual procedure is for the ship to have her heating
coils disconnected and removed by shore labour prior to loading her first cargo of spirit. Failure to
do this results in unnecessary corrosion to the coil system with the result that, when in later years it is
required, it is of little or no use.

Mechanical Machine Washing

Portable Tank Washing Machines — Vessels equipped to machine wash their cargo compartments with
portable tank-washing machines have been in service for over 30 years. There are several different
makes in existence, though the Butterworth Corporation's machines are perhaps the best known.
The machines arc hydraulically-operated, and arc supplied with clean sea water from a special pump
in the engine room at pressures up to 200 Ibs. If necessary the water can be heated to temperatures up to
180° F. for special cleaning jobs, by the use of a Butterworth or other type of water heater. Normally
hot water is not used until the atmosphere in the tank is well below the lower explosive limit.
The portable washing machines are connected to bonded rubber hoses which are in turn connected
to the deck service line. The machines arc lowered on a marked line to predetermined levels, and are
operated for a period which permits them to complete at least one full cycle before being lowered to
the next level in the tank. Jets of water under high pressure are projected to all the internal surfaces of

BUTTERWORTH TYPE" -K
TANK-CLEflNING- MACHINE
 TANK CLEANING AND GAS FREEING 39

the tank within reach. A stripping pump, or an eductor, should be set to collect the wash water and
keep the bottom of the tank clear of water at all times.
The number of machines that can be operated simultaneously will depend on the capacity of the
pump and the size of the service line. Two to six machines are quite normal.

Fixed Machines — As oil tankers have increased in size and the individual cargo tanks have also grown
proportionately bigger, to facilitate tank cleaning under these conditions many large vessels have been
equipped with large, high-velocity machines which arc on fixed mountings built into the tank. There
are several different types in use, but most of them are operated in conjunction with a main cargo
pump. The fact that no labour is required to move the machines, and the ability to operate when the
ship is rolling, is a great advantage. On the other hand there are frequently areas in the tank which are
screened by structural members, particularly in the wing tanks. In many cases vessels are equipped
with a number of portable machines to clean areas where the big, fixed machines cannot reach.
Tank-cleaning equipment, whether it consists of portable or fixed washing machines, should receive
regular inspection and any necessary maintenance. Portables should be cleaned and kept in oil-baths
where this is recommended by the makers. Hoses need to be inspected to check for damaged couplings
and broken bonding wires. When not in use they should be stowed off the deck in racks, so they are
stretched out.
As a result of three major disasters in 1969, when three V.L.C.C.s suffered explosions while tank
cleaning while at sea, the industry undertook a series of studies.
Investigations undertaken by various authorities came to the conclusion that in all three cases,
static electricity was the probable cause of the explosion. The Inert Gas System was largely brought
into being as the result of these early findings. All new and a large number of older ships have been
fitted out with Inert Gas Systems. To-day large crude carriers, such as V.L.C.C.s and U.L.C.C.s, arc
fitted with Inert Gas Systems as well as alarms and fail safe devices which allow the situation in each
individual tank to be monitored closely. If for any reason there is a failure of any part of the system,
and it is still necessary to clean a particular tank or tanks, great care has to be taken before
proceeding.
Studies have shown that apart from constantly checking the amount of oxygen in each cargo tank
additional precautions have to be taken by V.L.C.C.s and U.L.C.C.s as each tank is so large it may
not be possible to accurately monitor the atmosphere in such a tank with a hand operated explosimetcr
through a single ullage plug.
If the individual tank atmosphere is not clearly determined to be non-explosive the following
should be followed.
fl) Don't use high capacity washing machines.
(2) Don't use more than 3 or 4 portable machines in each tank.
(3) Don't heat wash water above 140° F.
(4) Don't add chemicals.
(5) Don't recirculate wash water.
These precautions are to be followed in addition to the normal safe practice of flushing portable
washing machines prior to use as well as checking the bonding cable on each hose.
When washing with portable machines is completed the hoses should not be disconnected till the
machine is out of the tank.
If possible the tank bottoms should be kept as dry as possible during washing, but under no
circumstances are sounding rods to be used for this for up to five hours after washing operations have
been completed.
When the atmosphere in the tank is clearly non-explosive cleaning can go ahead in the normal
way.

Cleaning Modern Clean Multi-Grade Tankers

Many purpose-built modern clean oil tankers are built with coated cargo tanks, which prevents
the excessive corrosion of internal bulkheads and reduces the need for machine washing with hot salt
water.
Such vessels tend to have more segregated ballast tanks, size for size, than single-grade vessels.
Frequently segregated ballast is carried in double bottoms, fore and after peaks. The cleaning of
individual tanks on a multi-grade oil tanker will depend on a number of factors such as what cargo the
40 TANKER HANDBOOK

individual tank contained previously and what is going to be loaded into it next. In all cases special
cleaning instructions will be issued and the tanks may be tested by an independent inspector after they
have been cleaned and dried out. Coated tanks are generally a lot easier to clean between different
grades, but care has to be taken that coatings have not been damaged and that individual coatings are
compatible with the new grade of cargo.

Gas Freeing and Tank Cleaning — Dirty Oils

It is the author's intention to discuss Oil Pollution of the Sea and the disposal of persistent oil
slops, in a separate chapter in view of the current importance of this topic. This section will cover the
actual cleaning of dirty oil tanks. It assumes that all ocean-going vessels are equipped with tank
washing machines when carrying crude or dirty products.
Cleaning tanks after high-flash dirty cargoes such as diesel oil and fuel, is largely a matter of
degree. Diesel oil leaves very little residue or sediment, and an average tank can be cleaned for ballast
with minimum washing. Fuel-oil, on the other hand, will normally take twice as many machine hours.
The problem is mainly one of washing and draining away the wax and other semi-solid residues. The
atmosphere in the tanks will be below the lower explosive limits, and machine washing can normally
be undertaken without restriction until the tank is clean. When tank cleaning a tank which has
contained high sulphur fuel for a cargo of low sulphur fuel, it will be necessary to clean the pipelines
properly, and to muck out the tank bottoms, removing all sediment and salt water. Washing the tank
bottoms and pipes with fresh water helps if sufficient fresh water is available.
Cleaning tanks after crude is another matter, unless the ship is equipped with an inert gas system
the tanks are likely to contain an over rich atmosphere, well over the explosive limit. The first objective
here must be to use sufficient tank-cleaning equipment to wash out the lighter ends and reduce the
atmosphere to a level well below the lower explosive limit. Because tank cleaning machines inject water
at high velocity they are potentially capable of generating static, and must be properly earthed to allow
the charge to dissipate.
It follows therefore, that caution must be used to operate equipment only when it is known to have
been checked out as safe. Large machines which utilise more water and high pressure can also be a
potential source of danger, even though they are on fixed mountings. Care should be taken to operate
all such equipment within the framework of the manufacturers instructions and safe tanker practice.
Checks on the atmosphere of tanks being cleaned should be undertaken at regular intervals, to
determine when the tank atmosphere has fallen well below the lower explosive limit, and ultimately is
gas-free and safe for men to enter.
From an operational standpoint the recycling of wash water increases the potential to produce high
static charges because of the oil entrained in the wash water. The injection of chemicals in wash water
can in certain circumstances have the same effect. If something more than cold washing is required
the tank should be made safe-by gas-freeing it with ordinary cold washing first.

Clearing Heating Coils

Not all crude ships' cargo tanks are fitted with coils, though most have coils fitted in their slop
tank. It is essential to blow coils through, as each tank is being gas-freed. The returns should be
allowed to escape through the drain cock on deck. In this manner any oil which has entered the coils
will not be returned to the engine room, but will be discharged on deck, or to a container or slop tank
if oil is present, where it will at once be noted, and arrangements can then be made to test the coils
in the tank concerned with a view to finding and repairing the leak.

Chemical Tank Cleaning Processes

Recent studies of tank-cleaning practices with the aid of chemicals have revealed that some of the
chemicals used are unstable in character, and could under certain circumstances be hazardous. The
injection of chemicals into wash water has been discussed already and it would appear that when it is
necessary to use chemicals the safer method is to apply them to the surface to be cleaned directly after,
the tank has been cold water-washed and gas-freed.
Approved chemicals are normally used in this way when a dirty ship is cleaned in a limited period
for a clean cargo, or when unusual problems are encountered prior to dry-dock.
 TANK CLEANING AND GAS FREEING 41

Gas Free Certificates

Vessels which have gas freed and tank cleaned for the purpose of effecting repairs are always
inspected by a chemist before repairs are allowed to commence. The chemist tests samples of the
atmosphere from all the tanks, cofferdams and pumprooms before signing a Gas Free Certificate. The
certificate gives a description of the tanks and compartments tested and the results of the test. The
tanks may be still dangerous, in which case the certificate will be withheld, on the other hand they may
be fit for men to enter and for repairs which require no burning or welding — cold work. If the tanks
are fit for any type of work, this is endorsed on the certificate, a copy of which must be displayed on
deck. Gas Fee Certificates arc only valid for the time they are issued, and frequent checks are required
especially if work has been stopped over a period such as a weekend or public holiday.
 CHAPTER 7 OIL POLLUTION OF THE SEA

— REGULATIONS AND AVOIDANCE

IN the last fifty years the pollution of the sea by oil has received considerable publicity. It would be
useless to deny that there has been, and for that matter still is, a problem of major proportions, but
progress has been made towards rectifying the situation. This should not be overlooked in an
environment where life support systems for the human race are under constant attack by population
increase, and the complexities of living in a modern society highly dependent on hydrocarbons and
other pollutants used by industry.
It has to be remembered that the oceans of the world have for centuries been used as the natural
disposal point for much of the unwanted effluent, and it has only been in the last century that the need
for change became apparent.
We may no longer indiscriminately dump oil in the oceans of the world because of the warning
signs nature has given us in terms of oil-soaked and dying sea-birds, as well as the destruction of
fisheries and other creatures that live in the ocean and along the coasts that fringe it.
This chapter deals with pollution from the oil tanker, an acknowledged major source of pollution.
It should however be kept in mind that there are other sources from which oil reaches the ocean, not
the least of these is carelessly-disposed oil and waste on land, seapage from huge storage tanks and
pipelines, as well as the ineffectiveness of some effluent systems.

Early National Legislation

It seems probably that Oil Pollution of the Sea first received industrial and international attention
in the early 1920's. The disposal of waste oil from oil tankers received some publicity, and in 1925 a
U.S. Government supervised experiment was undertaken in the Charles Pratt. This vessel was fitted
with a device to skim and separate the oil from the sea water on the ballast passage, and thus reduce
the amount of oil discharged into the sea. The experiment was reported to be successful.
In terms of legislation, the British "Oil in Navigable Waters" Act (1922) and the U.S. "Pollution
of the Sea by Oil" Act (1926), are early attempts at national control of this problem.
The U.S. legislation appears to have contained some basic data which was later developed and
expanded. An oil/water mixture, containing more than 500 parts per million of crude fuel or diescl, to
salt water, was the legislative dividing line between an acceptable or unacceptable level of pollution.

International Legislation

It was not until 1954 that the problem was tackled on an international scale. At a conference in
London, a Convention for the "Prevention of the Pollution of the Sea by Oil", prescribed zones of the
sea within which the discharge of persistent oils was prohibited. These special zones were outlined and
included the North Sea and large areas of the Atlantic, as well as areas within 50 miles of any land.
The convention came into force on the 26th July, 1958, and was ratified by the United Kingdom
and ten other countries. It was later ratified by the United States and several other nations.
The 1954 Convention was important because it was the first International Legislation to help curb
pollution of the sea by oil. For the tanker it was more important than for other vessels because it
clearly recognised that the dirty oil carrier responsible for the transport of persistent oils was a major
source of pollution. In preventing such oil tankers from discharging persistent oils within the
prohibited zones, the first controls came into being, effectively making them dump their slops and
contaminated wash water where it would do the least harm.
The 1954 Convention used 100 parts per million of oil in water for the dividing line in judging an
acceptable limit of pollution where an oily water mixture was involved.
As far as British ships are concerned, the Oil in Navigable Waters Act of 1955 was the instrument
by which the 1954 Convention was enforced. It became law on the 8th September, 1956.
The Ministry of Transport issued a manual on the Avoidance of Pollution of the Sea by Oil, with
detailed instructions on pollution avoidance.. This, together with the Oil Record Book which every
42
OIL POLLUTION OF THE SEA — REGULATIONS AND AVOIDANCE 4
3
 U.L.C.C. Esso Pacific 508,268 d.w.t. fully laden turning hard lo starboard,

British ship is still required to keep, allows the British Government to keep a fairly close watch on
the oil transfers and pollution incidents involving British ships. Other governments have similar
controls for vessels registered under their flags.
The 1954 Convention did not satisfy all interested parties. Environmentalists were quick to point
out that light oil could in certain circumstances be more lethal to marine life than heavier oils. Others
pointed out that the dumping of large quantities of waste oil in the more remote sea areas was no
substitute for the total prevention of sea pollution by oil. In the latter context it was noted that many
crude oils form a durable emulsion when mixed with sea water, and can float for extended periods,
often drifting ashore. For oil to be disposed of at sea it was necessary for it to be oxidized by bacteria.
Bacteria counts indicate that coastline, shallow water, and warm-sea temperatures are significant
factors, and that the remote parts of the ocean may not necessarily be the best places to dispose of oil
when utilising natural forces.
The 1962 Amendments to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea
by Oil can be regarded as a logical step in the sequence towards total prevention. With more countries
represented, the opportunity was taken to increase the area of the prohibited zones shown in Annex A.
While the 50-mile limit from the nearest land was retained for areas not otherwise covered, the
nations represented nearly all increased the prohibited coastal areas to 100 miles, and in some special
cases to 150 miles or more. The size of tankers exempted from the regulations was reduced from under
500 gross tons to 150 tons. Non-tankers which used oil for bunker purposes became increasingly
restricted by the rewording of several of the articles.
The clean oil tanker was still largely unaffected, except by the regulations covering the quality
and discharge of bilge water into the sea, which covered all other ships. It was not until 1973 and 1978
that the clean oil tanker was affected by The Tanker Safety and Pollution Prevention (T.S.P.P.)
regulations which discussed and recommended measures that affected the clean product tanker, but
the regulations which resulted will be discussed later on in this chapter.
One of the most significant articles was No. 8, which was intended to expedite the provision of
more waste oil and dirty ballast facilities, at oil terminals and repair ports normally used by oil tankers.
The 1962 Amendments to the convention also made oil record books compulsory for all ships using
oil-fuel, as well as oil tankers. In Article 9, Section 2, it spells out the entries which are required in far
44 TANKER HANDBOOK

more detail than the 1954 Convention, thus tightening control by which oil pollution could be
reduced.
In practical terms, the 1954 Convention (as amended in 1962) created a need to examine tanker
practice and equipment to make sure that the oil tanker was properly equipped, and the tanker crew
knew how to comply with the new regulations. In particular, the period between the completion of
discharge and the arrival at the loading berth came under close scrutiny.
Experts found that many tankers left port without properly stripping their tanks and pipelines,
thus unnecessarily increasing the normal amount of waste oil which adds to the clingage and non-
pumpablc residue left in the cargo tanks. At sea, other malpractices were observed which included
little or no attempt to segregate oil slops from dirty ballast and tank washings, as well as the
utilisation of too much wash water when using mechanical washing machines to clean tanks for clean
ballast only.
In many cases even if a vessel carried out all her ballast-changing and cleaning routines correctly
and without legal infringement, she was forced to pump all her waste oil and slops into the sea outside
the prohibited zones because of a lack of facilities at the loading ports.

Independent Action to Control Oil Pollution by the Oil Industry

Early in the 1960's the major Oil Companies became increasingly aware that something more
was required than the legislative limitations which restricted a tanker from dumping unwanted waste
oil in special zones. Studies and tests were carried out on tankers while methods of disposing of waste
oil and oily water emulsions were examined in detail.
The size of the problem should not be underestimated, as it involved the co-operation of
privately-owned international tankers as well as those actually owned by the Oil Companies. Ashore,
refineries had to be persuaded to accept waste oil mixed with cargo and to instal desaltcrs to handle
the oil-water emulsions which would otherwise adversely affect the refining equipment. At the large
crude loading ports, Government Oil Inspectors and terminal staff had to be fully conversant with the
need for oil tankers to retain waste oil and oily water emulsions, and to load the next cargo on top, co-
mingling the slops with the new cargo.

The Birth of Load on Top

In 1964, by means of a series of simultaneous announcements, the major Oil Companies announced
that owned and chartered ships under their control were henceforth forbidden to pump oil overboard
anywhere in the world. This was an ambitious step forward, as it went further than the 1962
Amendments to the International Convention and its legal requirements. Also little or no new
equipment was involved either aboard ship or ashore.
The basic idea behind the new proposals was a simple one which would require all oil tankers
carrying persistent oils, to use the straightforward principle of decantation to segregate the waste-oil
from water. In this way pure salt water ballast could be pumped out while the waste-oil and any
contaminated salt water or emulsions were segregated in specially-designated tanks.
The intent was to make the persistent or dirty oil tanker solve its own pollution problems and allow
it to enter loading ports with clean ballast which could be pumped overboard without fear of pollution.
The waste oil and emulsions retained on board would be co-mingled with the new cargo.
At first it is doubtful whether all the difficulties involved were fully understood, cither by those
on board the ships or those responsible for their implementation ashore. There were also a significant
number of vessels involved in trading outside the control of the major Oil Companies that did not
comply, and continued to discharge waste-oil and oily water emulsions overboard. It is therefore,
completely comprehensible that results from such a scheme were disappointing, and that a significant
effort in terms of education and surveillance was needed over a period of years to improve the methods
and results.

Load on Top

At this stage it becomes necessary for us to look, step by step, at "Load on Top", which is an
unfortunate name for a method of cleaning a tanker's cargo compartments and avoiding oil pollution
of the sea.
 OIL POLLUTION OF THE SEA — REGULATIONS AND AVOIDANCE 45

Draining Pipelines

On completing the discharge of a cargo of persistent oil, every effort should be made to sec that
the absolute minimum of oil remains in the cargo tanks and pipelines. In the case of large ships, ducts
and pipelines can retain a large quantity of oil, and every effort should be made to clear them before
starting to ballast. Frequently it is possible to drop the contents of large delivery and suction pipelines
into a single slop tank, from which it can be discharged ashore by a stripping pump up a single
pipeline, which leaves the others clear of oil.
Providing the discharge head is not too great, it frequently pays to leave a pump sucking air after
the tank has been stripped.

Dirty Ballast

Tankers should, under normal conditions, have sufficient segregated ballast to proceed without
putting any sea water into the cargo tanks. In really bad weather it may be necessary to do this, and
small ships not covered by MARPOL '73/78 (the latest International pollution regulations) have no
other option. The amount of seawater and slop tank contents may be more than the slop facilities in
the loading port can handle. If special arrangements cannot be made to take the slops and ballast
ashore, some of the ballast /tank washings must be pumped overboard while keeping within the
requirements of MARPOL '73/78. It is therefore necessary to look at the problems involved in taking
on and then disposing of dirty ballast and/or free water in the slop tanks.
It is very important that oil is not permitted to leak out of the ship when the sea-valves are opened.
In most cases it is possible to achieve this by starting the first cargo pump just before the sea-valves
are opened, thus making sure that the inrush of salt water to the pump takes any oil with it. Some
ships are equipped with one way, or non-return-valves inboard of the sea-valve, thus eliminating the
need to start the pump without the sea-valve being opened. Where non-return valves are fitted they
have to be by-passed when discharging ballast at sea.
Dirty ballast tanks are selected according to a pre-arranged plan to give the vessel adequate
displacement and avoid undue stress on the hull. The discharge of such ballast presents a major
problem as only clean salt water can be pumped overboard and the oil co-mingled, or floating on the
surface, must be retained on board and be gathered in the slop tanks.

The Settlement Period

If dirty ballast has been loaded, a period of time is required for the co-mingled oil and water in
the dirty ballast tanks to establish a relationship in which the lighter particles of oil and warmer water
float to the surface and upper portion of the tank, leaving relatively oil-free water underneath. The
same applies to a slop tank which has been used to gather tank washings.
Experience and tests indicate that in good weather with the vessel rolling and pitching at minimum
levels, after a period of 24 hours or more, the following separation is normal in a ballast tank;—
1. Surface to a depth of 2 in. to 6 in. concentrated oil.
1. Approximately 4 in. to 6 in. of oil/water emulsion below the concentrated oil. The actual
amounts depend on the type of oil.
2. Relatively clear water between the oil/water emulsion to within 3 or 4 ft. of the tank bottom.
3. Increased quantities of oil in the last 3 or 4 ft. nearest the tank bottom.
Obviously ship motion, such as rolling, can affect the length of time that the separation requires,
as well as the quality of the final results.

Consolidated Tank Washings

If heating coils are fitted in the tanks used for dirty ballast and the slop tanks, separation of oil
and water can be expedited by turning on the heat. This should only be necessary with heavy black oils
and crude. It is important that dirty ballast and tank washings arc kept to a minimum.
This can best be done by carefully regulating the pressure on each machine, so that the time it takes
to complete each cycle and the amount of water used is known.
46 TANKER HANDBOOK
 For portable Butterworth machines, the following table is appropriate:—
Water Pressure P.S.I.G......................... 50 75 100 125 ISO 175
Waler Pressure Kg./Cm 3........................................ 3- 5 4-3 7 8-8 10-5 12-3
Super K Machine
Approx. time per cycle (min.J . . . . 60 50 43 38 34 30
Discharge Rate T.P.H...................... 21 32 37 42 48 52
Type K. Machine
Approx. time per cycle (min.) . . . . 50 38 32 28 25 23
Discharge Rate T.P.H...................... 16 20 23 26 28 31

From the table it is easy to see that the higher the pressure the less time it takes to complete a cycle,
but more water is used.
As mentioned previously, unless cleaning for repairs or sediment control involving special
circumstances or crudes, it is unnecessary to have the machine complete more than one cycle at a given
level, as this increases the quantity of wash water to be collected by the cductors or stripping pumps
and transferred to the slop tank.
Over-cleaning is probably the major indirect cause of oil pollution during tank cleaning. It often
means a tanker crew have worked very hard and for prolonged periods to get the tanks spotlessly
clean, but the vast quantities of wash water have to be disposed of. It is this that is the crux of the
problem. As the slop tank fills up, it has to be decanted and the excess of water goes overboard, taking
with it a continuous but unseen stream of oil particles which are lost in the turbulence of the ship's
wake.
If L.O.T. is to be carried out properly, wash water has to be limited to an essential minimum.
Recycled wash water can be unsafe, particularly if it contains entrained oil; but for this, the recycling
of wash water would be an ideal solution. Its use has to be carefully monitored and should be limited
to vessels fitted with two-stage separation slop systems, so that wash water is free of oil. It is also
necessary to have instrumentation to monitor the wash water to make sure it is in fact clear of
entrained oil.
The Discharge of Dirty Ballast OIL/WATER INTERFACE DETECTOR

An Oil/Water Interface Detector should be

available, similar to the one shown in the
adjoining illustration, an attempt should be
made to determine just how far below the
surface of the liquid in the tank is the interface
between the oil-free water, land the oil and
water emulsion.
In a vessel which is known to have fairly
heavy wax or residue deposits in the tanks, at
least two to three feet from the bottom of each
dirty ballast tank should be pumped into the slop
tank prior to starting the cargo pumps,
discharging the water from the dirty ballast tanks
overboard.
The pumps can be run at full speed until the
liquid level in the tanks approach the top of the
main frames. At this point it is necessary to reduce
the rate at which the water leaves each tank. This
must be done to avoid vorlexing in the area of the
suction, which might permit oil to be drawn down
from the surface. As the level falls, the rate should
be reduced continuously until finally the discharge
is stopped, leaving the oil and oily/water emulsion
with about one foot of good clean water below it.
This residue should then be transferred to the slop
tank, and the dirty ballast tanks are ready for
cleaning.
 OIL POLLUTION OF THE SEA — REGULATIONS AND AVOIDANCE 47

Slops and the Slop Tank

When the dirty ballast tanks have been washed and the pipelines flushed, all the slops will be
segregated in one or more slop tanks. A vessel which is bound for a loading port where there are
limited slop or deballasting facilities, will normally be required to treat the slops to reduce the quantity
of water to acceptable limits.
When carrying crude or fuel oils the contents of a normal slop tank can be expected to hold a
higher percentage of heavy oil/water emulsion. The concentrations of oil in the bottom will also be
higher than a normal dirty ballast tank which makes it very necessary to handle the slop tank and its
contents with extra care.
The tank or tanks used for slops should be fitted with heating coils. Heat should be applied to help
the separation of oil and water.
The slop tank should be allowed to settle out for at least four to twelve hours in calm weather when
the ship is not rolling. Twenty-four hours or more will be required if the weather is unsatisfactory
and the results cannot be expected to be as good.
After the tank has been allowed to settle out and the temperature of the contents heated to the
required level (115/135° F. is normal unless otherwise stated). The oil/water Interface Detector should
be used to determine the depth below the surface of the oil/water interface.
The problem now is to extract the relatively clean water below the interface and above the
contaminated ballast water in the bottom of the tank. Some vessels are fitted with high level suctions
which permit the clear water to be gravitated overboard directly. Older ships may be forced to
gravitate one or two feet from the bottom of the slop tank into another empty tank, then decant as
much water as possible from under the oil/water mixture direct to sea, but always making sure a safe
margin of clear water is left under the oil/water interface.
When decanting is finished the slop water, which was gravitated out into another tank, can be
pumped back in and if time allows the resettlement and decantation process repeated till the minimum
amount of water is left under the oil.
The object of the whole exercise is to recover as much oil as possible, and this should normally vary
as it depends on the number of tanks washed, type of oil, and the type and size of ship.
In vessels bound for some loading terminals, the slop tank can be discharged ashore and in such
cases it is a waste of time to try and decant water from the slop tank. In other ports, all ballast has to
be discharged ashore and obviously L.O.T. will not apply. It does apply at some of the big crude
loading terminals where vessels are expected to arrive with clean ballast in segregated ballast tanks
and load on top of the recovered slops.

The Responsibility for Pollution

There is no doubt that the Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil placed a
clear responsibility on the Master of an oil tanker carrying persistent oils, to obey certain well-defined
laws which could be enforced by responsible governments bound by the Convention.
In addition, L.O.T. imposes a very significant additional work-load on the tanker crew. What is
clear however, is that with due care and attention old and new tankers could meet the requirements of
the 1954 Convention (as amended in 1962) and go a great deal further. L.O.T. made it possible to
dispose of waste oil and oily water emulsions which were the direct result of tank washing. L.O.T. did
not solve the problem of the disposal of unpumpable sludge and wax, which still had to be collected
by hand and landed at a repair port.
Crude washing, which we will discuss later, provides a solution to the wax and sludge problem,
but it did not receive general recognition as a safe practice till the late seventies.
Some Oil Companies included in their charter agreements, clauses to cover pollution control and
the disposal of slops, to give L.O.T. the support of such legal agreements.

Handling Oil-Contaminated Bilge Water

Originally under the 1954 International Convention, oil/water mixtures with less than 100-part
per million oil to water could be pumped overboard in the prohibited international zones provided it
did not conflict with the legislation of the controlling government. In the same way, bilge water, which
is only contaminated by lubricating oil, could be disposed of provided it was pumped out as far from
the land as practical, and did not conflict with local legislation.
48 TANKER HANDBOOK

The problem was, and still is, a difficult one, as it is hard to determine under operating conditions,
the exact oil to water content of any mixture, or if bilge water contains anything else but lubricating
oil. From an enforcement standpoint it is very difficult to sample oil slicks, and any oil tanker which
makes one is suspected of pollution. It is logical therefore, to avoid pumping bilges or any other tanks
which may have oil traces in sea areas which are restricted.
Increasing numbers of ships are being fitted with oil/water separators to handle bilge water, or
alternatively, piping systems by which bilge water can be pumped into a slop tank, and the water
decanted from under the oil as in L.O.T.

Pollution Equipment

With the increased pressure to prevent pollution of the sea, new equipment is being developed to
improve the oil tanker's ability to keep the seas clean. Unfortunately, as far as the author is aware,
none of it is fool-proof, nor does it provide perfect results, but new ships fitted with some of this
equipment are able to improve their performance.

Oil/Water Separator

There are a number of makes on the market, currently most arc somewhat limited in capacity in
terms of the rate liquid can be passed through them, and their capability to separate oil from the
water, and most large ones are extremely expensive.
In practical terms, a ship fitted with a separator cannot afford to disregard L.O.T. practices. In
handling the slop tank, the amount of free water left in the tank may be reduced considerably, thus
helping to justify the cost of the equipment by increasing the actual quantity of oil which can be
loaded.

The Oil in Water Detector

This equipment has gradually been developed over the last fifteen years so that it provides a fairly
high standard of reliability and is frequently built into a vessel's slop system and overboard discharge
via a ball monitor. It is normally fitted to all overboard discharges whether part of the slop system
or segregated ballast.

The Development of Special Slop Tanks and Tank Cleaning Systems

Fifty years ago there were very few tankers fitted with slop tanks The T2 tanker was fitted with
stripping pumps which could discharge into No. 9 centre, the main purpose of which was to gather the
oil from other tanks which could not be handled by the main pumps. This tank and stripping
connection was also used during tank cleaning. Very few other tankers had slop tanks and the main
cargo system was used during tank cleaning.
The development of special slop tanks was the direct result of L.O.T. (Load on Top) and occurred
during the 60's and 70's. Cargo wing tanks at the after end and in close proximity to the pumproom
were fitted out to handle slops and wash water. Gradually they became more sophisticated and were
fitted out with special piping, the purpose of which was to allow clean water to be decanted from one
wing tank to the other from under the oil. Special pipe connections allowed oil to be concentrated in
one tank. As time went by educators used in conjunction with a main cargo pump were found to speed
up tank cleaning and cause less wear and tear on pumps.
Oil tankers vary in size and are fitted with a variety of equipment in terms of cargo pumps and
tank cleaning equipment. The advent of the deepwell pump located in each individual tank changed
the nature of oil tanker cargo systems for these vessels, though large crude carriers and some other
special types still retain the conventional pumproom as well as the usual number of centrifugal pumps
and a variety of stripping pumps. Even when deepwell pumps are fitted throughout the cargo tanks,
it would be untrue to say that it eliminated the pumproom.
A close look at the pumproom depicted in the diagram entitled "Tank Cleaning/Slop" shows the
slop tanks and tank cleaning arrangements for such a vessel. If the vessel is fitted with a double skin
and segregated ballast tanks, as well as double bottoms, a considerable amount of pumping and other
OIL POLLUTION OF THE SEA — REGULATIONS AND AVOIDANCE 4
9
equipment is required to handle the loading and discharge of clean ballast into and out of the double
bottom and segregated ballast wing tanks as shown in Appendix 8 and 9 at the end of this book.

Oil Tanker Pollution Problems in relation to National and International Legislation during the 1960's

We have already examined in some detail the difficulties experienced in handling oil without
causing pollution in some way by the accidental escape of oil or oily water mixtures during the ballast
passage.
Oil pollution occurs in other ways. Tanks are sometimes overflowed at loading ports, and as a
result quantities of oil escape overboard. The stranding of a loaded tanker in port, or off the coast with
subsequent damage, and the escape of large quantities of oil, are some of the other ways in which
pollution can occur.
During the 1960's the increase in the demand for oil, together with the upward trend in number
and size of oil tankers, undoubtedly escalated the size of the problem and began to make many
responsible authorities uneasy. Unfortunately, during the same period there were a number of major
accidents which attracted a great deal of publicity, and a spate of national and regional legislation
which went far and beyond the 1954 International Regulations, together with the 1962 Amendments.
Both with regard to the definition of pollution, but also in terms of penalties and legal guarantees.
Some of these laws and regulations were hard on the oil industry, and left the International tanker
operator in an impossible position trying to keep up with, let alone comply with, such regulations. It
50 TANKER HANDBOOK

was also true to say that some of the ports covered by such regulations were very poorly equipped in
terms of facilities for off-loading oil tankers, and nothing was done to improve these facilities or
provide equipment to contain and reduce the effects of accidental oil spills.
As always in such situations it takes time to rectify the situation and to reach a workable solution
which meets the requirements of all parties.
A small but significant step was the formation of the International Oil Tanker Terminal Safety
Group in 1966. The I.O.T.T.S.G. consisted of representatives of international oil terminals and
tankers, and the purpose was to co-operate in producing a Safety Guide of recommended safe
practices in loading and discharging oil tankers, and to provide guidance to tanker and terminal
operators in the mutual interest of a safe and efficient operation.
The Safety Guide was produced in co-operation with the help of the American Petroleum Institute
and the other International and National bodies.
The Oil Companies International Marine Forum or O.C.I.P.M. had been formed at an earlier date,
and much of its activities ran parallel with those of I.S.G.O.T.T. It was, therefore, logical for the work
of updating and expanding the coverage in the area of Tanker and Terminal Safety to be combined.
Nine specialist working groups took a period of two years to produce the new Safety Guide, now
known as I.S.G.O.T.T.
Part 1 of I.S.G.O.T.T. covers the operational aspect of tankers and oil terminals. With the aid of
check lists and other data, an attempt is made to provide procedures and safety standards acceptable
both to the terminal and tanker.
Part 2 of I.S.G.O.T.T. provides back-up technical data and information which may be of value
to ship and shore operators.

The 1969 Amendments to the 1954 Convention

Most Oil Companies and tanker operators were doing their best to meet the new requirements by
the use of L.O.T. and better equipment.
These amendments replace the previous concept of prohibited zones by a strict limit on the flow,
concentration and amount of any oil or oily mixture discharged anywhere at sea.
In addition, they impose a total prohibition on the discharge of any oil or oily mixture from a
tanker within 50 miles of any coast.
As before, these restrictions applied only to crude oil, fuel oil, heavy diesel oil and lubrication oil.
The conditions under which the discharge of oil or oily mixture is permitted are set out below,
together with brief explanation of each:—
(i) The tanker is proceeding en route.
This eliminates the possible concentration of the permitted discharge from a stationary
vessel or from a vessel steaming in tight circles, and ensures that the discharge is well
distributed, (ii) The instantaneous rate of discharge of oil content does not exceed 60 litres per
mile.
"The instantaneous rate" means the rate of discharge of oil in litres per hour at any instant
divided by the speed of the tanker in knots at the same instant. In other words, the discharge
must be spread evenly over each mile. Experiment had shown that 60 litres per mile
discharged in this way disperses rapidly and leaves no trace of oil on the surface of the
water.
(iii) The total quantity of oil discharged on a ballast voyage does not exceed 1/15,000 of the total
cargo-carrying capacity.
This puts a limit on the total amount of oil that can be discharged even at the reduced rate set
out in (ii). (iv) The tanker is more than 50 miles from the nearest land.
This is to make quite certain that no oil can reach the shore before it has dispersed.
Adherence to requirements (i) — (iii) makes this an extremely remote possibility.
It is important to realise that all these requirements have to be satisfied.
When a tanker is within 50 miles from the nearest land, the only discharge which is permitted is
"ballast from a cargo tank which, since the cargo was last carried therein, has been so cleaned that any
effluent therefrom, if it were discharged from a stationary tanker into clean calm water on,a clear
day, would produce no visible traces of oil on the surface of the water".
Discharges from pumproom bilges are subject to the same conditions.
 OIL POLLUTION OF THE SEA — REGULATIONS AND AVOIDANCE 51

While we are concerned with the carriage of persistent oils as cargo it should be noted that a
different set of requirements applies to the discharge of oil or oily mixtures from machinery space
bilges.
These are as follows, and all must be met:—
(i) The ship is proceeding en route.
(ii) The instantaneous rate of discharge of oil content does not exceed 60 litres per mile,
(iii) The oil content of the discharge is less than 100 parts per 1,000,000 parts of the mixture,
(iv) The discharge is made as far as practicable from land.
Whereas there is no fixed limit to the amount of oil discharged from machinery space bilges it
should be appreciated that there is an absolute ban on the discharge of any type of oil in some
territorial waters.
The 1969 amendments to the 1954 Convention became International Law, as soon as sufficient
had ratified it.
The Oil in Navigable Waters Act gave the force of law to the 1969 amendments in U.K. territorial
waters, and also applied to British ships outside such territorial limits.
The Department of Trade and Industry published a manual on The Avoidance of Pollution of the
Sea by Oil. The latest edition should be compulsory reading for all British personnel.

The Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973

For the first time, clean oil tankers were treated exactly the same as those carrying persistent oils.
It would appear that L.O.T. was not to be discarded, but the new regulations would require any
ballast water discharged at sea to be clean, or have less than 15 parts per million oil to water.
Conventional tankers would have to be provided with equipment and instrumentation to meet the new
regulations, or discharge all ballast ashore.
The intent was to provide tankers with certificates covering their equipment and to control new
construction in terms of cargo compartment size and equipment.
Some enclosed sea areas, such as the Baltic, Mediterranean, and the Black Sea would be restricted
to segregated ballast tankers and/or be provided with shore ballast-receiving facilities at the larger
oil terminals.
The new Convention was aimed at stopping the discharge of all oil from tankers in these restricted
sea areas but was heavily dependent on the construction of receiving facilities for dirty ballast and
slops in countries bordering these seas areas.

The Search for Alternatives to Water Washing

In the face of increasingly restrictive legislation and the need to stop oil pollution completely, the
oil industry stepped up its search for improved methods of cleaning tanks.
The majority of oil tankers are actively engaged in carrying crude oil, and it is the crude oil tanker
that poses the biggest pollution threat. Many experts argued that an International Agreement was
required to stop all oil tankers carrying salt-water ballast in cargo tanks. The implication of this line of
thinking was far reaching. It meant very much higher transportation costs resulting:—
(a) From the reduced carrying capacity of the individual oil tanker fitted with more segregated
ballast tanks.
(a) The extensive modifications required to existing ships.
Clearly to obtain International Agreement on such a controversial matter was far from easy,
though the idea was seriously considered by I.M.O. Early in the 1970's the Oil Companies themselves
commenced investigating other alternatives.
It was argued that water was not a good cleaning agent for crude oil and that a solvent was
required.
Under controlled conditions a series of experiments were conducted in Aruba, in the Netherlands
Antilles. After discharging a cargo of crude oil, the tanks were washed with Naphtha supplied from
shore, but using the ship's tank-cleaning machines. The atmosphere in each cargo tank was monitored
carefully to keep it over-rich or above the upper explosive limit, thus ensuring that there was little or
no risk of an explosion or lire caused by static or other factors.
52 TANKER HANDBOOK

The cleaning operation was very successful and clearly indicated that Naphtha was a much better
cleaning agent than water. The only problem is that Naphtha is expensive and not readily available for
cleaning tanks on crude ships.
The next step was to try machine washing the tanks with the actual cargo, as the crude oil was
being discharged.
It was no easy matter to persuade terminal and port authorities to permit the tanks to be washed
with crude as the cargo was being discharged. Evidence had to be provided that the conditions
governing such practices were safe and the benefits were worthwhile.
As a result of carefully monitored and controlled experiments the currently accepted method of
tank washing with crude oil during the discharge has been accepted by most oil terminals and port
authorities, and approved by I.M.O.

Limiting Conditions for Crude Washing

The development of crude washing has been gradual. Equipment of various types has been tested
and approved or discarded while the results were evaluated.
Slowly it became clear that crude washing during the discharge was a major breakthrough, and
gradually procedures were developed, acceptable to both ship and shore authorities.
Today, crude washing is largely confined to ships fitted with suitable equipment, as follows:—
1. The ship should be fitted with an inert gas system and the ability to control and limit the
amount of oxygen in the cargo tanks. (An upper limit of 8%, but 4-5% is normal).
2. Cargo tanks have to be fitted with fixed-in-pi ace machines, mounted through the deck with
suitable nozzles for crude washing, and fixed piping with pumps mounted in the cargo
pumproom, and not the engineroom.
3. Alarms and monitoring fail-safe devices must be fitted to ensure that the Inert Gas System
exerts sufficient pressures at all times, and that spillage does not occur from deck piping or slop
tanks.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Crude Washing

The advantages and disadvantages of crude oil washing arc summarised below:—
1. As the tanks are washed with cargo during discharge — (a) The crude oil residue left clinging
to the ship's side and internal members is reduced substantially, (b) The build up of sludge and
wax in the tank bottoms is largely eliminated.
2. Experience has shown that cargo loss during tanker transportation is reduced as a result of a
comparison between ships using C.O.W. and others cleaning by conventional means. In other
words, by washing with crude oil during the discharge, more of the cargo is discharged ashore
and the individual tanks are left a lot cleaner.
3. Tanks which have been washed with crude oil require far less cleaning and water washing,
for entry into a repair yard.
4. Less dirty ballast and wash water are required after C.O.W., so the potential for pollution is
reduced during tank cleaning at sea.
5. With less salt water washing, steel corrosion within the cargo tanks is reduced.
There are three main disadvantages to C.O.W. as practised at the present time:—
1. It docs not entirely eliminate the need for washing with salt water, either for clean ballast or
entering a repair yard. It also docs nothing to clear and gas-free pipelines within the ship.
2. The need for ships to be fitted with an Inert Gas System and fixed washing machines designed
for crude washing, means that a lot of older and smaller ships arc unable to avail themselves
of C.O.W. without major modifications and expenditure.
3. C.O.W. can only be undertaken when the ship is discharging her cargo. It means that the
normal discharge of cargo will be prolonged in accordance with the number of tanks washed.
With normal shore facilities the discharge may be prolonged up to 25 per cent, of the normal
discharge time if the whole ship is washed. If C.O.W. is confined rotationally, this figure can
be reduced to approximately 10-15 per cent, of the normal discharge time if berth occupancy
time is a problem, but obviously the amount of crude recovered will be less.
 OIL POLLUTION OF THE SEA — REGULATIONS AND AVOIDANCE 53

Crude Washing Operations

The main objective of crude washing is to remove crude residue from the cargo tanks, which can
be anything up to 1 per cent, of the cargo loaded. In a 300,000-d.w.t. tanker this could be as much as
3,000 tons. If the ship is crude-washed effectively, this figure could be cut to around 500 tons, most
of which will be entrapped in the pipeline system "and slop tanks. With the present state of the art,
crude washing is not a complete substitute for water washing, and does not in any way dispense with
the need for L.O.T. if water ballast is carried in crude tanks or pumped through cargo piping.
Large crude tankers fitted with Inert Gas Systems and closed loading and discharge systems need
to have an individual check-list to ensure all safety and monitoring equipment, as well as the actual
pumping/cleaning equipment is working efficiently and free from leaks. Failure of any of the
equipment may justify shutting down crude washing for safety or other operational reasons.
Obviously it is impossible to discuss all the equipment and methods used to crude-wash individual
ships. This varies considerably with the ship and the circumstances. The O.C.I.M.F. have issued a
handbook called Guidelines for Tank Washing with Crude Oil, which outlines safe procedures governing
C.O.W. operations.
The most popular method at the present time appears to divide crude oil washing of individual
tanks into two distinct phases.
1. Top Wash. (Sometimes divided into two separate operations).
2. Bottom Wash.

Top Wash

This commences when the tank is still about one-third full. Throughdeck-mounted machines are
turned on and the exposed areas of the tank are washed with jets of crude under a pressure of 150 to
175 p.s.i.g., according to the type and number of machines used. The exposed areas are left with a thin
film of crude, while wax and clingage drop into the bottom of the tank and are discharged with the
cargo ashore. Normally a cargo pump is used to provide crude to the tank-washing machines, many of
which have an individual capacity of 150 to 175 T.P.H.

Bottom Wash

When the crude oil in the tanks is getting fairly low, bottom washing commences. In some cases
this will involve bringing into use machines fitted on mounts or platforms near the bottom. These
machines are normally submerged when cargo is in the tank, but are very useful, not only to wash
sludge off the tank bottoms, but to reach areas of the tank screened by some structural members and
frames from being effectively cleaned by the through-deck-mountcd machines.
Bottom washing depends largely on the bottom being kept uncovered, so that the crude jets can
move the sludge. To do this, stripping must be effective and, if possible, should be conducted by use of
one or more eductors driven by a cargo pump. The eductor would normally discharge into one or both
of the slop tanks. Slop-tank levels must be carefully monitored.

Crude Washing Machines

Not all fixed-deck or submerged-mounted machines are suitable for crude washing. Many of the
older types have unsuitable nozzles and are prone to leak at glands and other fittings when used for
crude.
Various makes are in use. Among the more popular is the Lavomatic Selective Arc Tank-Cleaning
Machine. This machine is suitable for both crude and water washing. This machine is a fixed
through-deck mounting. It is fitted with a single nozzle on the end of the drop-pipe and operated by a
simple gear train. The machine and drop-pipe can be withdrawn for maintenance through the aperture
in the deck.
The Lavomatic machine has its driving/timing mechanism mounted above deck. This can be
portable or an integral part of each machine. The portable version can be hydraulically or
pneumatically driven. The fixed driving/timing mechanism is hydraulically operated. With the aid of
this driving/timing device the angle of the nozzle on each machine can be controlled for top washing
54 TANKER HANDBOOK
or bottom washing cycles, so the arc and radius of action meet the requirements of the particular wash
cycle.
Depending on the type of equipment used and the size of the ship, as many as a hundred machines
may be required, with 10 to 15 in any one tank to clean a 300,000-d.w.t. tanker.

International and National Legislation on Pollution from 1976 to 1989.

MARPOL '73/78 and SOLAS '76/78

The 1970's was a decade which saw a vast deal of International Legislation followed by National
Legislation in the 1980's. The National Legislation was the means by which individual members of
I.M.C.O. turned the International Legislation into law in member countries.
Below arc listed the major conventions which were agreed and later ratified by member countries,
though some ratified it before others. In any case the U.S., U.K. and Japan pre-empted the situation
by passing National Laws requiring all foreign ships using their territorial waters and ports to comply
with the new laws.
1. 1969 — International Convention on Civil Liabilities for Oil Pollution Damage.
2. 1971 — International Convention to establish a Fund dedicated to pay compensation for Oil
Pollution Damage.
 OIL POLLUTION OF THE SEA — REGULATIONS AND AVOIDANCE

55

3. 1973 — International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships. (MARPOL).
4. 1974 — International Convention for Safety of life at Sea. (SOLAS),
5. 1978 - MARPOL and SOLAS PROTOCOLS.
6. 1978 - International Convention on Standards of Training and Certification and Watch-
keeping for ships' personnel.
It is not possible here to use anything but a broad brush approach to the above legislation. The
author plans to discuss the main points and would suggest that the reader interested in detail procure
the necessary official documents and codes covering the Conventions and Protocols, as well as
National instruments which made these agreements law in individual countries.
At the outset it has to be appreciated that MARPOL covered a wide area.
ANNEX 1. Is concerned with the pollution of the sea by oil.
ANNEX 2. Is concerned with the pollution of the sea by noxious liquid substances in bulk.
(Chemicals and other liquids carried in oil or chemical ships). ANNEX 3. Deals
with the prevention of pollution from oil and other substances in package
form. This includes containers, portable tanks or rail wagons. ANNKX 4.
Deals with the prevention of pollution by sewage from ships. ANNEX 5. Contains
regulations for the prevention of pollution from ships garbage.
In this chapter our main concern is with Annex 1. When discussing chemical ships the requirements
as set out in Annex 2 are discussed. As far as the author is aware Armex 4 and 5 have not been ratified
by sufficient member countries to become International law, but many of the major trading nations
have ratified Annex 4 and 5 and enforce it in their national waters regardless of the vessel's flag.

Special Sea Areas

Under MARPOL '73/78 Annex 1, Regulations 10-12. The provision for more reception facilities to
take oil and water residues at ports in countries bordering the special sea areas, was laid out in detail.
These special sea areas were defined as the Mediterranean, Black Sea and the Baltic. It was
appreciated that it was a matter of some urgency that oil and water residues from tank cleaning should
not be pumped overboard in these restricted areas. Due to delays in the construction of these reception
facilities, the date when this convention came into operation was 2nd October 1984.

MARPOL definitions of New and Existing Ships and Oil Tankers

"New Ship" means a ship —

(a) For which the building contract is placed after 31 st December 1975, or—
(/?) In the absence of a building contract, the keel of which is laid, or which is at a similar stage
of construction after 30th June 1975, or—
The delivery of which is after 31st December 1979, or—
Which has undergone a major conversion . . . .
(1) For which the contract is placed after 31st December 1975, or—
(2) In the absence of a contract, the construction work which is begun after 30th June
1976, or—
(3) Which is completed after 31 December 1979.
"Existing Ship" means a ship which is not a new ship.
"New Oil Tanker" means an oil tanker-
(a) For which the building contract is placed after June 1st 1979, or—
(b) In the absence of a building contract, the keel or work is at a similar stage of construction
after 1st January 1980, or—
(c) The delivery is after 1st June 1982, or —
(d) Which has undergone a major conversion . . . .
(1) For which the contract is placed after 1st June 1979, or —
(2) In the absence of a contract the construction of work which is begun after 1st January
1980, or -
(3) Which is completed after IstJune 1982.
For the purpose of this Annex the above definitions shall apply to all oil tankers.
56 TANKER HANDBOOK
"Existing Oil Tankers" means any oil tanker which is not a "New Tanker" as described above.
Looking at the changes, all New Tankers over 20,000 d.w.t. needed to be fitted with Inert Gas
Systems (I.G.S.), but this did not affect smaller ships. Under SOLAS '74/78 all Existing Tankers over
20,000 d.w.t. needed to be fitted with I.G.S. by May 1st 1985. Tankers of 70,000 d.w.t. and over
required to be fitted with I.G.S. two years earlier, or by 1st May 1983. Existing Tankers between
20/40,000 d.w.t. could obtain exemption if the installation was unreasonable.
All ships using High Capacity Washing Machines (H.C.W.M.)_ to crude wash (C.O.W.) require
to be fitted with I.G.S.
The following is a summary of MARPOL '73/78 requirements in respect of:—
(1) Clean Ballast Tanks (C.B.T.) These are tanks designated for use of clean ballast in existing
tankers, but using cargo pumps and pipelines to fill and empty these tanks. Existing tankers
fitted with C.B.T. lose up to 25% of their cargo carrying capacity, unless they are equipped
with I.G.S. and high pressure washing machines.
(2) Segregated Ballast Tanks (S.B.T.) These are ballast tanks served by a separate pump (S)
and pipelines unconnected with the cargo system and placed in a protective location (P.L.) on
either side of the cargo tanks. S.B.T. must be fitted to new tankers and can also be retrofitted
to existing ships, though this was seldom economically worth while.
This leaves a clearer picture of present requirements, as listed below:—
New Tankers
Product — 30,000 d.w.t. + ... S.B.T./P.L.
Crude — 20,000 d.w.t. 4- ... S.B.T./P.L., C.O.W.
Existing Tankers
Product — 40,000 d.w.t. + . . . S.B.T. or C.B.T.
Crude — 40,000/70,000 d.w.t. . . . S.B.T. or C.O.W. or C.B.T.
Crude — 70,000 d.w.t. + . . . S.B.T. or C.O.W.
Under SOLAS, safety requirements I.G.S. is required as follows:-New
Tankers
Products tankers of 20,000 d.w.t. and over.
Crude tankers of 20,000 d.w.t. and over.

"A" - TANKER WITH ORIGINAL CARGO TANK LATOOT

,,.. . TANKER «TH CLSAN BALLAST TANKS (CBT)

THIS VESSEL OS1S CARGO PIPELINES TO LOAD AND UNLOAD 1ALLAST

"C" - TANKER WITH SEGREGATED BALLAST TANKS (SBT)

BALLAST TANKS ARE IK PROTECTIVE LOCATION (PL)
 OIL POLLUTION OF THE SEA — REGULATIONS AND AVOIDANCE

57

Existing Tankers

All ships fitted with H.C.W.M. (High Capacity Washing Machines) must be fitted with I.G.S. Product
and Crude tankers of 20/40,000 d.w.t. which are not fitted with H.C.W.M. may be exempted
if fitting I.G.S. is not practical.

Objectives of MARPOL '73/78

The main objective of MARPOL '73/78 Annex 1 is to prohibit the discharge of all oil, sludge or
oil and water mixtures into the sea. At the same time there is recognition that the pollution prevention
capability of some types of ships, particularly older and smaller tankers, may be limited.
Oil and water mixtures in the engineroom bilges are normally required to be discharged into the
tankers' slop tanks, where this is not feasible and no engineroom oil and water separator is provided,
the discharge of such a mixture is permitted provided the tanker is not in one of the special areas where
no oil can be discharged. The vessel can discharge the mixture provided she is 50 nautical miles or
more from the nearest land. It must also be fitted with monitoring equipment to control the flow
concentration and total quantity of oil discharged while the vessel is en route,
Tankers discharging oil and oily water mixtures from cargo tanks are severely restricted.
The oil tanker must not be in one of the special areas or within 5.0 nautical miles of any land when
outside these areas. The tanker has to obey the following requirements.
1. The instantaneous rate of discharge of the oil content in the oil/water mixture does not exceed
60 litres per nautical mile. The 1992 amendments to MARPOL '73/78 reduced the amount
of oil which could be discharged by oil tankers from 60 litres per nautical mile to 30 litres per
nautical mile from the 6th of July 1993.
2. The total quantity of oil discharged from existing oil tankers shall not exceed 1/15,000 of the
total quantity of cargo including contents of the slop tanks. New tankers arc required not to
exceed 1/30,000 of the total quantity of the last cargo including contents of slop tanks.
Both the existing and the new tankers have to have slop tanks as well as monitoring and control
equipment to meet these needs.
Using normal L.O.T. procedures the average vessel should have 0-1% to 1% of slops on board
depending on several factors including type of cargo, weather and the length of the voyage to the
loading port. The discharge of segregated, or clean ballast, must not exceed 15 parts per million and
provided it meets this standard may be discharged within 50 miles of the nearest land.

Monitoring the Discharge of All Ballast

If leaks occur in the bulkheads between cargo and ballast tanks it is possible that ballast may leak
into a cargo tank. By the same token a bulkhead leak between a full cargo tank and an empty ballast
tank is also possible. If this occurs the whole system serving the S.B.T. may be contaminated. It is
necessary to inspect bulkheads between cargo tanks and segregated ballast tanks on a regular basis as
leaks could contaminate the ballast system. Older single hull vessels which have had some wing tanks
converted to S.B.T.s may also have ballast pipelines which pass through cargo tanks. These pipelines
could also be a source of leaks, where dccpwell pumps are fined in individual ballast tanks pipeline
leaks arc avoided.
When considering double hulled vessels with the ballast tanks arranged between hulls and in the
double bottoms the ballast pipelines are not permitted to pass through cargo tanks. The discharge of
Segregated Ballast needs to be monitored continuously to make sure leaks and contamination from oil
does not occur. Most segregated ballast systems are designed with an automatic cut off if an oil leak
occurs.

MARPOL '73/78 Annex 1 and Protocols

In 1983, '73/78 and the various Protocols came into effect. This was in spite of the fact that several
Nations refused to sign up. The high cost of implementing MARPOL was objected to by a
considerable number of ship owners and operators due to the high cost of paying for C.B.T., S.B.T.
and I.G.S. as well as C.O.W. Where possible some ship owners and operators, as well as oil terminal
58 TANKER HANDBOOK

operators who were required to instal additional deballasting facilities, lobbied their national
governments and in some cases were very successful, with the result that these nations refused to sign.
The I.M.O. is an international body. It depends on its members to agree the way forward on the basis
of majority decisions. The U.S.A. and several other nations were frustrated by the action of the few
Governments that refused to sign. The U.S.A. had been pressing for some time for even stricter
measures such as the need to fit all new tankers with double bottoms to avoid pollution in the case of
groundings. The stranding of the Exxon Valdez in Alaska in 1989 precipitated action by the U.S.A.
The Exxon Valdez was under the U.S. flag and complied with MARPOL requirements, but did not
have double bottom tanks. Seeing little hope of meaningful progress in the near future the U.S.A.
decided to take action on its own.

U.S. Oil Pollution Act (OPA 90)

OPA 90 was far reaching and complicated both from the standpoint of implementation and its
overall effects. It came down heavily in favour of double skin tankers and stated that any tanker
ordered after the 30th June 1990, or delivered after the 1st January 1994, must be fitted with a double
hull if it was to enter U.S. waters.
Other sections of the Act made it clear that all oil tankers would have to provide proof of financial
protection against any, or all pollution while in U.S. waters and that liability for pollution would rest
sorely with the owner/operator of the oil tanker. Each vessel would have to have a VESSEL
RESPONSE PLAN (V.R.P.) which had to be approved by the U.S. Coastguard and updated annually.
In effect each vessel had to name an approved qualified contractor to cover any clean up resulting
from oil spillage.
One of the problems experienced immediately after OPA 90 became law was the problem of
dealing with the requirements of individual ports and maritime States within the U.S.A. The Coast
Guard had the job of reviewing some fifty Area Response Plans which should have been published in
February 1993, but due to the difficulty of reconciling all of them with the Overall National Plan many
of them were still outstanding by that date.
OPA 90 did not pre-empt U.S.A. State Laws which provided unlimited liability for oil pollution.
Several States had laws which allow unlimited liability under certain conditions. The table entitled
"United States OIL Spill/Pollution Financial Responsibility and Liability" (sec end of chapter).
Indicates the variation between individual U.S. States Level of Financial Responsibility.
OPA 90 precludes the U.S. from participating in the international oil spill liability and
compensation provided by the International Convention on Civil Liability for OIL Pollution Damage
and the International Fund for Compensation for OIL Pollution Damage. (I.O.P.C. Fund 1971).
The U.S. had not ratified the C.L.C. or the I.O.P.C. Fund Conventions or its Protocols.
Examination of U.S. tanker requirements in 1990 suggested that there were insufficient double skin
tankers available to meet U.S. oil requirement in existence at that time, nor was their likely to be for
the next ten to fifteen years. To handle this situation the U.S. Authorities proposed a phase out of
single hull tankers by age and size according to the table listed below.

After Jan. 1st '95 30,000 + GT 30-15,000 GT 15-5.000 GT

1995 1967 1955 1955
1996 1969 1958 1957
1997 1971 1961 1959
1998 1973 1964 1961
1999 1975 1967 1963
2000 1977 1970 1965
2001 1978 1972 1966
2002 1979 1974 1967
2003 1980 1976 1968
2004 1981 1978 1969
2005 1982 1980 1980
2006 1983 1981 1981
2007 1984 1982 1982
2008 1985 1983 1983
2009 1986 1984 1984
2010 1987 1985 1985
 OIL POLLUTION OF THE SEA — REGULATIONS AND AVOIDANCE 59

Effective date of double hull requirement by year of delivery for existing single hulled vessels.
Add five years to year of delivery for existing vessels with either double bottoms or double sides.
Smaller vessels are treated more generously. It should be remembered that U.S.C.G. not only have
to approve each vessel's V.R.P. but are able to inspect all vessels in U.S. waters to see that they comply
with requirements. Meanwhile the I.M.O. was also busy legislating.
Under MARPOL Amendment 13 F for New Tankers ordered after mid '79, the new legislation
was to be effective after July '93.
It stated that new tankers of 5,000 m.d.w.t. or over should have double hulls. The wing tanks
should have a minimum width of 2 metres for ships of 30,000 m.d.w.t. and over. The double bottoms
should have a minimum height of 2 metres or B/15. For smaller ships of 5,000 m.d.w.t. plus, the
double bottoms must have a minimum height of 1 metre.
Product Tankers of 20-30,000 m.d.w.t. were also required to be fitted with I.G.S. and those over
30,000 m.d.w.t. to have S.B.T. as well as I.G.S.
All Segregated Ballast Tanks, other than fore and after peaks to be fitted between the inner and
outer hull.
Crude Tankers of 20,000 m.d.w.t. and over had to be fitted with I.G.S., S.B.T. as well as C.O.W.
Alternatively vessels could be fitted with a new (Mid-Deck) System — see diagram. The U.S.
rejected the Mid Deck System until proven effective.
With regard to Existing Tankers. . . .
MARPOL 13 G required all Existing Tankers to meet the regulations already specified under
MARPOL '73/78. In addition all crude tankers of 20,000 m.d.w.t. and over, or product tankers of
30,000 m.d.w.t. and over not fitted with segregated ballast tanks, must comply with 13 F not later
than 25 years after delivery. If they convert to S.B.T. they gain another 5 years.
Vessels already fitted with S.B.T. must comply with 13 F not later than 30 years after the date of
delivery. The I.M.O. may accept Hydrostatic Balance as an alternative under certain conditions but
this involves the development of new inspection guidelines.
It can be seen from the above that the phase out schedule for OPA 90 and the I.M.O. differ in
the detail as different yardsticks are used. It does look as though single hull tankers will all have been
phased out by 2010 or not long after.

General Comments

It is sometimes overlooked that the U.S. Authorities through OPA 90 and the I.M.O. through
MARPOL are not just concerned with setting standards for avoiding pollution which the owner and
the master of an oil tanker has to obey or suffer severe penalties.
A lot of work goes into formulating guidelines for all types of tanker equipment which will help
prevent pollution. The actual design of double skin tankers of various sizes together with the number
of oil tanks and other factors have been considered in detail and much of the detail legislation is aimed
at Shipbuilders and the Classification Societies as well as ship owners who are considering new
buildings.
OPA 90 and the more recent amendments to MARPOL '73/78 means that both sets of legislation
are heading in much the same direction regardless of the difference in thinking on the merits of Mid
Deck as opposed to Double Hulls.
The complexity of pollution liability for ship owners/operators due to the differences in individual
state laws in the U.S.A. on unlimited liability, at one time, caused a considerable amount of confusion
and alarm amongst non U.S. flag tanker operators, particularly as the P. & I. Clubs refuse to offer
guarantees of payment for oil spills.
Many owners were reluctant to let their vessels trade to the U.S. until the situation could be
clarified. Not all the vessels affected were substandard or an abnormal pollution risk. In other cases,
vessels belonging to third world countries or ship owners from such countries probably could not
afford to put up the financial guarantees required.
Looked at dispassionately, OPA 90 and other U.S. maritime legislation covering the operation of
all shipping in U.S.A. waters was, in some respects, ahead of most other countries and was only
achieved by the U.S. taking arbitrary action on its own. The principal of consensus as used by the
I.M.O. is at best slow and there is undoubted deficiencies in getting some Flag States to comply if they
refuse to sign. Some Flag States were seen to be a particular problem and the I.M.O. began to look
for a way of correcting the weakness inherent in ART 94 of U.N.C.L.O.S. (United Nations Law of
The Sea) with regard to the duty of Flag States.
Port State Control (P.S.C.) came into being in 1982. It was essentially a regional agreement
60 TANKER HANDBOOK

covering Europe and the North Atlantic States such as Canada and the Russian Federation, as well
as most of the other European States (It did not include the U.S.A.). It was known as the Paris
Memorandum of Understanding (Paris M.O.U.). It was a practical method of checking and enforcing
the various conventions covering all shipping above 500 G.R.T. It included passenger ships, as well
as all types of cargo vessels, including oil tankers and chemical ships. Using the International
Management Code (I.M.C.) for the Safe Management and Operation of ships arid for Pollution
Control, it was agreed that all vessels would have to be certified after July 1998. Some special types,
including mobile drilling units, were granted a further four years, but had to be certified by July 1st
2002.
Perhaps the most important thing occurred in 1995 when the 19th Assembly of the I.M.O. adopted
Resolution A 787 (19). This resolution incorporated most of the important measures covered by
previous resolutions concerning the safety of ships, manning requirements as well as pollution
prevention. Qualified Inspectors had the right to inspect all commercial shipping regardless of the flag
of any vessel which entered a port or the territorial waters of a member state.
Under the Paris M.O.U. member states have agreed to inspect 25% of the estimated number of
individual foreign merchant ships which enter its ports. The inspections follow guidelines as laid down
in Annex 1 of the Paris M.O.U.
A computer database known as "SIRENAC", carrying the necessary data on certification and
previous inspections, is gradually growing and allows inspectors in the Paris M.O.U. region to target
suitable ships that have inadequate certification or other defects discovered on previous inspections.
The inspectors have the right to detain the vessel when there are serious problems or has been involved
in a serious accident. In such cases the master or the owner/operator has the right of appeal, but all
costs involved with the detention have to be paid before the vessel is released. In less serious cases the
inspector may issue a warning that a certain defect must be rectified before the vessel returns.
The Acuerdo deVina del Mar (South American M.O.U.) was signed in November 1992 and
included eleven countries in South and Central America. It follows broadly the I.M.O. guide lines laid
down for the Paris M.O.U. and the objectives were the same. A database centre was set up in Buenos
Aires for the benefit of qualified inspectors in the region's ports. It also allowed exchange of
information with the Paris M.O.U.
In December '93 the Tokyo M.O.U. was signed. In some respects this was probably the most
important M.O.U. Initially it embraced some 17 countries including the Russian Federation, as well as
Canada. Both of these countries already belonged to the Paris M.O.U. Japan and China and several
other countries in East Asia, Australia and New Zealand and several others on the Pacific Rim in both
the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
In February 1996 the Caribbean M.O.U. was signed. It consisted of some eight Island States in the
area. Some of the States that signed the Caribbean M.O.U. were not full members when they signed.
In all cases the objective was the desire to prevent accidents and other problems with ships that
did not have valid certification, or were operated in a manner which could cause problems or
accidents. The ability to exchange information between the various M.O.U.s and the U.S. Authorities
made it easy to keep a check on rogue ships.
Looking at the statistics produced by the U.S. Coast Guard, as Well as I.M.O., it is possible to
see that the statistics have been arranged by Flag as well as several other categories, such as Classifi-
cation Society and Ship Type.
OPA 90 applies to the U.S.A. and its dependent territories. The penalties for spilling oil in U.S.
waters is generally a lot tougher than anywhere else in the world but it is not consistent due to the
variation in individual state laws. Many environmentalists think OPA 90 is not tough enough, but
some commercial interests arc worried about the conflict between the Federal and State requirements
and what the International P. & I. Clubs can and are prepared to do. It does appear to some, that the
oil trade to and from the U.S. may, in time, be exclusive to the wealthier ship owners and operators
as well as the major Oil Corporations, thus reducing competition.
While the I.M.O. has made great strides, it is too early to tell what the overall effect will be. The
statistics produced by the South American and Caribbean M.O.U.s show that some of the countries
involved have contributed little or nothing in terms of ship inspections and that is also true of a few
countries that have signed the Tokyo M.O.U. The Paris M.O.U. has been operating much longer and
has achieved the best results, so it is possible that the others will improve with time.
There are still a lot of countries in Africa, the Sub Continent of Asia, Middle East, Eastern
Mediterranean and Black Sea areas that operate a large number of ships including tankers and are not
members of any M.O.U. so far. It has to be remembered that ships operating under the flags of such
countries are only subject to inspection when they enter U.S. waters or regions subject to I.M.O.
regulations and covered by an M.O.U. agreement.
 OIL POLLUTION OF THE SEA — REGULATIONS AND AVOIDANCE

61

It is possible that some single hull tankers and vessels affected by OPA 90 and I.M.O. regulations
13 F and 13 G will be sold to flags which are outside the controls of the above legislation and continue
to trade after the deadlines imposed. It is to be hoped that the I.M.O. is able to enlarge its coverage
so that there are more countries involved with running sound marine operations and stamping out oil
pollution of the ocean.
It is not possible to provide too much detail in this chapter but more information is available on
OPA 90 from the U.S. Coast Guard. U.S. Coast Guard Headquarters. U.S. Port State Control
Program. Washington D.C.
With regard to the Paris M.O.U., the Secretariat is based at Wilcm Witzenplein 6. PO Box 2094
The Hague. The Netherlands.
With regard to other M.O.U.s the following may provide additional sources of information.
The Secretariat del Acuerdo de Vina del Mar Prectectura Naval Argentina., Ave Madero 235.
P Baja Buenos Aires, Argentina. The Tokyo M.O.U. Secretariat., Tomecho 6th Floor,
Annex Building 3-8—26 Toranomon.
Minato—ku. Tokyo. Japan 105.
While each country that has signed an M.O.U. follows the I.M.O. guide lines there is considerable
freedom for each country and port to meet special requirements in matters concerning Port Control
and information on this is best obtained from national sources.
The reader should be aware that the I.M.O. have published a consolidated edition of MARPOL
'73/78 updated to 1997. (When the eighth edition of the Tanker Handbook for Deck Officers was
prepared, this was the latest available). It is available in six languages and is complete with all the
protocols as well as Annex 1 to 5 inclusive.
The English version is I.M.O.-520 E. but does not include Annex 6 which deal with Air Pollution
by diesel engines and has only just recently been published.
The above publications can be obtained from the I.M.O. 4, Albert Embankment London
SE17SR.
62 TANKER HANDBOOK
UNITED STATES OIL SPILL/POLLUTION FINANCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND LIABILITY

Accepts P. &l.
Coverage Level of Financial Require Cargo Owner
(Other Than Responsibility State Unlimited Is Responsible
State Insurance) (Carrier or Cargo) C. O.P.R. Liability Party
Alabama N/A No Enabling Legislation No Yes No
Alaska YES Crude oil: $100 Million YES YES YES
Other: $ 35 Million
California YES Now $500 Million YES YES YES
1995 $750 Million
2000 $ 1 Billion
Connecticut N/A No Enabling Legislation N/A YES NO
Delaware NO Tankers: $300 per g.r.t. NO NO NO
or $250,000 whichever is

greater $30
Million
limit
Others: $150 per g.r.t.
Florida YES (Cleanup) OPA 90 Levels YES YES (Cleanup) YES
NO (Damages) NO (Damages)
Georgia N/A NONE NO YES NO
Hawaii N/A No Enabling Legislation NO YES NO
Louisiana NO OPA 90 Levels NO NO YES
Maine N/A No Enabling Legislation NO YES NO
Maryland NO $500 per g.r.t. NO YES YES
Massachusetts YES $25,000 Bond NO YES NO
Mississippi N/A NONE NO YES NO
New Hampshire N/A NONE NO YES NO
New Jersey YES $1 Million per incident or NO YES (Cleanup) YES
OPA Levels NO (Damages)
New York N/A No Enabling Legislation NO NO NO
North Carolina N/A No Enabling Legislation NO NO YES
Oregon NO OPA 90 Levels NO YES YES
Pennsylvania N/A No Enabling Legislation NO YES NO
Rhode Island N/A OPA 90 Levels NO YES NO
South Carolina N/A No Enabling Legislation NO YES NO
Texas NO OPA 90 Levels NO YES NO
(Natural
Resource
Damage) NO
(Other)
Virginia YES $500 per g.r.t. YES YES (Cleanup) NO
NO (Damages)
Washington YES $500 Million YES YES YES
 CHAPTER 8 LOADING

CRUDE OIL

Chapter 7 dealt with the changes in Pollution Legislation which affect all sizes of oil tankers. It is fairly
clear that some single hull tankers will be with us for a few years to come. Under OPA 90, as well
as MARPOL Requirements as listed under 13 F and 13 G, the phase-out of single hull tankers will take
a few years, though there is always the risk that one or more major pollution incidents might trigger
new legislation to reduce the phase-out period which at the moment looks as though it could be about
2010 for the last of the single hull vessels.
It is not possible in this chapter to discuss the effect of the above legislation on any one country
under I.M.O. regulations. Each Flag State has considerable freedom. Similarly individual maritime
states in the U.S. operation under the mantle of OPA 90, have similar freedom to set local laws and
regulations that meet local requirements.
The objective of all this legislation is to prevent oil pollution of the sea and the phase-out of single
hull tankers over a period and is a practical way of reducing the economic chaos that would result
from setting too small a phase-out period.

Oil Record Book

Under existing regulations, the tankers listed above which have a gross tonnage of 150 tons or
more, have to keep exact records on oil handled, including water and oil mixtures. An oil discharge
monitoring control system must be installed. They have to comply With the regulations for the
disposal of oil and oily water mixtures at sea.
Where possible the tank washing and oil/water mixtures should be discharged ashore and this is
a necessity for vessels which do not go 50 miles from land. Other vessels which trade further afield arc
restricted by the following:-
1. They must practice L.O.T. when washing tanks and store washings in slop tanks.
2. The tanker must be proceeding en route when decanting water from the slop tanks and must
not be stationary or steaming in circles.
3. The Instantaneous rate of discharge of oil content must not exceed 30 litres a nautical mile.
"The instantaneous rate" means rate of discharge of oil in litres per hour divided by the speed
of the tanker in knots at the same instant.
4. The total quantity of oil discharged on a ballast passage should not exceed 1/15,000 of the
total cargo carried.
5. The tanker must be 50 miles or more from the nearest land.
6. No oil may be discharged in the special zones.
The above requirements are restrictive and mean that such vessels are unable to wash and clean all
the ship' cargo tanks and do regular maintenance to valves, pipelines, as well as strainers, and pumps.
Within the limitations it is still necessary to do some tank cleaning and maintenance systematically.

Cargo Tanks and Equipment Maintenance

No matter how small or big a ship, there is equipment in her cargo tanks that needs fairly regular
inspection and possible repair. Every opportunity must be taken to clean at least some of the tanks,
gas-free and lift scale and sludge to control sediment, or it will become increasingly difficult to drain
the tanks.
When possible, it should be the objective on longer voyages to inspect a few tanks per voyage,
testing pipelines and valves for leaks by putting them under pressure, utilising a cargo or stripping
pump and clean ballast. Any leaks in pipelines can be clipped or repaired, and valves faced up where
this is necessary. Some types of valves are prone to gland leaks, and it may be necessary to renew gland
packing or tighten up the gland to avoid the pump sucking air when it becomes uncovered during
the discharge of cargo or ballast.
63
64 TANKER HANDBOOK

The tank coils should also be checked out and repaired if there is any indication that they are
leaking. Bulkheads between adjoining tanks should be inspected for possible signs of leakage from
small fractures bad or faulty welding and rivets. Similarly, the hull should be examined from inside the
tanks for possible leaks which might be a source of pollution.
In more modern vessels, built-in ullage equipment should be inspected and tapes renewed if worn
or broken. Hydraulically-opcrated valves can be checked out and the joints and hydraulic fluid pipes
repaired if hydraulic fluid is being lost.

Maintenance of Pumps and Strainers

The ballast passage is the only time that is available for overhauling a ship's pumping and cargo
system, or at least washing it out and making it gas-free, so that maintenance can be undertaken
during the loaded passage.
In some cases once the ballast has been discharged it is possible to isolate the cargo pumproom
and load the ship without putting any oil through the cargo pumproom piping. If this can be done,
cargo pumps can be opened up and strainer boxes cleaned on the loaded passage. If not, this work has
to be done while the ship is in ballast. Stripping pumps and their strainers need more than average
attention because of the nature of the work they perform. Sometimes it is necessary to blow clear
clogged gauge piping connected to the cargo system, or pressure gauges will fail to work properly.
Pump pressure relief valves are another item which need periodic attention.

Terminal and Ship Check Lists and Safety Practices

At least 72 hours before arriving at the loading port the Master is required to send an E.T.A. to
the agent/port authority. On short hauls this can be done by telex or similar means from the last port,
prior to sailing.
Additional information regarding the amount of clean and dirty ballast aboard, together with the
amount of slops and whether or not the slops are to be discharged or retained, is essential. The same
message should indicate the type of cargo and quantity required with a request for the A.P.I, or gravity
of the oil, as well as loading temperatures, if these are not known. The amount and type of bunkers
required, as well as any requirements to load drinking water, should be included.
In this chapter we are concerned mainly with operations concerning the discharge of ballast and
the loading of cargo. Information about slops and ballast should conform with the data to be found in
the ships' deck log, as well as the Oil Record Book, but safety and safety check lists which require
equipment to be tested and inspected prior to and on arrival at the loading port, arc dealt with by
National and International regulations under the I.S.G.O.T.T. (International Safety Guide for Oil
Tankers and Terminals) and in the case of British ships the Ministry of Transport's "Manual on the
Avoidance of Pollution of the Sea by Oil".
On arrival at a crude loading terminal the master is frequently required to sign a Safety Check List.
These check lists are issued in the mutual interest of the ship and terminal and should be treated
seriously and not just another routine piece of paper.
Where possible the requirement of the check list should be anticipated by rigging fire-hoses and
securing scupper plugs prior to berthing.
After berthing an officer should make a point by point check that the vessel is actually complying
with the regulations and the needs of the particular port and terminal.
Ship's personnel should be kept informed over the public address system and reminded of the strict
need to obey "No Smoking" signs, and other regulations, such as keeping accommodation doors and
ports overlooking tank spaces closed whilst deballasting and loading. Engineroom personnel are often
not directly involved in cargo operations. By keeping them informed and quoting applicable portions
of the check list, it is just possible that offences like blowing tubes, or immobilising the main engine
may be avoided.
Some vessels with control rooms have at times been guilty of keeping inadequate deck watches to
attend to moorings and watch for emergencies, such as the rupture of a hose, or loading arm. A vessel
must be organised at all times to handle emergencies and the failure of equipment. For this reason it
is necessary to have the deck watch fully conversant with the communication media by which the
terminal can be requested to stop loading.
 LOADING CRUDE OIL 65

Calculating and Distributing the Cargo

Modern twin hulled ships with segregated ballast tanks fitted between the inner and outer hull
often have fewer and larger oil tanks in any given size range. They tend to be fairly simple to dcballast
and load and are often fitted with computers and loadicators to assist the master and officers prepare
a loading plan. These instruments are undoubtedly useful but it is very necessary for officers to
understand their ship and the reasons for doing things. For this reason the author has chosen to use
older vessels to illustrate the reasoning behind the loading or discharge plan, though on occasion a
modern vessel will also be used.
The vessel is now ready to load her cargo. The next step with which we are concerned is the actual
plan for loading and trimming the vessel. To illustrate this, it might help if an actual example were
taken.
The specific gravity of the oil about to be loaded is -8547 at 60° F., or for those who prefer the
American equivalent, the A.P.I, is 34-05. The loading temperature anticipated is 88° F. For the voyage
to the discharge port, it is anticipated that the vessel will have on board a total of 1,720 tons of
bunkers, all of which will be in the after bunker tanks. In addition to the bunkers, the vessel will have
on board 110 tons of boiler and wash water, plus 30 tons of drinking water, while the weight of the
stores and crew, etc., is estimated at 87 tons. It is intended to load the vessel to a draft of 35 ft. 3^-in.
with an effective deadweight of 35,678 tons.
To arrive at the actual quantity of cargo to be loaded, the following simple calculation is
required:—
Bunkers For'd - - Nil
Aft - - - 1,720 tons
Boiler Water - - - 110 „
Domestic Water - - 30 „
Stores, etc. - - - 87 „
Total - - - 1,947 „
Deadweight - 35,678 „
Cargo to lift - - - 33,731 „

We know that the weight of the crude oil the vessel is about to lift will be approximately 33,731
tons. Converting this into volume, expressed either in cub. ft. or U.S. barrels (vessel calibrated both in
barrels and in cubic feet).
33,731 tons is 1,419,237 cub. ft. at 60° F. Expressed in Bbls. at 60° F. the same tonnage is 252,780
Bbls. As the temperature of the cargo we are about to load is not 60° F, but 88° F., we can anticipate
an increased volume. The temperature conversion factor for 88° F. is -9877, and the actual volume of
oil to be distributed throughout the vessel's cargo tanks is 1,436,911 cub. ft. or 255,929 Bbls.

Calibration Tables

The calibration tables in an oil tanker are so called because these tables contain tabulated
calibrations of all the vessels' cargo compartments. With the aid of these calibration tables it is
possible to calculate the volume of liquid in any of the compartments concerned.
With the general acceptance of the metric system, attempts have been made to apply this generally
to tanker calibration tables in new ships. Ullages and dips are expressed in metres, etc., while volume
is in cubic metres. Older ships, depending on nationality and where they were built, may have the
ullages and dips expressed in feet and inches and the volume in cubic feet or barrels. The barrel (42
gallons U.S.) is still very much a part of the oil trade, and most vessels have a second column in the
calibration tables showing the corresponding volume in barrels.
It is perhaps as well to mention that unless it is otherwise stated, the barrel as a unit of volume is
generally taken in the oil trade to be the 42 galls. U.S. barrel. In the same way, great care should be
taken when trading to Continental ports and the American Continent, that no confusion arises over
the use of long ton 2,240 Ibs., short ton 2,000 Ibs., or the U.S. gallon and the Imperial gallon. It is a
sound practice to indicate boldly what unit is being used.
66 TANKER HANDBOOK
 Connecting up Hoses.

Stability — Hogging and Sagging Stresses

In addition to the usual calibration tables, most modern tankers are supplied with additional
information which should be carefully studied and digested before any attempt is made to load the
vessel. Generally British vessels are supplied with this additional information in the form of two
booklets. One contains all the stability data for various conditions of light and loaded trim. A series of
six to a dozen different diagrams illustrate the vessel in various conditions with the accompanying
stability curves and righting levers. The master has to produce this stability information every time the
Safety Certificate is renewed and its existence is endorsed on the Safety Certificate.
The second booklet contains recommendations for distributing ballast and cargo. Here again, this
usually takes the form of a series of diagrams, illustrating the distribution of ballast for fair, moderate
and heavy weathers with alternatives when tank cleaning. Several different diagrams arc also available
for cargo, the diagrams illustrating clearly the empty and slack tanks for cargoes of various gravities,
and the quantity of bunkers and stores, etc., on board. In addition to this booklet generally contains
a set of tables with which it is possible to calculate in detail the resultant stresses from the distribution
of any particular cargo.
By carefully examining all the information available, the major pitfalls should become apparent,
and the distribution of any particular cargo can be effected without unduly straining the vessel. It used
to be considered that sagging in oil tankers was more or less eliminated by the advent of the twin
bulkhead type tanker. This to a certain extent was true, but modern vessels, and in particular crude oil
carriers, have grown in size to such an extent that unless these vessels arc loaded correctly,
considerable sag can be experienced, which apart from effecting the amount of cargo the vessel is
allowed to lift, may result in severely straining the vessel.

Trim

Trim is another important factor which influences the distribution of the cargo. It may be necessary
to load the cargo so that the vessel leaves the loading terminal on an even keel. If all the bunkers are
LOADING CRUDE OIL 6
7
in the after bunker tanks, it will be necessary to transfer cargo so as to counteract the daily
consumption of bunkers and water, and the corresponding change of trim which is a result of this
consumption.
It may also be necessary to arrive at the discharging port on an even keel, and here again it may
be necessary to transfer cargo. All these considerations must be taken into account before the vessel
loads. Generally it is advisable to effect a change of trim without transferring cargo. This can be done
by a number of means if conditions allow, but is not always possible where vessels are restricted by
the depth of water at loading and discharging terminals, and by the length of a particular sea passage.
However, when conditions allow, the vessel can be loaded so that she draws slightly more aft than
forward, and some of the bunkers can be stowed forward and transferred later when the vessel is at
sea, thus effecting a comparatively large change of trim for a small quantity of oil.
Distribution of cargo can be effected properly only if the effect of each tank loaded is checked in
the trim and stress tables. The sum of these calculations gives an accurate answer to any questions that
might arise concerning the effect of any particular cargo on the vessel as a whole.

Conditions Governing Loading Operations

The ullage report shown depicts the layout used on one occasion when a 36,000 d.w.t. vessel loaded
Crude Oil at a terminal in the Persian Gulf. Examination of this report and the associated calculations
for determining the stress numerals shows that there arc a number of problems which have to be
solved by those responsible for loading the vessel.
The vessel was bound for a discharge port in Northern Europe, and was bunkered for the loaded
passage only. As far as draft was concerned the vessel had to be on her Winter Marks by the time she
entered the Mediterranean. As far as the cargo was concerned, both the gravity and the temperature
tended to give a slightly larger volume than could be wished for the tonnage being lifted.
As the berth at which the vessel loaded had a more than adequate depth of water, it was decided
to load all the bunkers aft, and to trim the vessel sufficiently by the stern to allow for the passage to
Suez. In this way it would be possible to avoid adjustments of trim by either the transfer of bunkers or
cargo from forward to aft. It will be noted, however, that the sagging numeral is slightly more than
that recommended, though of course the lighter cargo contributes something to this.
Vessels that load at sea-line terminals, do so by means of a submarine hose or hoses connected to

Sea Line Terminal. Submarine Hoses coming on Board.

68 TANKER HANDBOOK
a submarine pipeline. The hoses arc picked up from the sea bed with the ship's derrick. As the majority
of these berths are in open roadsteads, it is often quite impossible to obtain an accurate check on the
draft and freeboard. Great care must be taken that the vessel does not overload. Careful checks on
temperature and the gravity of the oil when it enters the ship's tanks will help to keep the cargo figures
as accurate as possible.
Before going on to describe a typical crude oil loading operation, it may be as well to discuss four
important factors which must be taken into consideration whenever this type of operation is
undertaken.
1. The age of the. ship. Size and condition of pipelines.
2. The condition of the vessel's bulkheads.
3. The experience of the officers and other ship's personnel engaged in the loading operation.
4. The experience of the Chief Officer, who should be in charge of the operation.
The above four factors will influence the way in which the cargo is to be loaded and the loading
rate.
Old ships with leaky bulkheads and pipelines are generally loaded at rates which do not exceed
1,000 tons per hour. The principal object being to load the vessel in such a manner as to ensure as little
listing as possible. Topping up operations are generally done at reduced loading rates, as often
pipelines and valves are faulty, and a careful watch must be kept on all tanks already topped up to
ensure that the ullage does not change.
The experience of personnel in any particular type of tanker is of the utmost importance, as
each type has its own peculiarities, and unless properly handled, overflows and other mishaps
occur. With regard to ratings employed in the actual opening and closing of valves, it should be
made quite clear to them which way the valve opens and alternatively shuts. The officer in charge
should assure himself that every valve is shut on the completion of deballasting. Only then should
the valves necessary to the actual loading be opened. In this manner unexpected lists and overflows
arc prevented.
Subject to the Master's approval, the loading rate for any individual loading operation should be
determined by the Chief Officer. As he is in the best position to judge the condition of the ship and her
pumping system. The capabilities of other officers and personnel, together with his own experience,
should also be taken into consideration.
 LOADING CRUDE OIL 69

Loading Rates

A small crude tanker with three 12-in. cargo pipelines can, when in a good condition load with
safety rates up to 3,500 tons per hour. In fact, this rate has been exceeded time and time again by
vessels of this type. Large vessels fitted with four or more 14-in./cargo pipelines and carrying between,
30,000/100,000 tons can load at far higher rates, such as 7,000/10,000 per hour. Power operated valves
are of great assistance when loading Crude oil at rates in excess of 7,000 tons per hour.

Pipeline Tests

There is still a considerable body of opinion which thinks that fast loading is harmful to the vessel's
pipeline system, and also is directly responsible for a large number of oil spills. This is in fact,
completely untrue. When loading Crude Oil, the tanker is on the low pressure end of the loading
system. The maximum back pressure is at the shore pumps, and there is a gradual pressure drop along
the shore pipeline. On the tanker itself there should be little or no pressure at the ship's manifold in
the early stages of the loading operation. As the tanks are filled, the pressure should rise slightly:—
e.g. 20/30 Ibs. is quite normal. In any case, pressures during loading operations will normally never be
as high as those experienced during the discharge of cargo.
A vessel's pipeline system is built to withstand a given back pressure. Periodic tests when the vessel
is under overhaul should ensure that the pipelines and valves are kept in good condition. A safe
working pressure should be given at the end of each overhaul.

Safe Working Pressure

By keeping within the safe working pressure and observing elementary precautions, such as keeping
several tank suction valves open at once, no damage will result to pipelines. Damage to pipelines can
and does result when the flow of oil is restricted such as when one set of tanks are being topped up
and shut off and another set opened. Unless this changeover is done with extreme caution, pressure
builds up during the changeover period. To avoid this, empty tanks should be cracked open in plenty
of time and, as the oil comes up to the required ullage in the tanks that arc being topped up, the valves
should be opened up more and more to release the pressure and make the changeover easier. The final
topping up operation should be done at a reduced loading rate if the last tanks arc being loaded to a
small ullage.
Most smaller vessels' pipelines are tested to a safe working pressure of 100/200 Ibs. per square inch
and by examining the table provided, it is possible to arrive at the approximate rate of flow for some
sizes of pipeline. The rates are very approximate, because obviously it varies with the viscosity of
different oils, the condition of internal surfaces of the line, number of elbows and bends, and a number
of other factors. However, it is quite sufficient for an officer wishing to obtain some idea of the loading
capabilities of his vessel.
Speed is an essential part of the economic operation of the crude carrier and loading operations
should be based and timed as far as possible to take advantage of all facilities available at the loading
terminal, and to spare those engaged in the operation, unnecessarily long hours. A long drawn out
loading operation is the most dangerous from the point of view of spillage as it is then that ship's
personnel arc inclined to leave the deck for short but dangerous periods, leaving the vessel's tanks
unattended. Vessels which load at faster rates are completed quicker, generally in the space of a few
hours. The Chief Officer is then able to cover the whole operation in person, which is itself the greatest
safeguard against accidents.

Securing Sea Valves

Preparations for loading should commence while the tank inspector is inspecting the cargo tanks.
Sea valves should be shut, checked and lashed or sealed in such a manner as to indicate that they are
closed, and so prevent inexperienced personnel from opening them. However, when securing these
valves, it must be remembered that they must be easily accessible in time of emergency. All overboard
discharge valves should be shut and checked by at least two responsible persons.
70 TANKER HANDBOOK

Loading Crude Oil

The operation described here was completed in 6^ hours, in which time the vessel concerned loaded
33,754 tons of Crude Oil. The cargo was loaded at a Persian Gulf Crude Oil terminal, and the Master
specified a maximum loading rate of 7,000 tons per hour. The cargo system of-the vessel concerned
was similar to the one in Diagram 6 (see page 74). Prior to loading, the pumproom was isolated and
the valves controlling the drop, or direct loading lines were opened. In addition to this, the crossovers
between the main suction lines were also opened.
In order to ensure that the oil entered all four main suction lines, the Chief Officer opened one
centre tank on each line, e.g. Nos. 1, 3, 8 and 10 centres, and gave the signal to commence loading
slowly. As soon as the oil was observed entering each of the above tanks, the rest of the centre tanks
were opened with the exception of Nos. 7 and 11. These tanks were reserved for the completion of
cargo. As soon as all the centre tank suctions were opened, the Chief Officer gave the signal to load at
full speed.
It is worth noting that No. 5 across will remain empty, as these three tanks are permanent ballast
tanks, and are not connected with the cargo pipeline system.
As a general rule the tanks nearest the drop (filling) lines and those in the after end of the ship, will
tend to fill before those in the fore part of the ship. Sometimes the arrangement of the suction pipeline
in the individual tank may cause some restriction in the rate at which the oil enters that tank. Such
tanks are apt to be located under the amidship accommodation where the piping is extended back
under the amidship house for virtually the length ofthe tank.
In this instance the tanks were topped up in the following order Nos. 10, 6, 9, 8, 3, 2, while
Nos. 1 and 4 were topped up almost simultaneously. As No. 10 was topped up, Nos. 10 and 11 wing
suctions were cracked, and so adjusted that the oil escaped into these tanks evenly. The reason these
suction valves have to be cracked,open is.to relieve the pressure on the port line^ as when No. 9 is
topped up, there would be no tank open directly on this line. Similarly, as other tanks further for'd
were topped up, so the adjoining wing tanks suctions were cracked open. As more and more centre
tanks were topped up and shut off, the wing tank suctions already cracked open were opened still
more. The object being to keep the pressure on the ship's lines from building up.
Conventional vessels such as the one under consideration are often fitted with additional large (full
bore) suctions in the centre tanks. These suctions are intended to help the flow of oil to the cargo
pumps during the discharge of the bulk of the cargo, and though they may on occasion prove useful
during loading operations, great care has to be taken if they are used during the loading operation.
Often these 15-in. suctions arc not connected to the same suction pipeline as the normal 12-in. suction,
consequently there is always a risk that one or the other ofthe suctions will be overlooked and not shut
down in time.
As Nos. 1 and 4 centres were topped up and shut off, all the wing tanks were opened up full. These
tanks were topped up in much the same manner as the centre tanks, but as there were double the
number of suctions open, it was unnecessary to relieve the pressure by cracking open suction in Nos. 7
and 11 centres or reduce the loading rate till half the wing tanks were completed.
When No. 6 wings were topped up and shut off, Nos. 7 and 11 centres were cracked open, and
the pressure gauges at the cargo manifold carefully checked for any indication of a build up in
pressure. As Nos. 2 and 3 wing tanks were topped up, No. 7 centre was opened still more to
compensate for the loss of these two tanks, and to keep the pressure down. Should the pressure tend to
rise at this stage the loading rate should be reduced. As No. 1 wings were topped up to the correct
ullage, the Chief Officer requested the Dock Master to reduce the loading rate to half speed, and after
No. 1 wings were completed, to slow speed.
All the cargo tanks with the exception of Nos. 7 and 11 centres, were loaded to an ullage of 5-ft.
(uncorrectcd for trim). The Chief Officer's calculations indicated that a 47-ft. ullage in No. 11 centre
and a 28-ft. ullage in No. 7 centre, would give him a full cargo, and the desired trim. Arranging the
completion in his manner, namely with large ullages in two tanks, and with the loading rate reduced,
not only eliminates the danger of overflows, but allows the ships' freeboard and the ullage in the last
two tanks, to be checked with reasonable accuracy. It also reduces the danger of overloading
accidentally. When loading at speeds in the vicinity of 7,000 tons per hour, this vessel sinks bodily in
the water at the rate of nearly 1-in. per minute, an accurate measurement of freeboard and draft
becomes impossible even under ideal conditions.
It is worth noting that this vessel is equipped with an automatic mechanically operated'ullage
system, and that the level of the liquid in the individual tanks was always under observations. Only
when tanks were being topped up were the weighted ullage screens removed, and the ullages checked
by hand. As far as the ventilation system was concerned, the bypass valves were open and the mixture
LOADING CRUDE OIL 7
1
 TABLE OF PIPELINE RATES Approximate Barrels per hour
passing through line at given pressure

Diameter Length 100 1 'res sure • Sq. 30

Ins. Ft. 75 pei 65 inch 50

300 38,600 33,600 32,200 28,000 22,900

14" 400 33,600 29,700 27,400 24,300 18,600
600 27,700 24,200 22,500 19,600 15,200
J. T^

1,000 21,500 18,700 17,300 15,200 11,700

300 27,300 23,200 22,700 18,800 17,700
12"
1 £*
400 23,000 20,000 18,500 16,300 12,700
600 19,000 16,320 15,100 13,300 10,360
1,000 14,400 12,700 11,700 10,300 8,150
300 16,700 17,750 13,600 12,000 9,400
10" 400 14,400 12,750 11,800 10,700 8,100
IV
600 12,000 10,400 9,600 8,500 6,600
1,000 9,300 8,150 7,580 6,580 5,150
300 9,580 8,450 7,800 6,900 5,360
R" 400 8,400 7,300 6,750 5,950 4,640
o 600 7,010 5,940 5,500 4,850 3,760
1,000 5,290 4,720 4,290 3,750 2,900
300 4,580 4,100 3,800 3,340 2,600
6" 400 4,090 3,540 3,200 2,880 2,240
\J
600 3,420 2,880 2,660 2,350 1,830
1,000 2,570 2,260 2,120 1,840 1,430

of air and gas displaced by the incoming oil passed through the ventilations system, and was
discharged through a number of cowl covered flame proof traps located on the foremast and amidship
Sampson posts.
The ship's figures indicated that the vessel loaded 33,754 tons in 6 hours 30 mins. giving the vessel
an average loading rate of 5,192 tons per hour. This particular operation was by no means a record,
but constitutes a satisfactory performance for such vessels when reasonable loading facilities are
available. The personnel engaged in this operation at any one time consisted of the Chief Officer and
First, Second or Third Officer (one relieving the other, as required), two pumpmen and three ratings.
It is perhaps as well to mention that when loading at speeds which tend to sink the vessel to her marks
in the space of a few hours, the vessel's moorings need frequent attention.
The same general principles are applicable to vessels with a ring or circular pipeline system when
loading crude oil. At one time it was considered necessary to bring a vessel to an even keel as soon as
possible, and to control the loading so as to maintain this trim. However it will be obvious that a vessel
on an even keel does not offer the advantage of stepped levels when topping up as, when the oil enters
the vessel, it enters all the tanks which are open at the same rate, which means that unless one is
prepared to reduce the loading rate and shut off some of the tanks, a large number of personnel are
required to handle all the tanks coming up at once. It has been said that loading a vessel trimmed by
the stern, means inaccurate ullages, but even if the vessel has no trim correction tables it should not
take an able officer long to devise such tables or to allow for any deficiencies due to trim on the final
ullages when completing. In any case while loading crude oil in large vessels at speed, it is extremely
difficult to obtain ullages in every tank, accurate to the ^ inch. The usual practice is to check all the
ullages when the vessel is on an even keel, and to make allowances as the final tanks arc completed,
should this be necessary.
On completion of loading, a ship's officer should accompany the cargo checker, carefully checking
the ullages and temperatures, and any free water found in the cargo tanks. As soon as the hoses are
disconnected, the ship's pipeline blank flanges should be fitted, and a check should be made that all
suction and master valves arc shut. When the cargo checker and the samplers have finished, the ullage
72 TANKER HANDBOOK

hatches should be properly battened down, and the vapour lines and pressure-vacuum valves checked
to see that everything is in order. During the voyage to the discharging port every opportunity should
be taken of fine weather to check ullages and temperatures, and a permanent record should be kept.

Ships Experience Factor

For a variety of reasons the Bill of Lading, or shore figures, may vary. A vessel which has loaded
a number of cargoes has an experience factor which allows the master to tell whether the discrepancy
between ships' figures and the Bill of Lading figures are within the limits acceptable to owner/
charterer. If they are not, the master should "Note Protest" before signing the B/Ls stating clearly the
difference between ships and shore figures.

Doha I lasting Clean Ballast

It will not have escaped the readers notice that Diagram 6 — plan of Pumproom, and 7 — Tank
Layout in Chapter 9, show that this vessel is fitted with a ballast pump and a 12" pipeline that connects
the pump with 5 Across, and that these tanks are segregated from the cargo system and can be loaded
and discharged simultaneously provided the bulkheads and the 12" pipeline don't have leaks, and
due allowance is made for stress factors.
 CHAPTER 9 DISCHARGING

CRUDE OIL

DISCHARGING crude oil is often regarded as presenting no difficulty and generally lacking in
interest when compared to the discharge of other petroleum products. In as much as one particular
type of crude oil; generally comprises the entire cargo of a vessel loading crude oil, there are no
segregation problems such as are to be expected with lubricating oils or parcels of clean oils. However,
in spite of this, the discharge of crude oil is not without interest, as far higher rates of discharge are
required for vessels engaged in this trade. It is also true to say that as a general rule the facilities
provided to handle crude oil at oil terminals all over the world, are far better, and allow much higher
rates than similar facilities for other products.
Crude oil discharges can be divided into two types:—
(a) Discharges where the limitations on output are imposed by the shore facilities. These
limitations can be caused by a number of things such as small bore discharge lines, shore tanks placed
at a considerable distance from the ship, shore tanks placed on a hill well above sea level, or even a
restriction on the amount of back pressure due to old hoses, etc. Under such conditions the vessel is
unable to use her equipment to the maximum advantage and delays arc unavoidable.
(h) Discharges where the shore facilities are adequate, and the only limitations imposed on the
volume of oil discharged are those dictated by the capacity of the ship's pumps and the skill with which
the vessel's pumping equipment is used. In recent years a great deal of money has been spent on the
pumping equipment of large crude oil carriers and the shore facilities for receiving the oil.

Reciprocating Pumps

Reciprocating pumps are largely relegated to a secondary role in crude tankers. There are a few
old ships and coastal vessels which may have survived, but for practical purposes reciprocating pumps
on crude oil tankers are used as stripping pumps.

Deepwell Pumps

The hydraulically driven deepwell pump has become increasingly popular in s-mall and medium size
oil tankers which carry clean and dirty oil products as well as crude oil.
Most of these vessels are very modern and have a segregated ballast system fitted between in and
outer hulls, as well as double bottoms, under the cargo tanks.
Fitted with a single deepwell pump in each cargo tank, they normally have coated tanks with the
sides and bottoms free of all frames and stringers so that the surfaces are smooth and with a fixed in
tank cleaning capability they can be cleaned in under 48 hours when changing grades. The cargo tanks
are normally divided by a centre line bulkhead into port and starboard compartments. Loading and
Discharging crude oil is fairly simple in such ships provided attention is paid to the proper procedures
so that the vessel does not develop lists or undue hogging or sagging stresses. When discharging, the
maximum rates of discharge tend to be rather limited compared to vessels fitted with centrifugal
pumps, but under normal circumstances the time taken draining tanks more than compensates for the
lower capacity of the deepwell pump.

Ships fitted with Centrifugal Pumps

Vessels fitted with centrifugal pumps are more suitable for handling crude oil than those fitted with
reciprocating pumps. The reason for this is that they are capable of much higher discharge rates than
reciprocating pumps, and are not subject to the same amount of wear and tear from contact with small
quantities of foreign matter in suspension in most crude oils.
The discharge of crude carriers is not as simple as one would suppose. It takes a great deal of skill
73
74 TANKER HANDBOOK

to co-ordinate the activities of several large centrifugal pumps and several stripping pumps in
discharging the vessel's cargo in the shortest possible time. There are also a number of problems that
arise as a result of having the pumproom between the engine room and the aftermost cargo tanks.
This, coupled with the limitations of centrifugal pumps when draining tanks, may prolong the
discharge unnecessarily, in which case the advantage of possessing pumps with high discharge rates is
largely wasted.

Planning the Discharge

It is always necessary to have a plan when discharging, not a mental picture of what one intends
to do, but a carefully drawn up plan which enables all the personnel engaged in the operation to follow
the discharge step by step. It may be necessary to make considerable alterations to the plan during
the course of the discharge due to unforeseen circumstances, but the chance of obtaining a good
discharge without a plan of some sort is extremely unlikely.

Setting a Target Rate

It helps considerably in planning the discharge if the capabilities of the vessel's pumps and the
shore facilities are known. This enables the officer in charge to set a target rate for the overall
discharge, this rate should preferably be on the high side, though it is necessary to keep it within the
capabilities of the pumps. Having set the target rate, we are in a position to know approximately the
time the discharge should take. The discharge must now be arranged so that each main pump is
worked efficiently for as long as possible.

Disadvantage of the After Pumproom

As a result of having the pumproom situated at the after end of the cargo tanks, the suction lines
from the for'd tanks are very much longer than the ones from the tanks situated nearer the pumproom.
As a result of this the pump or pumps, which have the task of discharging the tanks situated in the
for'd end of the vessel, are unable to discharge at the same rate as the pumps which have shorter
suction lines; the friction losses in the longer suction lines being greater than those in the shorter lines,
provided that both pipes are of the same bore.
When arranging the discharge, the pumps with shorter suction lines should be given a bigger
proportion of the work, and great care should be taken that the after tanks do not come out first, leaving
the vessel trimmed by the head or on an even keel and unable to strip because of this adverse trim.

Tank Stoppings

The amount of oil left in the individual cargo tanks which the ship's centrifugal pumps are unable
to remove, can vary enormously. Even when a vessel's pumps and pipelines are in good condition, a
pump will lose suction with two or three feet of oil in the tank. An experienced tanker officer can
reduce, but never entirely eliminate this type of occurrence. It is therefore wise when estimating the
amount of oil left in the ship's tanks together with the amount of time required to strip them, to be as
conservative as possible. In other words, arrange the discharge so that tanks become available for
stripping in plenty of time. This is particularly important for vessels fitted with a single stripping line;
vessels with two stripping lines are generally able to keep the stripping up to date much more easily.
Centrifugal pumps equipped with a vacuum assistance are capable of draining cargo tanks without
the help of stripping pumps. In Chapter 17 we will cover how vacuum assistance works, but in
planning a discharge, equipment of this type must be taken into account as it can eliminate most or all
of the conventional stripping operation.

Different Types of Equipment

To discuss in detail methods of discharging Crude Oil with various types of vessels fitted with
different equipment is obviously impossible. It is more practical to limit discussion to one particular
 DISCHARGING CRUDE OIL 75

type. Diagram 7 illustrates the suction lines and cargo tanks of a small crude tanker. The vessel has
four main suction lines each with an internal diameter of 15-in. Each pipeline serves a section of tanks
and feeds one of four single stage centrifugal cargo pumps capable of discharging 5,000 Imperial
gallons per minute, against a back pressure of 150 Ibs. per sq. inch. It must be pointed out that piping
arrangements shown for this class of ship were the original, fitted when this type of ship was built.
With the advent of L.O.T. the stripping lines were altered so that No. 11 wing tanks became the slop
tanks and an inter-connecting piping system between No. 11 wings was installed to assist decanting
water from oil and water mixture. No. 11 wings are relatively small and each has a capacity of
approximately 2% of the total cargo carried. There were more than 50 vessels built in this range and
the original piping and alterations varied from ship to ship. When slops are retained on board at the
loading port officials at the discharge may wish to ascertain the amount of water under the oil and the
ship may be requested to pump the free water out before other tanks are opened. Two 8-in. stripping
lines arc provided to serve two steam reciprocating pumps. These stripping pumps can gather the
strippings and discharge them into No. 8 centre or No. 11 centre direct, or alternatively strip direct to
shore. This type of vessel and equipment is fairly common, though the arrangements of the individual
pumps and tanks may differ from ship to ship, and some may have only one stripping line to serve
all the cargo tanks.

Preparing for the Discharge

It is always sound policy to warm the pump turbines up before the vessel starts discharging. This
can be done in one of two ways:—
(a) By shutting the pump discharge valve and running the pumps at slow speed. The pump
impellers churn in the liquid without building up dangerous back pressure.
(b) By running the pumps at a higher speed with the discharge valves open and circulating the
oil through the cargo pipeline system.
Both methods have advantages and disadvantages, and it depends largely on the type of pumps
and cargo system fitted in the individual ship as to which method should be used.
Strictly speaking it should not be necessary to circulate cargo through the pipeline system in order to
warm the turbines. With the average cargo pump it is only necessary to flood the pump with oil, ventilate
it properly to get the air out and then shut the pump discharge valve. The turbine should then be started
so that the pump runs at slow speed. Unfortunately, many pump turbines must run at a fairly high
minimum speed for the lubrication system to function efficiently. This in turn means that the cargo pump
impeller is turning at a higher speed than is really desirable. As the liquid in the pump cannot escape, the
energy generated by the pump impeller is transmitted to the liquid in the form of heat. If the pump is kept
running for any length of time under these conditions it will overheat and could sustain serious damage.
If the turbine lubrication system permits the pump to be run at a reasonably low speed with the
discharge valve shut, the pump turbines can be warmed through without trouble, and the discharge
started by the simple expedient of speeding up the pumps and simultaneously opening the discharge
valve as the back pressure rises.
In some vessels, for the reasons given above, it is necessary to circulate cargo through the pipeline
system. In itself this is not particularly difficult, but experience has shown that oil spills and overflows
sometimes result when this method is used, particularly when inexperienced personnel arc operating
the cargo pumps, etc. It is sound practice when circulating, to prime the cargo system with only one
tank, preferably a slack one with an adequate ullage. If a slack tank is not available, the suction line
system including the pumps should be primed with the pumps stopped, and the tank suction should be
closed before the pumps are started.
When ready to discharge ashore, the discharge is started by gradually closing the drop or circulating
valves, and as the pressure builds up, opening the gate valve, thus letting the oil pass ashore.

Starring the Discharge

Before starting the discharge all the valves should be checked with particular regard to circulating
valves which are not in use. Sometimes the telltales indicate that a valve is shut, but it may only be
open a few turns. In the case of the circulating valve, this could be serious and lead to a spill.
Ten minutes before the discharge is due-to start, the engineroom should be given warning. A quick
check should be made that all masters and crossover valves have been correctly set. On receiving the
76 TANKER HANDBOOK

word that the shore line is open, more steam should be passed through the turbines driving the pumps
and as the pressure builds up, the pump discharge, and/or gate valves should be opened up slowly.
It is essential that this process of bringing the pumps up to maximum speed is done slowly and
deliberately. A careful check being kept on the back pressure and the discharge lines, both on deck and
in the pumproom, for possible leakage. The gradual increase in speed (if controlled from the
pumproom) helps the engineroom staff to maintain steam without any trouble, and results in mutual
confidence in the operation of pumps and other equipment.
The start of any discharge is always a matter for supervision by the Chief Officer. Any one of a
number of things could go wrong. A hose may burst as the pressure comes up, making it necessary to
stop pumps immediately. It is therefore advisable for an officer to be stationed near the emergency
stop button (Panic Button) which automatically cuts off the steam and stops the pumps.
A pumpman should also be stationed down the pumproom to check the glands of each pump
and to make sure that it is not running hot.

Methods of Discharge

When reference is made to methods of discharging a crude oil ship, the word method covers the
sequence in which the ship's tanks arc discharged and then stripped, as well as the method of employing
the individual pumps. The pumps can be employed as one unit, that is to say they can have common
suction lines, or they can be operated as individual units with separate suction lines and tanks to draw
from. It is in the development of such methods that skill, time and experience play their part.
One of the most popular methods employed in discharging such vessels today is to start the discharge
with the suction lines common. The wing tanks are discharged first, the general idea being that the tanks
with the shorter suction lines will be discharged more rapidly, and as the head of oil is reduced in these after
tanks, the pumps concerned will supplement the supply of oil by obtaining additional supplies from tanks
in which the level of the oil is higher. They can then draw this additional oil from the tanks further
forward through the open crossovers between the different suction lines.
As the level of the oil drops in each section of tanks to the height of the main suction lines, the
crossovers are shut and each pump discharges the remaining oil independently. This is a precaution
against one pump upsetting another. It also allows the changeover to full tanks to be done gradually,
so that there is less danger of a pump sucking air or losing suction. As the wing tanks are taken down
and the pumps come on lift, a full tank can be cracked open to compensate for the reduced flow of
oil from the low tank, but care must be taken to see that the pump retains suction on the low tank.
As the main pumps arc switched to the centre tanks, the stripping pump should be brought into
action, and the drainings removed to the slop tanks. When all the pumps are once again pumping on
full tanks the crossover valves can be opened again, and the centre tanks discharged together until the
level of the oil reaches the main suction lines. Some officers prefer to keep the crossover valves shut
and to balance the amount of oil going to each pump by the judicious use of the large 15-in. suctions
which are fitted in this type of vessel. The amount of oil to be retained in the slop tank will be
proportionate to the quantity of oil expected to be transferred by the stripping pumps and the reserve
necessary to prime the main pumps when the centre tanks are low.
As an alternative to pumping the wing tanks first, some officers prefer to pump the centre tanks
out first, as these tanks sometimes take longer to drain, even though there are double the number of
wing tanks. This is particularly true when carrying oil which is heavy and sluggish and which has a
comparatively high viscosity. The shape of the wing tanks and the shell plating at the turn of the bilge
helps the oil to drain down easily, thus keeping the suctions covered. The centre tanks on the other
hand have a flat bottom which does nothing to help in this way. The disadvantages of pumping the
centre tanks out first are more likely to be felt in an old ship than a new one. When the centre tanks
are empty, the main lines are uncovered, and should there be any leaks, the pumps will be affected for
the remainder of the discharge. When the wing tanks are discharged first, a very small portion of the
line is exposed in each of the wing tanks, and air leakage into the lines is unlikely to affect the pumps
so early in the discharge.
If the stripping falls behind, it generally means that one of two things is happening. The stripping
is being left until too late in the discharge and too many tanks are becoming available for stripping at
the same time, or alternatively, the main pumps are leaving too much oil in the tanks. It is difficult
to define a point where the main pump should be switched from a low tank to a full tank, so mugh
depends on the condition of the equipment, the viscosity and the temperature of the oil. With the type
of vessel under consideration, a quantity of 60/80 tons for a centre tank, and 25/40 tons for a wing
tank, would be about average under normal circumstances. With these quantities a centre tank should
DISCHARGING CRUDE OIL
7
7
 ^SHsaSB^^'-M*""
,-= w—, ^7£s«t£c;cc^s ass E
between 4 and15 hours circumstances the amount of actual stripping time will probably be

down ^^X^T^SS^SIe1"11' * the

T^ PUmP * "Sed l° take 'tS final tank
and there
1S noth^ to^^^^^Z**™ « ™d " *e d.schargc,
1116 w ing and centre tanks in such sh
H ^^ts^^^^ts^^i;-
- - t
=^&--s^^w
Stt
to d I a n tccqu n ipln h t aPtCr " ^ '"^ at & VX CC
- " as We
" as a
» P-^POse tanker w:th more up

Double Skinned Tankers

M.T. Tow/o z

- «-. «,i .r,, Jasa^^-'s-r.ais--^

 DISCHARGING CRUDE OIL 79

the Crude Oil Washing of several tanks, as well as the order in which the segregated ballast is
loaded.

Discharging Plan

General
\. Before arrival go through pre-arrival, C.O.W. and I.G.S. check lists, also ensure that:
A. High overboard is blanked.
B. Pump room bilge alarm, gas detecting system and sea chests are tested.
C. All antipollution material is properly distributed and ready for use.
D. Cargo measuring equipment is in order for closed measurements during discharging.
E. Pumps emergency stops, trips and alarms are working.
F. Test and calibrate I.G. System oxygen analyzer and the portable meter.
2. Before any operation safety/pollution officer to go through all items of ship/shore safety/
check list and sign pertinent form.
3. Notify engine room in advance when pumps will be required for warming up and ensure
pumproom ventilation is running.
4. When lining up for discharge remember; always start with all valves closed and only the
intended valves are open. Lash and lock valves as appropriate including manifolds.
5. Start discharging from a slack tank with lines and pumps isolated on suction and delivery
side.
6. Start discharging slowly with one pump and ensure that suction and delivery of cargo is as
desired. Build up pressure gradually and check for leakage.
7. When all checks with 1st pump are completed start the 2nd pump and ensure that suction
and delivery are from this line. Increase revolutions gradually, to same speed as the other
pump. Continue your checks now that the pressure has built up.
8. When all checks are completed proceed to discharge as per steps No. 1-2-3, etc. Keeping
the pumps at same R.P.M.
9. During the discharge monitor level of tanks and pressure at manifolds continuously. Record
pressures and tanks level every one or two hours as directed. Calculate the discharge rate and
follow up trim and stresses.
10. Ensure that deck crew keep a proper gangway watch, attend the moorings and fire wire.
Pumpman should visit pumproom regularly and in the interim's pumproom to be visited by
watch officer and crew. Always have one man stand by when somebody goes down to visit
the pumproom.
11. I.G.S. pressure in tanks should be minimum 400mm. wg.
12. O2 Content should be checked on each tank before C.O.W. starts (max. 5%).
13. Ballast tanks should be checked before any ballasting or deballasting, when these operations
carried out concurrently with loading or discharging. Check overboard for any signs of oil.
Keep close look out.
14. Ensure I.G.S. isolating valves are properly set and locked.
15. Call the Chief Mate when in doubt.

Step No. 1
Commence discharging from tank No. 4 P + S.
If line displacement check is agreed, cargo to be discharged from tanks 3-4 P + S, which least affect
trim. Follow up level of other tanks when discharging for line check and if there is any change of level
in other tanks and not only the assigned one(s). Remeasure all tanks to establish correct quantity
discharged. Fill line check form.
After discharging for at least five minutes from the slack tank or after the line check connect all
lines on the suction side. Connect lines on discharge side and manifolds according to number of arms/
hoses connected and C.O. Pumps in use.

Step No. 2
Continue to discharge from all cargo tanks.
80 TANKER HANDBOOK

Step No. 3
Continue to discharge as per plan in the first page.

Final Stage

Before discharging the last tank which is used for C.O.W. and for driving eductor check innagcs
in all other tanks and strip/educt as necessary any liquid accumulated from straining rundown since
previous check.
After this last stripping isolate all lines on suction and discharge side from line used to discharge
the last tank (slop).
Gravitate ail isolated lines including the C.O.W. line into an after most tank and from these strip
into the slop tank.
When discharging by the main pump is complete line up to discharge any remains in the slop tank
and the last cargo line(s) draining through the marpol line to shore manifold directly. To ensure good
draining of the lines open vacuum breaker valve(s) as necessary.
Before any attempt to disconnect arms/hoses drain them (release pressure) into tank No. 5P or
5S. Measure this tank in presence of surveyor before draining and again during the R.O.B. survey.
Never disconnect arm(s) before the R.O.B. survey.
 CHAPTER 10 U.L.C.C., V.L.C.C. AND

COMBINED CARRIERS

MANY of the V.L.C.C.s and U.L.C.C.s were already fitted with I.G.S. and C.O.W. Those that were
not had this extra equipment fitted, together with any alterations to slop tanks, as well as the
installation of oil in water monitoring equipment, to meet MARPOL requirements.
At the present time the majority of single hull U.L.C.C.'s and V.L.C.C.'s are fairly old and
most of them will reach the phase-out date within the next ten years, when they will be scrapped.
New U.L.C.C.'s and V.L.C.C.'s must have double hulls with segregated ballast tanks fitted between
inner and outer hulls. The cargo tank arrangement and pumping systems are of necessity
considerably different. The double hulls and double bottoms make these new vessels safer from the
standpoint of pollution risk. The double hulls also provide additional strength.
To understand the thinking behind the various changes in design provided by MARPOL for tankers
of various sizes, it is recommended that the reader refer to MARPOL '73/78 Annex 1. Appendix No:
7 and 8. While the main thrust of these two appendices is with alternative designs, Appendix 8 shows the
thinking behind the four standard designs for double hulled tankers. In terms of size these are 5,000 d.w.t.,
60,000 d.w.t., 160,000 d.w.t. and 283,000 d.w.t.
The reader will see that the vessel's construction, tank size, number of tanks, as well as the need
for one or more longitudinal bulkheads, is based on a series of computer programs in which the
outflow of oil is calculated when a tanker suffers damage of various types.
The detail of these calculations concern ship designers, classification societies as well as ship
builders, but must be of interest to the master and officers of oil tankers.

V.L.C.C. Problems and Special Requirements

It is fairly obvious that the bigger the ship the greater the limitations and problems encountered
in providing suitable ports and terminals to accommodate and repair them, but this is another problem
outside the scope of this chapter. It is intended here to take a look at the problems encountered in
loading and discharging such ships relative to their size and equipment.

Bending Moments and Shearing Forces

In most cases the problem of increased size is compounded by the fact that structurally the
V.L.C.C. has less steel per d.w.l. than smaller ships built before 1965. It follows, therefore, that the
loading and discharging operation has to be conducted between fairly critical limits in which the
distribution of weight has to be calculated to cover the transfer of all liquid weight, so that the shearing
forces and bending moments are known, and the bending moments are kept within permissible limits.
A scries of four sets of bending moment and shearing force curves for the Universe Japan
326,562 d.w.t. allows us to examine the difference in these forces.
 (i) On Departure
Loaded - Long Voyage.
On Arrival
(ii) On Departure
On Arrival Normal Ballast Long Voyage.
 The calculation to determine the values mentioned above are undertaken with the aid of an
operational manual produced by the ship builder, and is similar to that already illustrated for smaller
vessels in Chapter 8.

Planning the Loading Operation for a V.L.C.C.

It is important therefore, to know exactly what the maximum rate the vessel can accept, and to
plan the loading of a particular cargo at a safe maximum with due regard to any reductions that may
be necessary when starting cargo and topping up.
82 TANKER HANDBOOK

Now let us examine a loading plan for the Universe Japan, prepared by the ship builders and
owners with a full knowledge of the terminal and ship's capabilities.
The vessel is to load 312,679 tons of Kuwait crude, and simultaneously discharge over 110,000 tons
of clean ballast, 33,000 of which is segregated ballast discharged with the ballast pump, but the balance
has to go out through the cargo system without pollution or co-mingling.
Examination of the Universe Japan's cargo piping system shows us that at some expense to loading
rate, this can be done quite safely because of the double valve, masters and crossovers located between
each main suction line, and aft of each cargo drop loading line.
As a result it is possible to discharge ballast from No. 2 Wings on No. 1 line with No. 1 pump,
and No. 6 Centre with No. 3 line and pump, while cargo is being loaded into 5 Across and 6 Wings on
the isolated forward section of No. 3 line. The oil reaches 6 Wings from 5 Wings via the sluice valves
in the adjoining bulkheads.
It is also planned to start loading No. 7 Wings and 8 Across on No. 4 line.
Let us for a moment examine the broad implications of what is happening during the first part of
the loading operation, and the overall effect on the ship. Crude oil is being loaded at rates up to
6,000 t.p.h. through two of the ship's pipe lines, and ballast is being discharged at approximately the
same rate by the ballast pump and two of the ship's cargo pumps. The result is that the vessel's mean
draft changes less than 1 ft. in the first 10 hours, and the trim increases from just under 10 ft. to 43 ft.
by the stern in this period, even though loading is commenced into Nos. 1 and 2 Centres on No. 1
pipeline to help control the trim after the first few hours.
The ability to handle ballast and cargo simultaneously should not be underrated. It provides a
flexibility in weight distribution in the light condition, which is a big asset. It also helps to reduce
windage and helps the mooring problem in strong winds. The time-saving, if any, from such an
operation must be reduced by the equivalent time lost in not utilising the ship's maximum loading rate,
but overall the author believes that this capability is economically and operationally well worthwhile.
The loading schedule shows us that apart from stripping, the ballast is discharged in ten hours,
and thereafter the vessel can load at full speed until it is necessary to reduce the rate to top up. The
maximum rate should be approximately 13,500 t.p.h., and the overall about 10,700 t.p.h. if the vessel
loads a full cargo in 29 hours, as shown.

Planning the Discharge of a V.L.C.C.

Utilising the discharge plan for the Universe Japan at the end of her voyage from the Persian Gulf,
we note that once again the shipbuilders have co-operated with the owners to achieve the optimum
utilisation of the vessel's equipment and terminal facilities.
The discharge schedule shows that the discharge commences utilising all four cargo pumps and
pipelines.
No. 1 pump starting on No. 1 Wings. No. 2
pump starting on No. 4 Centre. No. 3 pump
starting on Nos. 5 and 6 Centres.
No. 4 pump starting on No. 7 Centre (with only 8,286 tons in it, and then switching to No. 7
Wings).
The individual pump maximum discharge rate is assumed not to exceed 2,524 1.t.p.h. or a
combined capacity of about 10,000 t.p.h. and the intention is to discharge the vessel in 38 hours,
allowing for stripping time, and taking on ballast. After 7 hours discharging, approximately 62,000
tons should be discharged and the vessel trimmed about 13 ft. by the stern.
The vessel will require about 143,300 tons of ballast before leaving the discharge port. Of this
quantity 33,000 tons is in S.B.T.s and the rest must be placed in cargo tanks after they have been crude
washed and stripped dry. Crude washing undoubtedly increases the length of the discharge time. It is
therefore imperative that crude washing starts as early as possible and as far as it is practical tanks to
be used for ballast should be rotated on successive voyages to prevent sludge build up.

Large Crude Tankers used as Offshore Floating Storage or in Restricted Areas

In a few special cases large tankers classed as Existing Tankers under MARPOL can economically be
converted so that they are provided with S.B.T.s by reducing the carrying capacity of the tanker. The
Esso Fife is an example of such a vessel. No. 2 and 4 wings have been converted from oil to
U.L.C.C., V.L.C.C. AND COMBINED CARRIERS 8
3
BSNPIN& do ME FORCE Cut yes
NT
 SO -• 0-855 ( API -- 3+ or 60 Vj
flonffiT 2356. i^C1 LT - FT

Fr ••
84 TANKER HANDBOOK
8e*oi«* McMpwr 2356.440 LT-FF
Fr
U.L.C.C., V.L.C.C. AND COMBINED CARRIERS 8
5
 ^^52«*~ff r^ 4 «v 16 tA -^r< <T- f^ *fi o U) W ^
on-jfnf^ f- DO D S - VU'.o
!•=! *
^
IX
^ KI ^- O ^
Q

» -n •O
rt o-
t a- -o «ft w> * ™ !~ i- — C « C* •* tr • _
«e s sib
Q-g - 04 '"
O0
'
'" B>

K ( d * "^ J
jj T^ -^ ^ °" "~
™
J «>
M
-*
Ul
v, J
Irt f*
JH

^^ O r> 0 o» O in O
|/l r*. ir>
** 5 *
"•
3 1 +**
It £ Jl p*
-* ~« "K "to o-

VSSfc1*
J O ^ r- „_"*<> N OO O * J?
o
».
a: o 5^553^ E -
*
0
0
** o-
§ as
^ N * r(

trs*a;r
r
t
o
r
< c-l
f> ^ £ a; 0 ^ •* Q ^ "^ 0- 0000 0 0 OC ^
rt
** S t r^ o o m -o « SorS
"*
0 S -• ^
a or r--o •-( o- o- i^;
-e
CD
t
4 Jt -*• + 4- 4 4 1 4 + ii 4 •*- + + 4 I -t
^J

IB
Ooo
c
OQ OQ

1 b H » -« ^ o
Ji ^3 JO *** O
o^
yi 1C
Ow
O
o-o- S -
01
o u
K
Q "-a ^ "** 7
S
V o o — O O r< - o * a n ri *t
* * 5 S -».«(*, "

p « 1A "i -t
3
f tt -o000or--oc o o o oc Q 0 0

s °. -*";*- ^- " «
Q
e 4 + + +4- 1 1 -f
o^o
rf.
2 S3^
— —
w

t" I
+ -t-
-
1 -1-444
ik - Sj " O O O Q O — 'id o S o o o o oo O» r o CO Q 10 •-
t* CO *i
I 5? ^

ft
r
-i -t r* « < O ~
-^
M
10 «
«
O
e <«
^H
Q- -^
CO Wl <<i
I" ^ ^
"
>• 5 P vj * *
-**
— —
J '->'•' t
t / •^ ""*
^
a
c / 1- a. £• Ci
a.
-'7' i-
k. b

a.
/fe — t
a* ^ l__
«? xS / 1 :
J " ;
..................... i i. O 0 f K "* ?
o Jp T -- ¥
s * ........................ 5 "_^ i
U. LL
1 i1
e
;

?!
3§ / £ — txrf'-^-mJi i-« _ « ^ -tin J> r« *• o CL

a
§ -
5 £

/
u; g
s ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ = ^ 2 ^ 25s=Zz^S
c
s
U.O, o ^ t3 D
£

:&-

2P
l <
•
<
2
I CL CS
o I.
O
I,'
86 TANKER HANDBOOK
 *l K
L oWooooc 3 OOC O ^ ex W -t ~. m
»
t* 5 -* »
•J °°I||S|| ^ ^ rt
-O ft
te
£r\ -If -^- ^

* ».»< * *>£ -* <

Q*^^QO ^ E ^ ^ •X ^ rx
*
™S^Gt
& oO
-S O oV>* o l^!r "* (V. " .* ,_ ^
S LL. •*t Q
i* S -j -*
i o 2 tg 3 ej 8? o 100*0- Ul

9 -o » o
^ «* ***i 4
P 1 P P PPPP P %T- * :
-« 2 Vt '•*
^ 5 "* o » t^ ^ t S_; 0^5 - ^, "i o ; Q o o Q S Q C Q » >> r- "o »•':;
s ^ j -- ~ 3 ^« ™* r> 2 ^ J« -^ ^ *o
T ^" ^ » *- + i m 72 V i ? f
rt P
3 -j ^o ^ -* S ^ s 2 -* ^ a ^ •» 3 *
t * *•*
i P , b *A
wi »t wi <r

< o IS fe 3 &£ S^a ? Q

»rf B- *JJ ^ -* rJ - s*l ^a j o 5 S ^ Ill Q « -« N to f* ** *f ^
•^ - 2 H , « ~
•* * i t 4 +'-*-' .^
rv^a^M*** -*- rt
a ^ -S
*TS, m^J-*-
*1^^* ° o £2 s aS i*. . «
5* e Eg •^
P P [i
— tfi *JJ *4 ** •* ^
------------ * •*
—
^* ^H —-0 »<
^ T
c* ul P P p M IB xi 7 5S<f

< u ei ° ° ^•'^7-^0 s y J _* 1ft o o 5

-^ "^
i2 Q O 5
O Q * Q S 5^5 VJ
1
"i- t *• 1 *- * I I I I
K •
W <A *A -» W^ "
tft k^WKR-w11' ^4 ifi V <n Uk r*

F BBg
Q
^SS5*£3? BSS st s P 5
o
? K ooo^ESfc^o
H
a
eo g
Q Cl Q QQ e
Cl
» W
5 o ~ - <a h - * *
E! 0000*^0 s -^ ^H. *O ^*
i
^ "" T i V -5
u. o ^^* rt i-( M « O f- ooo o -a O tft o ----- u . ' -T -• O
, r* S^JHSi 1^ Ss
***
O h* T^ r*- iv ^ t/ r-- 3- Wl « r< So q JC f
fc ° X* r*
IT 0-

£<t •a *. rtrX^ ff> Fl -* W *

r o ^
5: I- *~ •5 £ 1^ ^ * ,
I / - s
i
OO o ** 3 3 : : - ; i - - 2 Z O0 C •( b
3 . r cu r -J 3
Sf t ^^i
1

CD
f
12
Is
/ /i E Q
£!££^^
J- Ul ^0 r^. »
mm*
M o ui -o r^ **
if)

*^ **
***
—
M
£Z s 6
U.£
£
Q
E
li a. n
5 S

/ 2

"n
«^-

r
I 1
^- 1/1 J •*.
-• Q.
1 3

3
M rt
o o
 U.L.C.C., V.L.C.C. AND COMBINED CARRIERS 87

S.B.T.s and No. 3 centre. The original S.B.T. has been converted to oil. While the original ballast
pump has been retained for use with No. 2 and 4 wings, each ballast tank has been equipped with a
hydraulically driven deepwell pump to speed up the discharge of ballast.
The storage vessel has lost about 26% of her carrying capacity but is able to discharge clean ballast
when loading crude from an offshore field and to take on clean ballast when discharging to other
tankers.

V.L.C.C. — Combined Carriers

There are two main types of combined carriers which have fundamental differences whicl) should
be clearly understood.

The Oil-Ore Carrier — This is an oil tanker which is equipped to carry ore in its centre cargo
compartments. Compared with a similar-sized conventional tanker, the main differences revolve
around the centre compartments, which are located over double bottom tanks, and have large, heavy
steel hatch covers. The centre compartments arc normally arranged so that the longitudinal plating
slopes inwards, providing a self-stowing factor when loading ore. The centre compartments arc
generally free from all structural members which would hinder loading or discharging ore.
If coils are required for heating the oil, these arc installed in the wings or under the holds and
welded on racks to the plating near the bottom. The centre compartments contain no piping, and are
loaded and pumped out by utilising wells let into the double bottoms and connected to the cargo
piping system through the wing tanks.
The wing tanks are arranged in the same manner as a conventional tanker and carry oil and ballast
as required. Coils and cargo piping are similar to those found in conventional tankers.

The Bulk-Oil Carrier — This type of vessel at first appears to be much the same as an Oil-Ore Carrier,
as the centre compartments are constructed along similar lines. The main difference is that the bulk
oil carrier docs not carry either oil or ore in its wing tanks, which are purely for ballast.
Looked at from a structural standpoint, the holds of the Bulk-Oil carrier are bigger and wider,
and the wing tanks are much narrower. Both ships have double bottoms which can be used for ballast
or fuel, and the cargo piping system is generally arranged so that cargo is loaded through pipes or
ducts which run fore and aft through the double bottoms.
In some vessels each hold or centre compartment has a separate loading line which enters the ducts
via the void spaces, thus allowing the pumproom to be kept gas-free. The ballast system is entirely
independent from the cargo system. Ballast can be loaded in the holds if this is necessary, but has to be
done by utilising the cargo system.
Comparison of Both Types of Combined Carrier — Size for size, the Oil-Ore and Bulk-Oil tankers
are reported to cost about 15 per cent, to 20 per cent, more than a conventional tanker. Ore is a much
heavier cargo than oil. It requires less stowage space and concentrates the weight directly below each
hold. It follows therefore, that much of the extra cost goes in making the vessel stronger, and in
providing the flexibility to handle ore as well as oil.
From an operational standpoint, most Oil-Ore carriers have no problems lifting a full cargo of
crude oil, but the wing tanks tend to be harder to clean than in an ordinary tanker of similar size.
Some Bulk-Oil carriers have difficulty loading to their marks when handling light crude, this is
particularly true on short voyages when bunkers, water and stores are kept to a minimum.
Tank cleaning is reduced and there should be no delays in port for ballasting and deballasting, as
with a segregated ballast system this can be done simultaneously.
Both types vary considerably with regard to the type and arrangement of cargo-pumping systems.
In some instances the cargo manifolds are cramped for space by the cargo hatches, and it becomes
difficult to connect an adequate number of loading arms or hoses.
Loading rates are more likely to be restricted in Bulk-Oil carriers than Oil-Ore carriers, as the
centre compartments are very large. Most arc restricted to loading 50 per cent, or less of their cargo
compartments at any one time because of stress and stability problems. If such a vessel takes a list, it
is very difficult to correct without stopping the loading operation.
When discharging, the Bulk-Oil carrier should have little or no stripping to do, and apart from
getting the oil out of the ducts there should be no delays in discharging crude. In some of the vessels
fitted with ducts, great care has to be taken when oil first enters a duct, or when switching tanks during
a loading operation. Air trapped in the duct can be compressed by the incoming liquid, and finally vent
itself taking some crude with it up the vent pipe with messy, if not disastrous consequences.
 TANKER HANDBOOK

Typical Oil/Ore Carrier showing the centre hatches and wing tanks.

The Economics of the Combined Carrier Ideally the combined carrier, whether it be Oil-Ore or
Bulk-Oil, should carry coal or ore one way, and oil the other, thus eliminating the ballast passage. A
minority of such vessels are fortunate to be fixed in such trades. More frequently a vessel engaged in
carrying solid as well as liquid cargo, will make a triangular or box voyage with a short ballast voyage
between longer-loaded passages.
For the main part, many of the larger ships may carry oil all their useful lives, in much the same
way as a conventional tanker, but the ability to switch is a useful hedge against low freight rates.

Cargo piping and manifold connections of a typical Bulk/Oil Carrier.

U.L.C.C., V.L.C.C. AND COMBINED CARRIERS 8
9
 Exxo Fife. Large Tanker which has been modified to act as offshore floating storage.

Double Skinned Crude/Product Tankers with enhanced Tank Cleaning Capability

Recently Burmeister & Wain, Skibavaerft A/S have produced a series of medium sized tankers
which are able to switch from carrying crude oil to clean products in 36-48 hours. Built primarily as a
product tanker, the vessel is discussed in more detail in Chapter 11. Designed to operate with a crew
of 13, it is provided with a high degree of automation and centralised control, particularly in the cargo
control room.
It meets, or exceeds, all MARPOL '73/78 — Annex 1, as well as SOLAS requirements with a
double skin as well as double bottoms under the cargo tanks. The cargo tanks, including bulkheads
and bottoms, are smooth. They are coated with Epoxy Phenolic with a 300 micron dry film thickness.
The smooth surfaces in all the tanks have no stringers on the internal tank bulkheads and the tank
bottoms arc free of longitudinal as well as internal transverse stiffening. This, coupled with a fixed in-
tank cleaning capability which can be used for C.O.W. as well as hot and cold water washing,
facilitates rapid turnaround when changing from black to clean oil. It can readily be seen that this type
of ship has much to recommend it when loading in restricted areas.
 CHAPTER 11 THE CARRIAGE OF

REFINED OILS

AFTER the crude oil carriers have delivered their cargo to a refinery, and the crude oil has been
processed, very often the bulk of it leaves by ship. Cargoes of marine fuel and diesel are shipped to
bunkering depots in ports all over the world. Gas oil, auto diesel, lamp and power kerosine together
with gasoline, aviation spirit, and various other refined products such as lubricants oils and bitumen,
find their way from refineries to thousands of large and small oil depots where rail and road transport
draw supplies for local consumers.
Some of these local terminals are not capable of taking a full cargo of any one grade, consequently
a vessel loading a single grade of refined oil for disposal at coastal depots, often proceeds to two or
three ports. This is not a very economic method of distributing the oil. Therefore, ships carrying
refined oil from a refinery to coastal depots generally carry two or more grades of oil. In this manner
they supply the needs of any one depot, and avoid intermediate passages in a half light condition.

Dirty and Clean Oils

Refined oil cargoes are divided into two types, dirty and clean. Gas oil being the dividing line
between the two types, in fact a vessel carrying a cargo of fuel and diesel often has a parcel of heavy
gas oil as well, while clean oil ships carry parcels of gas oil along with other light oils.

Segregation of Different Grades

When carrying grades, the key note is on segregation. The master and officers of the vessel have
an obligation, the vessel's owners, consignor and consignee, also the brokers who insure the cargo, to
see that the vessel is fit to carry such cargoes. Bulkheads must be sound, and all valves used for
separation must be tight. Should there be any risk which is beyond the power of the ship's company to
remedy, mixed parcels should not be loaded without consulting the parties concerned.
On ballast passages every effort should be made to test bulkheads and valves. Two valves between
grades is preferable though not always possible, and when there is only one valve between two grades
every effort should be made to see that it is tight. When a single valve is the only means of separation
between two lines containing two "different grades, and blanks cannot be brought into use, only one
grade at a time should be loaded or discharged. This is especially necessary in the case of parcels such
as kerosine and gasoline. The precaution does not apply when grades of oil are similar.
It is sound practice to arrange the ullage of adjoining tanks containing different oils (e.g. diesel
and fuel oil), so that the level of the diesel oil is slightly higher than the fuel, then should any small
leaks result in the bulkhead from heavy weather or other causes, the diesel oil will leak into the fuel.
Should the reverse occur, the diesel may be completely ruined. The same applies to clean oils, such as
kerosine and gasoline.
This type of precaution pays dividends over the course of years when carrying mixed grades, but
these every day precautions should never be used when bulkheads are known to be defective. It is
possible when leaks are not too big and are fairly high in the tank, to keep such grades as fuel and
diesel separate, with the loss of a comparatively small quantity of the diesel into the fuel. However,
should the vessel encounter heavy weather on the sea passage, and the bulkhead suffer further damage,
the resulting contamination would probably be disastrous.
When discharging in a tidal berth it is sometimes necessary in the space of a few hours to lighten
a vessel sufficiently for her to remain afloat at low water. It then becomes absolutely necessary to
discharge as fast as possible, and grades such as gasoline and kerosine may have to be discharged at
the same time with only one valve separation. When this type of thing happens, it is the practice to
keep the pressure on the kerosine line slightly higher than on the gasoline line. Kerosine into gasoline,
rather than the reverse.
It is advisable when vessels are equipped in the pumproom with only one crossover valve between
two such lines, to tap a small cock into the inspection door of the valve, providing it is large enough.
90
 THE CARRIAGE OF REFINED OILS 91

It is then possible by opening the cock, to note at once if the valve is leaking, also from which side
the leak is occurring.

Mixed Cargoes of Dirty Oil

Dirty refined products are sometimes carried in crude ships which load two or more grades of
crude oil as well as parcels of fuel and diesel.
In such cases the fuel may be loaded into cargo tanks which have previously contained crude, but
have been properly drained and have no heavy build up of sediment. The diesel on the other hand must
be loaded into tanks which have been properly cleaned of all crude, which normally means machine
washing.
Fuel Oils are produced by refineries to a variety of specifications, depending on the base crude used
and the customers' requirements.
Residual fuels tend to be heavy with an A.P.I, of 11-0 or less. The pour point can sometimes be
fairly high, and the cargo require heating. Based on the type of crude from which it is derived, as well
as the amount of sulphur extracted in refining. The sulphur content may vary from 1-4 per cent.
Marine bunker fuels are also fairly heavy, but can vary considerably in quality, both with respect to
A.P.I, or gravity, viscosity and sulphur content. Some of the lighter fuel oils are used in diesel engines
and the specifications are upgraded accordingly. Diesel oil is familiar to most of us. Again it can vary
in quality considerably, and some of the lighter and higher quality grades have colour specification
which require a high standard of tank cleaning and very little tolerance for add mixtures in pipelines.
Lighter than diesel, we have a range of products, such as Light Fuel Blending Stock (L.F.B.S.),
which is used to mix with heavier fuel oils.
For the main part, the dirty product tanker will carry parcels of various types of fuel, diesel and
blending stock. Occasionally other products, such as Feed Stock, Naphtha, Cut Back Asphalts and
other products have to be loaded. In most cases the tank cleaning and segregation requirements are
spelt out in detail in the vessel's loading orders.
For the purpose of this exercise, we are concerned with planning the layout and distribution of four
grades of dirty oil products in an old style single skinned tanker with no segregated ballast tanks.
The vessel chosen to illustrate this example is the obsolete but famous T2. This type of ship had three
main cargo pipelines and three cargo pumps as well as a single stripping line which serves all the cargo
tanks. Many vessels built later had similar pipelines and pumping systems. It is also true to say that
if we look at MARPOL requirements as listed under 13 F New Tankers. Product Tankers under 30
m.d.w.t., ordered after the middle of 1979 had to be fitted with I.G.S. The requirement for double hulls
and double bottoms applies to vessels ordered after July '93.

MARPOL 13 G — Existing Tankers, indicates that product tankers in this size range must comply
with 13 F not later than 25 years after delivery. It follows therefore, that some single hull product
tankers will be trading legally for several years beyond 2000.
In any case as far as parcel distribution in a given number of cargo tanks is concerned, double hulls
make little or no difference.
On completion of discharge, reload the following cargo:-
1,200 tons of Gas Oil. (Maximum). 2,200
tons of Diesel Oil. 1,200 tons of Light Fuel
Blending Stock. 4,500 tons of Medium Fuel
Oil. Balance B.F.O.
The vessel will also receive instructions telling her the destination or destinations, and the
quantities to be discharged at each port, together with the necessary orders concerning bunkers and
water, cargo heating and tank cleaning.
After the vessel has completed discharging and the tanks have been passed as dry, she will
commence tank cleaning and line washing. Normal practice limits the tank cleaning to the tanks which
will contain the gas oil and the diesel oil. It is generally considered safe to load fuel oil into empty
tanks, providing they are properly drained and all free oil has been removed. The fuel oil is loaded with
a higher flash point than necessary, and any small amounts of crude will be sunk or absorbed by the
large quantities of fuel. However, care should be taken where it is intended to put a small quantity of
fuel into a tank which has contained crude. In such a case, it is often wiser to wash the bottom of
the tank, thus making sure that the fuel will not be contaminated.
92 TANKER HANDBOOK
 The ship's lines will have to be washed out, this can be done by connecting up the deck service line
and pumping hot water through the system, or by flushing with sea water with the ship's pumps. All
slops are either pumped ashore direct, or gathered together in one tank which is eventually pumped
ashore by the ship's pumps. Special attention in this case will have to be given to the line on which it is
intended to load the gas oil and the diesel.
Mixed parcels are generally speaking more difficult to load than a single grade. Apart from the
question of segregation and the use of various lines concerned, there is always the question of trim.
Trim while the vessel loads and when she arrives at the discharging port. The placing of the cargo, the
loading and discharging order, are all affected by this consideration, and once the cargo is in the ship,
there is often no possibility of correcting trim by transferring cargo. Every consideration should
therefore be given to the placing of the cargo with this aspect in mind. If the facilities at the destination
are known, it helps a great deal, but one cannot always expect to have previous knowledge of the
discharging port and its facilities.
The next step is to ascertain the amount of cargo that the vessel will lift, where to place the various
parcels of oil, and the final draft and trim when the vessel has completed loading.
The effective deadweight for this particular vessel and cargo is 16,480 tons. For the voyage she will
require a total of 415 tons of bunkers, water and stores. This means that she should be able to lift a
cargo totalling 16,065 tons.
It is usual to place small parcels in the centre section of the ship, and the larger consignments at
the ends when loading T2's and similar vessels. However, whenever one of the grades concerned is

S.G. at Loading Ullage

Tank Grade 60" F. Temp. Bbls. Tons Total
1 P. Empty
1 S. Empty
2 P. Med. F.O. •9471 105° F. 4' 8" 436 •4
2 C. Med. F.O. •9471 105° F. 4' 6" 1314 •6
2 Med. F.O. -9471 105° F. 4' 8" 436 •4
s.
3 p. B.F.O. •984 120° F. 4' 11" 564 •8
3 B.F.O. •984 120° F. 4' 9" 1355 •9
3
c. B.F.O. •984 120° F. 5' 0" 563 •4
s.
4 p. B.F.O. •984 120° F. 4' 10" 586 •9
4 c. B.F.O. •984 120° F. 4' 9" 1355 •9
4 s. B.F.O. •984 120° F. 4' 10" 586 9
5 Empty
p.
5 c. Gas Oil •8343 53° F. 4' 0" 1198 •6 1198-6
5 s. Empty
6 p. Empty
6 c. L.F.B.S. •8571 60° F. 4' 6" 1212 •7 1212-7
6 s. Empty
7 p. Diesel •8473 55° F. 4' 6" 527' 9
7 Diesel •8473 55° F. 4' 6" 527' 0
c.
7 s. Diesel •8473 55° F. 4' 2" 1200' 6 2257-5
8 p. B.F.O. •984 120° F. 24' 6" 271' '8
8 B.F.O. •984 120° F. 5' 0" 1345' •8
8
c. B.F.O. •984 120° F. 24' 1" 278' '3 6909-6
s.
9 p. Med. F.O. •9471 105° F. 5' 5" 500 •2
9 c. Med. F.O. •9471 105° F. 4' 6" 1295 •1
9 s. Med. F.O. -9471 105° F. 5' 6" 498 •9 4481-6
TOTAL 16060-0
Bunker Fuel Oil 6909-6 tons
Diesel Oil Med. 2257-5 tons
F. Oil L.F.B.S. 4481-6 tons
Gas Oil 1212-7 tons
TOTAL 1198-6 tons
16060-0 tons
THE CARRIAGE OF REFINED OILS 9
3
sufficiently large that loading all of it in one end of the vessel will lead to the vessel being down by
the head or stern, it is sometimes necessary to split the larger parcels up, and so long as no
contamination is likely, it is often advantageous to do so.

Adjusting quantities to suit tank capacities

Unless otherwise stated, normal tanker practice allows the quantities a vessel is ordered to load,
to be adjusted by 10 per cent. Satisfactory segregation can then be achieved and the vessel is enabled
to lift a full cargo. In this instance, the gas oil parcel is the only one where a maximum-is stipulated, so
it can be assumed that all the others may be adjusted within the recognised limit.
To place each grade it is necessary to turn the tonnage of each parcel into volume at the loading
temperature and enter the calibration tables, filling each of the tanks it is intended to load and
adjusting the ullages where necessary to meet the requirements of the particular grade.
The cargo plan shown for this particular cargo is one of several alternatives. Both grades of fuel
arc split, and a portion of each loaded at either end of the vessel, while the smaller parcels are lodged
amidships. Nos. 5 and 6 wings are kept empty, and together with No, 1 wings which are also empty,
and No. 8 wings which arc slack, this constitutes a safeguard against hogging or sagging which
sometimes results from uneven distribution of cargo over the ship's length.
In addition to this, No. 1 wings and No. 8 wings may prove useful should it become necessary to
transfer cargo, e.g. at the end of the voyage, the vessel may be down by the head, and trim could be
adjusted by transferring cargo from No. 3 wings to No. 8 wings. If on the other hand the vessel was
too far by the stern, cargo could be transferred from No. 9 wings to No. 1 wings. These transfer
operations could be done without affecting the segregation of any of the grades concerned. Sec
Diagram 4, Chapter 3.
PORT CENTRE STARBOAR
D
1. EMPTY EMPTY

Med. F. Oil Med. F. Oil Med. F. Oil

2.
436-4 tons 1314-6 tons 436-4 tons

B.F.O. B.F.O. 1355- B.F.O. 563-

3.
564-8 tons
9 tons 4 tons

B.F.O. B.F.O. B.F.O. 586-

4.
586-9 tons 1355-8 tons
9 tons
G.O. 1198-6
5. EMPTY EMPTY
tons

L.F.B.S.
6. EMPTY EMPTY
1212-7 tons

D.O. 529-0 D.O. 1200-6 D.O.

7.
527-9 tons
tons tons
B.F.O. B.F.O. B.F.O.
8.
271-8 tons 1345-8 tons 278-3 tons

Med. F. Oil Med. F. Oil Med. F. Oil

9.
500-2 tons 1295 1 tons 498-9 tons
B.F.O. S.G. at Viscosity Loadin
Medium F. Oil 60° F. at 100° F. g
D.O. L.F.B.S. Redwoods Temp.
G.O. Loadin
•984 3400 sec. g
-9471 167 sec.
•8473 37 sec. 120° F.
•8571 39 sec. 105° F.
•8343 35 sec. 55° F.
60° F.
53° F.
94 TANKER HANDBOOK

Segregation while Loading

Unless there are unusual circumstances connected with the loading of a particular grade of oil,
the decision concerning the order and number of grades which should be loaded together is left to the
discretion of the Master. The probable method in this case would be gas oil on the centre line via
the direct drop line, into No. 5 centre. At the same time, the medium fuel oil can be loaded into No. 2
across and No. 9 across via the starboard and port lines respectively. The crossover valves between
the various lines should be shut at the manifold in the pumproom and between the suction lines at
Nos. 5 and 7 respectively. In addition, the master valves between Nos. 7 and 8 should be shut so that
the section of the port line serving No. 7 will be isolated.
The Gas Oil, as it is a small parcel will finish long before the Medium Fuel Oil, and the line should
be cleared with compressed air into No. 5 centre. When the suction valve has been finally closed on
No. 5 centre, the crossover valves between the centre and port line should be opened, and the diesel oil
can then be loaded via the same hose and connection into No. 7 across. When the Medium Fuel Oil
is completed, the ship's lines should be blown clear with inert gas into Nos. 2 and 9 centres
respectively, and the B.F.O. should be started in to Nos. 3, 4 and 8 across via the port and starboard
lines.
After the diesel parcel has been completed, the centre line is again cleared with inert gas, and the
L.F.B.S. is then loaded through the centre into No. 6 centre.
The last grade to finish should be the B.F.O. as the ullage in Nos. 2 and 8 wings can be
adjusted if necessary to meet any requirements of quantity and trim. The B.F.O. must be kept at
an average temperature of 120° F. and it is advisable to turn the heat on the cargo as soon as the coils in
the tanks are covered, so as to counteract the cooling effect of the sea water through the ship's sides and
bottom.

Segregation while Discharging

As when loading, the centre line should be reserved for the Gas Oil, Diesel Oil, and the L.F.B.S.,
while the port and starboard lines are used for the discharge of the Medium Fuel Oil and the Bunker
Oil.
The order of discharge will probably depend on the quantities to be discharged at each port if there
is more than one port to be considered, also the available facilities. However, whenever possible the
Gas Oil should be discharged first, as this grade is the one which should receive prior consideration.
After the Gas Oil, the Diesel Oil should be discharged, and then the L.F.B.S. Light Fuel Blending
Stock is as the name implies, an agent for improving the viscosity of the Fuel Oil, and though it is
generally shipped in a condition which justifies using the same line as the Diesel and Gas Oil, it has no
colour specification, and can if necessary be discharged up a line which has been used for fuel.
When discharging the Medium Fuel Oil and the Bunker Fuel Oil, care should be taken that the
lines arc properly cleared with inert gas when changing grades, and when it is not possible to do this
the lines should be drained as far as possible, as the B.F.O. is heavier than the Medium Fuel Oil and
its viscosity is 3,300 sees, at 100° F. compared to the viscosity of 165 sees, of the Medium Fuel Oil at
the same temperature. Small quantities of one grade when mixed properly with a large quantity of the
other, arc unlikely to have much effect, but every effort should be made to preserve the original
specifications of both grades.

Purpose built Product Tankers

The purpose built product carrier Esso Severn was built for distributing dirty products around
the U.K. In many ways she was ahead of her time in spite of the fact she did not have a double hull or
double bottoms under her cargo tanks. She was of a suitable size to visit most U.K. ports and
terminals required by her owners. Her main features were:—
1. The incorporation of a segregated ballast system to reduce the amount of salt water which
has to be put into the cargo tanks. This, combined with direct loading lines for ballasting over
the top into one large centre cargo tank, helps to reduce the amount of water that actually goes
into the cargo tanks and pipelines.
2. The use of coatings in the cargo tanks reduces the amount of tank cleaning, and virtually
eliminates hot machine washing.
THE CARRIAGE OF REFINED OILS 9
5
 3. Each of the four cargo pumps is fitted with a Vac Strip draining system and a 6-in. suctions
for stripping off each of the main 14-in. suction lines. All main 10-in. and 6-in. stripping valves
are hydraulically operated from the deck. Each individual centre tank and pair of wings has
its own 14-in. suction line controlled by remotely-operated valves located in the pumproom.
Up to four grades can be loaded and discharged simultaneously, and ballast can be handled
concurrently with cargo.
4. The coil system is highly efficient, consisting of Aluminium Brass pipes and providing heating
rates of 80 ft.3 to 190 ft. 3 in the smallest to the largest tanks.
The Esso Severn was built in 1974, and has a Summer d.w.t. of 20,413 tonnes. The principal
dimensions and characteristics, together with details of the tank layout and piping system, are listed
on pages 96 and 97.

Loading Parcels of Clean Oil

The Esso Mersey, built in 1971, is the same type and size of ship as the Esso Severn, but has no
heating coils, as she is engaged in the clean trade.
Examination of her specifications, including pipeline system and cargo tank layout, shows that
both vessels are very similar, though the Esso Mersey is fitted with a line-draining system to permit
individual pipelines to be cleared when changing grades, both when loading and discharging. The other
major difference is that the Esso Mersey has no heating coils fitted.
The Esso Mersey like the Esso Severn is a purpose built tanker. In 1989 both were still in service
though no longer in the first flush of youth. Both comply with MARPOL and SOLAS regulations for
product tankers of this age and size. Both ships, which generally load at Fawlcy on deep water berths,
often discharge at terminals which arc up tidal rivers and have draft restrictions of 30 feet or less.
The ship's tanks, pumps and pipeline system arc sized to meet a particular requirement and provide
fast turnaround. Such a purpose-built ship does not have the flexibility of the multigrade speciality
carrier, which may provide separate tanks, pipes and pumps for up to 20 grades.

Esso Mersey. Clean Oil Tanker which was purpose built for U.K. cousin! deliveries.
96 TANKER HANDBOOK
BUILT
1-374 VESSEL G&so . LETTHR^.C.UHC,
5 G1JAl
SEVERN
LE.NSTH O.A ifafa-so^ SUMMES DWT 20413 to^-4 EQUIVALENT pPArr __g:gi7 ^____ FREEBOARD 272 L
BEAM ^- &5fe m___ WINTEE DWT .____is &QQ ionnc... EQUIVALENT DRAFT _9_oiS-m__ FREEBOARD____2-^'5
GROSS TowS !"£ -3J6*.tonnes MotiMAL BALLAST * SEE UMOEE EguiVALENT DRAF T F ?^ ft. T.P. 3ot/C

NETT TONS ____fe &B3 torvita /L DESIGNED FOR COMCURREINT CASGO/BALLAGTOPEEAriON . _^I^_

G INSTALLATION
No MANUFACTURER K.P.
TYPE MANUFACTURERS KATlNG OMTtST DRIVE
CAPACITY LllJUiD HEAD SPEED
&i O^? «tTRlC
c
vErc-Vfi'i<it-1"
* * , * * 1 2 - 1 7 v'tenic^u 25BO 142 m 750
4 B

CARGO t^^hi.

TQ I P ^^^ HORlZOMTAL *J
BALLAST VJITM AOLIM^
i WS ,« HORlZDMTAi. 7 0 ,t,r Z5m •„«, .KT.C US
- VESbEL FITTED WITH VAC.STfelP 5Y5TEM
STRIPPING
 CAPACITY OF SEGREGATED BALLAST SYSTEM 454-0-7 mr. nf*
FORE PC&iK FOO.6. &G.EI3 iWlNC.& A.FTEC^E^-K
I SO-S CARGO TAMU. CAPACITY TABLE AT
WQRklHG ULLAOE IH
P C S
T7* 'C,7 147 fo Ife 77i 01
204V M Z^al-GO 2040 fe&
B/T Zl^-SB B/T
HOSE HANDLING CAPABILITY
2 * 5 TOrJ DEHOiCK?.. <.?.?>i Z7 yi°f5- 17
4100 •3SI 84 94-4-0^ 94-5 -57
2. 1 OO a
ESSO SEVERN
 DEEP

14'
TANK AND BOTTOM LINE LAYOUT
rfov Z5
THE CARRIAGE OF REFINED OILS 9
7
ESSO SEVERN
MANIFOLD PUMPROOM Juw -7?

PLAN LAYOUT
-SEA SUCTKJH
ESSO SEVERN
 Ncl
281 00
fiOMKESS BUNXEW BILGES 4 MANIFOLD TO

55" V <f_MANIFOLD t KE£L___________ 43 09"

MANIFOLD
60"
SLOP TANK
78"
" <t MANIFCLOD LQADWATEB UNE. 13 -06"
POST AS VIEWED FROM 5HOBC ^MANIFOLD 16 U6HT WATER LIME faALLAST) 30

Ho ft Ho2 ;_03_
•-----N

8" DISTANCE SH<p»siOEib pBtuAHYumiFtajfUMSE

<
UlUS BUMKiBS

?" PJ4 - 0^
DlSTANCK SMlf-SSOCTo PKIMARYMANIFOLD
78 60" • 60
RAW£SJ^l04

jit
CLEARANCE BEHIND PBIhURY FLANftE R_____________9"
40" J._*>°_
55" CLEARANCE BEHIND PwufcRY FLANGtS__________9
64
5» FLANCI SPECIFICATION
SLOP TANK 55
4T**»OAflD AS VltWmi> FROM ftHOM __________________________________
MAlHDlCK 150 k S.A_
CARGO LINES_________ (2 >B
BALLAST LINE_______
BUNKER LINE________ 8"
FRRSH WATER UNE____
Fiat LINE CONMECTIQM . 1 NT E8 NATIONAL

MANIFOLD DATA
ELEVATION
98 TANKER HANDBOOK
 On this occasion the Esso Mersey received orders to load seven grades, totalling about 19,000
tonnes, with a maximum draft of 9-217 m. (30 ft. 3 in.) in salt water.
The quantities specified were as follows:-
Regular Gasoline 1,450 tonnes plus or minus 10%
Plus 3,250 tonnes plus or minus 10%
Extra 1,250 tonnes plus or minus 10%
Kerosine 1,250 tonnes plus or minus 10%
Turbo Jet Fuel 2,700 tonnes plus or minus 10%
Low Sulphur Gas Oil 4,100 tonnes plus or minus 10%
High Sulphur Gas Oil 4,900 tonnes plus or minus 10%
Total Cargo 18,900
 Examining the cargo tank sizes and pipeline layout indicated that the ship could handle the cargo
quantities and grades with very little change in the original quantities.
The cargo plan shows the deadweight and layout used, together with the quantities loaded.
Examination of the tank and bottom pipeline layout, together with the pumproom layout, will give a
better appreciation of how two-valve segregation is achieved between grades.
With only four deck pipelines and manifold connections, each line has to be drained when changing
grades, both when loading or discharging.
The Esso Mersey and her sister ship the Esso Severn arc purpose-built for the U.K. coastal trade
and sized to trade up river estuaries with large tidal ranges. Designed to carry and load or discharge

ESSO MERSEY
Ullages (Cm.) and Temps. (C) M3 Including Line Contents

Port Centre Starboard Port Centre Starboard

1 1180 11 1050 11 1175 11 800-274 1512-413 801-408 I

2 1120 10 2235 12 1090 10 2117-210 2755-013 2120-183 2
3 1095 12 2288-560 3
4 1135 12 1085 10 1160 12 2427-428 3424-772 2421-103 4
5 1090 10 1060 (2 1085 10 991-876 991-375 991-171 5

Grade Density Temp Gross M1 Factor Nett M-1 Kg/ Li Tonnes Tank Nos.
.
R. Gas -7273 10 "1983-047 1-00575 1994-449 7262 1448-369 5 Wings
Plus -7366 10 4237-393 1.-0056 4261-122 7355 3134-055 2 Wings
Extra •7557 11 1512-413 1 -0042 1518-765 7546 1146-060 1 Centre
Blue •7774 11 1601-682 1-00392 1607-960 7763 1248-259 I Wings
ATF -7940 10 3424-772 1 -00462 3440-594 7929 2728-047 4 Centre
LSGO -8354 12 5043-573 1-0025 5056-181 8343 4218-372 2 & 3 Centre
HSGO -8396 12 5839-906 1-0025 5854-505 8385 4909-003 4 Wgs. 5 Ore

Cargo 18833
Fuel 350
KW. 120
Stores 60
Ballast 100
DWT. 19463
Allowed 19897
Diff. 434

F. 28 9
A. 29 9
M. 29 3
 THE CARRIAGE OF REFINED OILS 99

several grades at once, they can pump out in 24 hours or less. Working tides this important can be
crucial as failure to catch a tide means a 12-hour delay.
It is sometimes necessary to load several different grades in succession through the same line. When
this happens it may be necessary to wash the line through with water to avoid contamination, but all
such washing should as far as possible be kept to a minimum as the water itself constitutes a hazard to
some grades. There is also a certain amount of risk attached to the mixing of oil and water in pipelines
from static electricity.
It should be mentioned that contamination has occurred as a result of adjoining tanks containing
different grades having a common ventilation system. In this particular case, the ventilation system on
Nos. 4, 5, and 6 tanks are common. It is therefore necessary to shut the individual valve leading to
each tank before commencing to load, for should the level in one tank accidentally exceed the required
ullage and reach the ventilation pipe or gas line, there is nothing to stop it travelling along the line
and into the adjoining compartments or tanks. Apart from accidents, as the liquid enters the tank it
displaces a mixture of air and its own gas or vapour which in turn could find its way via the ventilation
system to the adjoining tanks, this in itself may be sufficient to send some types of oil off grade.
While the Esso Severn and the Esso Mersey are now obsolete and have to be replaced by double
hulled tankers. They were examples of an important stage in the development of the purpose built
product tanker which served local needs.
New product tankers over 5,000 d.w.t. are required to have double hulls after July '93. Or if under
5,000d.w.t. they are required to have double bottoms or spaces between the cargo tank bottom and
the shell plating which will be equal to B/15 (m) or have a minimum value of 0-76m.

Speciality Modern Clean Oil Tankers

Speciality clean oil-product tankers are not numerous, but tend to provide an essential service in
a restricted market. In nearly all cases such vessels fitted with double bottoms under the cargo tanks to
carry fuel, fresh water and/or ballast.
The cargo tanks tend to be smaller and more numerous for a given ship size. All tanks and pipelines
are coated, frequently the coatings vary according to the requirements of the products to be carried.
With as many as 30 products or grades, the emphasis is on segregation. Pipelines arc smaller and more
numerous and the same applies to pumps, many of which will be immersed in the actual tanks.

Cleaning Charts

Most major Oil Companies provide owned and chartered ships with cleaning charts, which indicate
the amount of cleaning a tank must undergo after one grade and before loading another. In cases
where the charts do not indicate the necessary action, special instructions are issued.

B. & W.'s Range of Product Tankers

At the end of Chapter 10 the author mentioned the Danish built CPT54E which was designed to
carry crude oil and when necessary switch to clean products with only 36-48 hrs. tank cleaning. Since
this ship was first mentioned in the 7th edition of this book, the shipyard concerned is building vessels
of this type which are considerably larger and according to the shipyard can carry up to 14 grades.

Ballast Arrangements

Examination of the CPT54E General Arrangement Plan at the back of the book, shows six pairs
of cargo tanks located over an equal number of double bottom water ballast tanks. This makes it
possible to segregate ballast from the cargo tanks. Usually it would be unnecessary to put water in the
cargo tanks unless the tanks are being washed with salt or fresh water.
If heavy weather is experienced extra ballast can be loaded into No. 4 Port and Starboard cargo
tanks. This prevents the vessel becoming too stiff. Provision has been made for the discharge pf clean
ballast from No. 4 with the cargo pumps installed in the actual tanks and using the slop lines
provided.
100 TANKER HANDBOOK
ftuilT
VESSE
L
 EQUIVALENT OBAFT 3'il/lii

LENGTH O.A \U> - 5"c>o, SLJMUEE DWT. Sa.gio W«. FREEBOARD

BEAM DWT.

EQUIVALENT DRAFT 3 • 015 •

__ft.f> , P *VJ m-____________________ V* [ r- I C.K. u " L . i~i, t3.-| J 'VT>n*j [LyLiiVrtk_C.m I UHt>M- I
i - ^^kf in__________________________ FREE&OARD *° ^ *

GROSS TONS_____llti^ • .X8 VjwKi. MQCMAL BALLAST 5,66d V^n.i EQUIVALENT DRAFT F. i llm. B,fr6t». T P
, . _ H W

METT
iKRENT CARGO/BALLASTOPERATlON
LIMH rJR.'vl^Jl^^C, ^V^T£*^1 )

PUMPING IM STALL. ATIOM

-.p.
MANUFACTURERS RATING ON TEST
No MANUFACTURER TYPE REFERENCE DRIVE
CAPACITY LlCUID HEAD SPEED
^ ^ El K t^«*i Mm«u 750 -Vk, ^.t. 0-71 .7«,p. 150
CABGO 11"- 11" MtKTlUl. lit m Tvit> ^PttO
ELLLT4IL
TWt) 5TfiC.f
1 VJeipc M«11WL 11'. 1?" VERTHBL •750^/W W. \-OlS JS» nto^ Et«mlt
II.
tMHtOWL
BALLAST

- \Jt«U flTTED VJ(TH

STRIPPING ffit-TTfilC SVUtM
 CAPACITY OF SEGREGATED BALLAST
SYSTEM ™» /I DO 7.

f&lltPEflK. KXLtOtEP ^MllN&S CARGO TANK . CAPACITV TABLE AT

WORKING ULLAGE I ' OI . INFVJ .^^^
P C S

fcOi'W Iftftl- ST 80S- 11

1611 •!£( •«i69' it lt)(«-0tj
HOSE HANDLING CAPABILITY
11,10-OT
aiw- 'Uij
- 5isu - n luw-ia
qai- \t. Ql4-«l $*\ -01
 F.SSQ

2 1
4\ iy
\ ' ' ! \
THE CARRIAGE OF REFINED OILS 10
1
ESSO MEC5EY
 PO « T

STARBOARD

M ANIFOLO PLAN
Esso MERSEY
PORT A3 VrtWCDTBOM SHOBt

<t MANIFOLD 10 BPW .

66-
15•4 M
^ MANIFOLD TO KEEL
4•2M
^_MANIFOLOTCI LOAD WATER LINE ,

DISTANCE SHIPSSIDE TO PRIMARY

MAMiFOLpFLANGEP.A_ DISTANCE SHIP'S SIDE
i, bO 5fc" 60 TO pBiMAirrMANiniLi) FLANGE S.4_^
CLEARANCE BEHIND PRIMARY FUNSE P.
__ 22&M
BUHkEES
aEARANCE BEHIND PHIMARY
150 A,s,A.
FLANGE S. FLANGE.
12"
SPECIFICATION . ____ __
49" 52 __
SLOP CARGO
LIMES __
STARBOARD AS VIEWED FROM SHORE
T'i, MK. BALLAST
LJNE. _
___ ,.
BUNKER
LINE ___ .
FRESH
WATER LINE
FIRE UNE CONNECTION .
IMTERNATIONAL

DATA
MANIFOLD ELEVATION
102 TANKER HANDBOOK
 Mobil Marketer — This is a large multi-grade tanker capable of carrying special products and switching
to crude or dirty oil with-a minimum of tank cleaning. Fitted with double bottoms for bunkers, ballast
and fresh water, the vessel also has several small coated tanks that can be used for solvents, etc,

The ballast from the cargo tanks is discharged on the port side to sea via an oil in water monitor
and high or low level sea suction, (See Appendices 7, 8 and 9 at the back of the book).
The ballast from the double bottom ballast tanks is segregated from the ballast carried in No. 4
and is discharged with the aid of two ballast pumps through connections on the starboard side. This
pumping system is also connected to the forepeak ballast tank.
The segregated ballast can be discharged at the same time as ballast from No. 4. It can also be
discharged at the same time as cargo is loaded.

Cargo Handling Equipment

Appendix No, 9 shows the vessels cargo pumping system. As each cargo tank has a deepwell pump
fitted, the only limitation on the number of grades is the limitation of six manifolds. Subject to
adequate coatings, up to six non-compatible grades with separate delivery lines to each manifold can
be carried.
In certain circumstances the two slop tanks can be used to carry an additional grade. With the
exception of the two slop tanks, no heating coils are fitted in the cargo tanks. When cargo needs to be
heated each cargo pump circulates the oil through a heat exchanger returning it to the same tank
through a drop line in the forward end of each tank.
 THE CARRIAGE OF REFINED OILS 103

The cargo handling system can be controlled remotely from the control room. Liquid levels in
the cargo tanks are monitored by radar type equipment with high level alarms. The segregated ballast
tanks, including the fore peak, are also controlled by remotely operated hydraulic valves, and liquid
levels are monitored remotely by an electronic system with the usual high and low level alarms.

Tank Cleaning Equipment

Appendix No. 9 includes a diagram showing the tank cleaning capability. This includes two fixed
machines in each cargo tank capable of being used for C.O.W. when crude is carried. When clean
products are carried, the same equipment can be used for hot or cold water washing using the tank
cleaning pump and heater in the pumproom. The slop tanks are fitted with coils and the usual piping
to allow water to be decanted from under the oil. When carrying crude the submerged pumps in each
slop tank can be used for C.O.W. or to pump slops ashore, or clean water overboard.

Venting System

The vessel is fitted with the conventional high velocity venting system, including P.V. valves. The
cargo tanks are inertcd, using gas from the main and auxiliary engines as a cleaner alternative to the
conventional flu boiler gas.

Carrying Chemicals

From a structural standpoint the CPT54E meets the I.M.O. Code for Class 2 chemical tankers
and can therefore carry all but the most hazardous chemicals. This is of course subject to the
individual tanks having suitable coatings and in some cases the normal ships' I.G.S. would have to be
supplemented by, or replaced by, a liquid nitrogen I.G.S. system.
 CHAPTER 12 SPECIAL CARGOES Lubricating Oil

Trade

The lubricating oil trade is a specialised trade, and vessels constantly engaged on this trade are
either adapted for the purpose or specially built with numerous pumps and lines. Owing to the fact
that all lubricating oils are extremely expensive, little wastage from slopping or contamination can be
allowed, and the emphasis on this type of cargo can be said to lie equally with tank preparation and
segregation.

Preparation of Tanks for Lubricating Oil

Water emulsifies lubricating oil, and consequently all tanks, lines, pumps, etc., must be completely
dry before this cargo is loaded. This in itself presents quite a problem, as naturally the tanks have to
be prepared while the vessel is in ballast.
Modern vessels which are purpose built for this trade should be equipped as follows:—
1. All cargo tanks should be coated specifically with a coating which is compatible with the grade
or grades to be carried.
2. All cargo tanks should be fitted with individual deepwell pumps to avoid contamination from
common suction lines and pumps and to reduce slopping.
3. All ballast tanks should be segregated, with no connection with the cargo tanks. The ballast
tanks should be coated with coal tar epoxy or similar coatings.
4. Those grades of lubricating oil requiring heat should be fitted with heat exchanger type heating
which requires the cargo pump to circulate the oil through a heat exchanger. If coils are fitted,
oil should be circulated in preference to steam or hot water.
5. The vessel should be fitted with sufficient discharge lines and manifolds to allow non
compatible grades to be segregated. Each cargo pump, suction and discharge line should be so
fitted that between grades the pump and pumplines can be drained and purged of any oil
residue from the proceeding grade.
6. The size of tanks, as well as the number, will depend on the size of the ships and the number
of grades to be carried. Lubricating oil tankers are normally designed for specific trades.
It should be appreciated that the above six points apply to modern tankers designed specifically
for this purpose. It has to be understood that lubricating oil is carried in many other types of tankers.
Parcels of different lubricating oils are frequently carried by chemical tankers, as well as other
vessels not built specifically for this trade. In all such cases the tanks have to be properly cleaned and
dried out. This also applies to pumps as well as suction and discharge pipelines.

Loading Overall

Multi-grade lubricating oil tankers frequently load overall where port authorities permit. This
prevents contamination between grades and allows the vessel to keep the manifold and pipelines clear
and ready for the discharge. Where loading overall is not permitted, the lines have to be cleared by
blowing them as clear as possible. This may involve blowing air and pipeline residues into a slop tank,
or a tank containing the same grade but which is nearly full. The latter is frequently unsatisfactory
in terms of clearing pipelines of the grade just loaded.
Loading overall is undertaken with 3" and 4" hoses which arc inserted into the tanks through open
tank lids, though sometimes covers used as access for portable tank cleaning machines and hoses arc
also used. It is absolutely necessary to avoid water entering tanks when it is raining, or when firehoses
are leaking, etc.
104
SPECIAL CARGOES 10
5
Preparing for Multi-Parcels of Lubricating Oils

As mentioned previously, lubricating oils are expensive and subject to contamination fairly easily.
Therefore high standards arc required in tank cleaning, as well as drying out tanks, pumps and
pipelines.
Lubricating oils are grouped by Gravity, Colour, Viscosity and Heating requirements if any. There
are four main groups.
1. Pale Oils.
2. Bright stocks.
3. Red Oils.
4. Dark Oils.
Today a single major International Oil Company may handle up to 80 grades of lubricating oil.
Many of these oils have similar specifications and special instructions are issued to cover tank
cleaning, including pumps and pipelines. After machine washing, the tanks and cargo system may
require washing with fresh water and drying out with a dehumidificr. In addition, specification charts
are issued listing grades which are compatible and can be discharged using the same discharge lines,
as well as heating requirements.
Different lubricating oil base stocks are frequently transported in bulk and are blended to meet
the requirements of customers in a particular country or area.
The I.M.O. under their requirements as listed in MARPOL 13 F require all new tankers over
5,000 d.w.t. to have double hulls and double bottoms. The Esso Avon is a lot smaller than 5,000 d.w.t.
and would require double bottoms under 13 F (7) (a) and fb). The height of such double bottom tanks
should be B/15(m) and have a minimum value 0-76m.

Molasses Trade

In the last 15 years the transportation of Molasses by sea has shrunk to insignificant proportions.
This extract of sugarbeet, or sugarcane, is extremely heavy, approximately twice as heavy as water. It

Esso Avon Coastal Lubricating Oil Tanker.

106 TANKER HANDBOOK

requires heat when loading and discharging, as well as at sea. Tank cleaning after a cargo of molasses
is fairly simple as salt water removes all traces of molasses. Cleaning tanks after dirty oil products is
a much longer and harder job as dirty products contaminate molasses.
Small parcels are carried in speciality, or chemical tankers, but full ship loads of 12-16,000 tons
in specially designed tankers are now virtually unknown.

Whale Oil Trade

Under recent international agreements the hunting of whales has been restricted, so that very few
nations continue to permit the whale to be hunted. Other sea-going mammals arc also in danger of
extinction and similar limitations arc imposed.
Factory ships, used to process the slaughtered whales, normally sailed for the Antarctic with their
tanks full of fuel-oil for the use of the little whale catchers and for their own consumption. As the fuel
was used and tanks became empty, they were cleaned, ready for whale oil.
Cleaning generally involved machine washing with hot salt water and chemicals, followed by
mopping up and wiping by hand so that all scale and water was removed. Each cargo tank was served
by two separate piping systems, one for fuel and the other for whale oil.

Bitumen

Bitumen can be described as a black to dark brown substance which can by turn be solid, semi-
solid or viscous, according to temperature. It is derived from certain types of crude oil, and is generally
classified according to its penetration number.
The penetration number of a particular grade of bitumen is a measure of its consistency and is
determined by laboratory tests.
Bitumen is used in the manufacture of asphalt and in several other similar products. It is
transported in bulk by sea, and on land by special rail cars which are equipped to handle it, but in
some cases it is blocked and shipped as a solid.
Bitumen ships arc specially built to handle this product at high temperatures. Not only are the
ships equipped with double bottoms and wing tanks to isolate the bitumen tanks from the shell, but
the heating coils are rather more elaborate than in the normal ship. In addition to the coils covering
the bottom of the tanks, additional mattresses or layers of coils are provided at different levels in the
tanks. Piping and pumps in the pumproom as well as on deck are provided with lagging, and the deck
lines are often provided with a stream trace in addition to this. Most grades of bitumen are handled
at temperatures that exceed 250° F. and below this temperature they become hard to handle.
This type of vessel is generally equipped with two pumping systems which are entirely segregated
from each other. The bitumen cargo tanks are served by one system which is used for nothing else
while the vessel is in the bitumen trade. The wing tanks and double bottoms are served by the other
system which handles the ballast while the vessel is in this trade, but can also be used for handling
cargo should the vessel be required to carry cargo other than bitumen. Due to the fact that bitumen is
a fairly heavy cargo, the centre tanks provide sufficient cubic capacity to give the vessel a full cargo
and bring her to her marks but when other grades of oil are loaded some of the wing tanks will
probably be used, according to the specific gravity of the oil to be loaded.

Tank Cleaning for Bitumen

Bitumen is n on-crystalline in character and providing the temperature is sufficiently high will pump
readily enough, though the tank walls and bottom together with any other cooling surfaces may be left
with a solid film or layer of bitumen which will vary in thickness according to the temperature. If
the vessel is engaged permanently in the bitumen trade this residue will not matter, provided that
suctions, strums and essential valves are not clogged or jammed by this bitumen residue. If the tanks
have been used for other types of cargo such as fuel oil, etc., they should be properly cleaned before
loading them with bitumen, as a very small percentage of fuel oil will adversely effect bitumen.
When the tanks have been cleaned and are clear of all traces of oil, all pools of oily water should
be mopped up and the pumping system cleared of water. When the tanks are reasonably dry, the steam
should be turned on the heating coils while the tank lids are still open. This has the effect of drying
out the metal surfaces of the tank and its atmospheric contents. After one hour the tank's lids should
 SPECIAL CARGOES 107

be lowered and secured and the temperature of the tank brought up as far as possible. Due to the fact
that bitumen is loaded at high temperatures the tanks must be completely free from water, as even
small pools of water cause the bitumen to froth.
When a bitumen ship docks ready to load, her ballast is pumped ashore or overboard from the
wing tanks, and even though the cargo tanks may be clean and in every respect ready for cargo, no
attempt should be made to load bitumen until the ballast in the adjoining tanks is completely
discharged. The reason for this is that the ballast will counteract the effect of the coils and act as a
cooling agent.

Loading Bitumen

Bitumen ships are provided with loading lines which are lagged, and in some cases fitted with a
steam trace or line to ensure that bitumen does not solidify when passing through it. The ship's lines
are connected to the shore lines by specially lagged hoses capable of standing the temperatures at
which the bitumen is loaded. When everything is ready to load, the shore line together with the ship's
line arc blown through with compressed air. The reason for this is to test that the line is clear and
not blocked by solidified bitumen from some previous operation. In addition, should either the ship's
or the shore's pumping system contain water, it will be blown into the ship's tanks where it will be
observed from the deck, loading operations can then be held up -till the tank is dry and any defects
remedied. If the air reaches the tank without displacing anything, loading operations can be
commenced as the line can be assumed to be clear. After the cargo has been loaded, both the ship's
and shore lines are cleared with air. This can be a long drawn out operation if a long length of shore
line is involved.

Heating Bulk Bitumen Cargoes

On short passages bitumen ships endeavour to keep the temperature of the cargo as high as
possible, so that full advantage can be obtained from the high temperature of the cargo when the vessel
discharges. On long ocean hauls, this procedure however would be a very costly one, and the object
then is to combine economy in heating with a nicely judged reduction in the temperature of the cargo.
The cargo must not be allowed to cool sufficiently that the vessel will be unable to bring the
temperature up in the time allotted for this operation, or the pumps may be unable to handle it. On
the other hand, any economy which may have been achieved by reducing the amount of steam in the
early stages of the voyage may be more than offset by the efforts required to heat the cargo up to a
pumpable temperature in the later stages of the voyage. The whole question is one which requires
experience and sound knowledge of the capabilities of the particular vessel in question.

Discharging Bitumen

The discharge of bitumen presents no difficulty while the vessel is discharging the bulk of her
cargo, provided the cargo is sufficiently viscous to be pumpable. However when draining cargo tanks
trouble may be experienced as a result of air leaking into the system through suctions in tanks already
empty. This trouble is generally due to the fact that the valve in question is clogged with bitumen
and no longer tight. Because of this it is best to shorten the suction lines wherever possible by closing
master valves between tanks which are already empty and those still containing cargo. Bitumen in
the pumps which has been allowed to cool could effect the efficiency of the suction and delivery valves
but, as a general rule the heat from successive cargoes is sufficient to clear this residue and keep the
pump working efficiently.

Creosote

Creosote undiluted is considerably heavier than water and is crystalline in character. When
transported in bulk it requires careful heating as the temperature needs to be kept in the vicinity of
90° F. Too much heat is as bad, if not worse, than too little and results in crystals forming over the
bottom of the tank.
Creosote is carried in chemical tankers in tanks which are coated and adequately heated, preferably
108 TANKER HANDBOOK.

with a heating system which allows a cargo pump to circulate the cargo through a heat exchanger.
Creosote, because of its very nature, is a hazard to the environment and after MARPOL '73/78
Annex 2 came into effect, is strictly regulated to avoid pollution.
Before the new restrictions covering the transportation of Creosote, it used to be transported in
conventional tankers. Creosote attacked joints and glands in valves and pumps, necessitating opening
up valves, repacking glands and in the case of reciprocating pumps, making sure crystals were removed
from under the spring loaded valves and looking for damage to the valve seals.
 CHAPTER 13
CHEMICAL TANKERS
IT should be appreciated that the carriage of chemicals at sea is now a highly specialised industry
which covers some three to four hundred chemicals and related products.
The growth of the industry has led to many specialised requirements for chemical ships, both in
construction, tank size and layout. The materials used for constructing or lining tanks varies from
stainless steel to special tank coatings. MARPOL '73/78 was originally designed to cover oil tankers,
as well as chemical tankers, but the 78 Protocol recognised the special problems of the chemical ships,
particularly the multi-parcel vessel, so Annex 2 was effectively delayed and came into force in 1986.

MARPOL '73/78 — ANNEX 2

Annex 2 divides the listed chemicals and other noxious substances into four broad categories:—
A. These are liquids which presented a major hazard if discharged into the sea after tank cleaning
or dcballasting and therefore justified special anti-pollution arrangements.
Tank drainings or contaminated ballast, or wash water which may include minute quantities
of these substances, must be discharged ashore and never into the sea.
B. These are liquid chemicals which if discharged at sea present a hazard to human health, marine
resources or to the natural amenities.
Chemicals belonging in this category can be discharged at sea under certain circumstances.
The vessel has to be outside the special areas or prohibited zones. The quantity discharged
may not exceed 1 M3 and the ship must be under way proceeding at a speed of 7 knots and not
circling in a given area. The discharge must be below the waterline and the entrained chemical
may not exceed 1 p.p.m.
C. These are chemicals or other noxious substances which if discharged into the sea would
present a minor hazard to marine resources, human health, etc.
The discharge of such chemicals arc to be restricted to sea areas outside the special areas
and may not exceed 3M3 and 10 p.p.m. entrained in ballast or wash water when the ship is
underway and not circling in a given area.
D. These are chemicals or other noxious substances that if discharged into the sea entrained in
wash water or ballast would present a minor, but recognisable hazard to human health,
marine resources and natural amenities.
There is no maximum quantity stipulated, but the same conditions apply as to where and
how substances in Category D are discharged and the substance must nor exceed
100,000 p.p.m. entrained in ballast or wash water.
In broad terms ANNEX 1 provides the regulations for the prevention of oil pollution of the sea.
ANNEX 2 provides the regulations to control pollution of the sea by noxious substances (including
chemicals) carried in bulk.
The reader should be aware that the lists of oils, chemicals and other liquids arc constantly under
review and may have others added, or under ANNEX 2 change categories.
It can be seen from the above that the transport of chemicals is tightly controlled, but some owners
and chemical tanker operators are unhappy about the availability of slop receiving facilities in many
ports and the limited nature of the ones that do exist.
The discharge of Category B and C substances outside the special sea areas and Category D
substances in all areas, is covered in Annex 2 by Regulation 5. The vessel must be at least 12 nautical
miles from the nearest land and proceeding en route at a speed of not less than 7 knots. When the
discharge is made the vessel must be in a depth of water of not less than 25 metres and the discharge
must be made below the waterline.

Slop Facilities for Chemicals Ashore

Under MARPOL '73/78 this was a vital requirement and the difficulties involved in providing such
109
110 TANKER HANDBOOK

facilities was part of the reason for the delay in ratification. Even today the slop facilities are not
keeping up with the requirements of an industry that is expanding rapidly.
The reasons for this failure are:
1. On a national basis it is easy for a government to ratify International Legislation and to pass
National Legislation and bye-laws to cover such items, but sometimes they do not have the
power to force port authorities and chemical terminal operators to do what is required for
economic and other reasons.
2. Economically such facilities are more expensive than ordinary slop tanks as many of the
chemicals are incompatible even when mixed or diluted by ballast or wash water. Other
chemicals are self reactive, others are reactive with air and/or water. Tanks often have to be
coated or made of stainless steel and pipelines have to have similar protection.
Liquid Nitrogen has to be stored on the site to provide nitrogen to purge pipelines and cap slop
tanks that contain slops that are not compatible with air. By the same token storage facilities may
require to be sited in protective earth bunds and be equipped with special fire fighting equipment.
Under Regulation 7 of Annex 2 The I.M.O. require Governments that are Party to the Convention
to provide facilities at their ports and terminals for the safe reception of such vessels. These loading
and unloading ports and terminals are required to provide facilities for handling residues and mixtures
containing noxious liquid substances as would remain for disposal from these ships.
Shipyards that undertake the repair of such vessels are also required to have facilities for the
reception of such residues.

The GESAMP SYSTEM

This is a system developed for evaluating chemicals which may be discharged into the sea.
I.M.O. have adopted this system by which the hazard rating can be evaluated.
GESAMP uses four criteria, or yard sticks, to judge how harmful a substance can be if discharged
into the sea.
1. Bio-accumulation.
2. Damage to living resources.
3. Hazards to human health.
4. Reduction of marine amenities.
The first three are mainly concerned with direct and indirect effect on marine life and the human
food chain. The fourth is concerned with the direct and indirect effect of chemical waste of a toxic or
persistent nature which may be washed up on recreation beaches and scenic coastlines.

Chemical and Non-Chemical Cargoes

Chemical ships vary considerably in size and design. The smaller ones tend to be dedicated and
carry a limited number of products. More often than not they act as feeders to large ocean going
chemical tankers, which carry up to 50 grades and load and unload parcels continuously. The feeder
may also receive one or more products from a large ocean going tanker and discharge it at one or
more ports and terminals.
The majority of chemicals carried are derived from petroleum and natural gas, while others are
made from coal or coal gas. The so called heavy chemicals include most of the acids used commercially
and are shipped in bulk now as a matter of routine.
Other cargo parcels shipped include alcohol derived from molasses and various types of vegetable
oil and wine.

Chemical Tankers — Design and Equipment Requirements

The I.M.O. Code for the construction and equipment of ships carrying dangerous chemicals and
other noxious substances, together with a number of amendments, is now in force. The main
Classification Societies have incorporated the I.M.O. Code as well as some national requirements.
Each chemical bulk carrier is required to have an I.M.O. certificate showing what chemicals the ship
can carry, together with details of the type of equipment.
 CHEMICAL TANKERS 111

The I.M.O. Code divides chemical tankers into three groups:—

1. Vessels designed to carry the most hazardous cargo.
1. Vessels designed to carry hazardous cargoes listed as less hazardous than 1 but still a potential
risk.
2. The least hazardous chemicals.
It should be fully appreciated that these broad classifications are based on human judgement of
the various risks involved by a vessel damaged in an accident with the possible escape of cargo with
subsequent risk to crew or public from:—
1. Fire.
2. Water Pollution.
3. Air Pollution.
4. Other health hazards.
5. Cargo reaction with water, air or other chemicals.
The vessels in Class 1 have to be constructed with the emphasis on the prevention of cargo escaping
as a result of collision or stranding. The construction specification requires all cargo tanks to be
shielded by ballast tanks, double bottoms and cofferdams so that the actual cargo tank bulkheads are
protected by void spaces or tanks, the width or depth of which is governed by the dimensions of the
vessel.
Stability is also taken into account as a result of flooding of one or more wing tanks or void spaces
as a result of a collision or stranding.
Vessels in Class 2 must be designed along similar lines, but the criteria is less stringent in some
areas.
Vessels in Class 3 are judged to carry cargo which is less hazardous and are currently not required
to have an inner and outer skin as in the case of Class 1 and 2. The main restriction appears to be
the limited dimensions of any one cargo tank. As many of these products are carried by oil tankers
which are subject to the requirements of Annex 1. New vessels over 5,000 d.w.t. will be required to
have double hulls.
The I.M.O. requirements for chemical tanker construction and tank layout are to say the least
complex. The reader requiring more detail should obtain the latest edition of MARPOL '73/78 Annex
2. As an example of the complexity of the layout of cargo tanks, size and protective void spaces, it
becomes clear that some vessels can carry Class 1 and/or Class 2 parcels of cargo in designated centre
cargo tanks. The wing tanks in such cases are kept empty. The vessel must have details of such
arrangements duly certified.
The centre tanks designated for Class 1 or 2 cargo must be suitably constructed and coated for such
cargo. The construction must include cofferdam type segregation or bulkheads of the sandwich type.
Sandwich type bulkheads between two adjoining tanks must be at least 760mm. apart. This also
applies to cofferdams. In practice a spacing of 1 metre or more is found to be more practical for human
entry, cleaning etc. Several factors have to be checked before loading Grade 1 and 2 cargoes in centre
tanks, not only must the ship have the correct type of bulkheads or cofferdam segregation but they
must also be suitable with reference to tank coatings, pumping systems, as well as inert gas systems.
The pumping and piping systems for chemical tankers have to be designed to meet special
requirements. The emphasis is on the ability of the system to drain tanks, as well as pipelines, as dry as
possible.

Tank Coatings for Chemicals

There are several tank coatings used on chemical tankers, but before we go on to discuss them in
more detail, it is necessary to look at the objectives in using such coatings.
Some chemicals have a very corrosive effect on mild steel bulkheads, so corrosion prevention is a
major objective. Having smooth surfaces in a tank helps reduce the amount of clingage on the
bulkheads and reduces deposits and residual liquid in the bottom. This in turn reduces the amount of
tank cleaning and wash water.
While corrosion and reduced tank cleaning are major factors in selecting a tank coating, the
over-riding consideration must be quality control or the ability to keep the product from
contamination from other products or from mild steel.
Special types of stainless steel with a high resistant to corrosion from acid arc popular for tanks
used to carry such products. Stainless steel used for bulkheads can be solid stainless steel or mild steel
112 TANKER HANDBOOK
 Stall Inspiration.

clad with stainless steel. The type of stainless steel used in dependent on strength factors required, as
well as product compatibility. Tanks with stainless steel should not be used for salt water ballast and
when possible they should be washed with fresh water, as salt water has a corrosive effect and should
be kept to a minimum.
Rubber is sometimes used to line tanks for products mainly acids, which arc unsuitable for use with
stainless steel or other coatings.
Zinc Silicate coatings are frequently used in tanks designed to carry alcohol as well as some types
of solvents and other chemicals. Care has to be taken to dry out the cargo tanks used and to ensure
there is no moisture in the cargo, otherwise the coating may be damaged. It is necessary to inspect zinc
coated bulkheads after they have been dried to ensure the coating has not been softened or otherwise
damaged.
Polyurethane is frequently preferred to zinc coatings as it is suitable for nearly all the products
loaded into tanks coated with Zinc Silicate. It has a hard gloss finish and is subject to the same
restrictions as Zinc Silicate and tanks have to be dried out prior to loading the next cargo.
There are several types of Epoxy coatings, but in general use they are suitable for carrying a range
of products such as Benzene and Menthanol. They arc also suitable for some types of vegetable oils
and animal fats. Tanks coated with Epoxy can be used for water ballast, but should be properly
cleaned and dried out between grades or loading ballast.

Cargo Pumps, Venting Systems and Heating Arrangements for Chemical Tankers

Cargo Pumps

Older Chemical tankers may be fitted out to meet MARPOL '73/78 Annex 2 requirements, but
it should be remembered that each vessel has to undergo an annual survey, the results of which are
endorsed on its certificate to carry chemicals in bulk. There are a number of regulations which must be
adhered to and the ability of the pumping system to meet the requirements laid out in Regulation 5
for various classes of chemicals require pumps and pipelines to be maintained to a very high standard.
CHEMICAL TANKERS 11
3
 BULK CHEMICALS

MAXIMUM
PREVENTIVE MEASURES r
1

j
B/15 TYpE !^ o r ^
11 5M
, ; CONTAINMENT
(Which- ovo-rtrk^ ever
is bYS 1 LM
I less) LOCATION

\^B/15jLor 6M (Whichever is less

J^
X"

BULK CHEMICALS

SIGNIFICANT
PREVENTIVE MEASURES
r
TYPE II
* / O c-««r>.

CONTAINMENT SYSTEM V V
LOCATION
\ ^****—

^^B/ISjpor 6M (Whichever is less

-^

J)
) /
^X

BULK CHEMICALS

MODERATE
PREVENTIVE MEASURES F

TYPE III */
CONTAINMENT SYSTEM I
LOCATION /
114 TANKER HANDBOOK
 CHEMICAL TANKER
Showing Tank Layout and various tank coatings.
Phenolic coated Zinc Silicate—coaled Stainless Steel
This regulation is concerned with the amount of residue left around the suction and in each pump
and piping area. The more modern multigrade chemical carrier is more likely to be fitted with
hydraulic deepwell pumps, with one pump per tank and each tank fitted with an isolated loading
discharge piping system. Other types of submerged pumps are used for cargo handling or back up.
The main advantage of deepwell pumps is their ability to drain a tank bottom completely. The
suction is fitted with a non-return valve so that liquid cannot drop back into the tank when the pump
loses suction. The pump and pipeline can then be blown clear with nitrogen.
In some cases each tank is fitted with its own vent lines with separate pressure relief valves. On
some vessels use is made of permanent scaffolding towers to take such vents, well above the main
deck.

Venting Systems

All chemical tankers must be fitted with Inert Gas Systems. The problem is that impurities such
as carbon and moisture, normally present in flue gases, makes it difficult to use a conventional I.G.S.
with some chemicals.
Depending on the chemicals carried the I.G.S. system is frequently serviced by liquid nitrogen
which is stored as a liquid and fed to the tanks as a gas. Some ships arc fitted with nitrogen generators,
but the nitrogen produced is not as pure as that loaded from shore and its application is not advisable
with some products though the additional nitrogen produced can be very useful as a back up supply
when tank cleaning.

Heating

Some chemicals require heat and this is provided by equipping the tanks to be heated with coils
through which steam is passed. The risk of leakage and contamination of cargo is greater with mild
steel coils and unless a mechanical preventor is fitted, condensate may also be contaminated on its
return to the engine room. The life of mild steel coils in a chemical ship could be very short and as a
result stainless steel coils filled with thcrmo-oil are used in modern ships. The thermo-oil is heated in a
heat exchanger before being pumped through the coil system.

Fire Fighting Equipment and Training of Crews in all aspects of Chemical Tanker Operations

All chemicals should be treated with respect. The I.M.O. Code requires that a suitable fire fighting
system should be carried for all products which the vessel is licenced to carry. This should include fixed
fire extinguishers and suitable supplies of Inert Gas, foam, dry chemical products, steam, sand and
water.
Crews have to be specially trained to handle chemical cargoes of all types and to understand how
each grade needs to be handled, as well as the limitations of the coatings and pumping systems.
Training on the use of protective clothing and fire fighting is of particular importance.
The I.M.O. Codes, as well as SOLAS, provide details of all the requirements for chemical ships.
(See SOLAS Resolution A27I (VIII) and other appropriate codes and resolutions).
 CHEMICAL TANKERS 115

General Comments on the Operation of Chemical Ships

The Master, as in other tankers, is responsible for the safety of the ship and crew, whether at sea
or in port. He has to provide Port Authorities with details of E.T.A., condition of the ship and her
equipment, with particular regard to defects in the machinery or cargo handling equipment. He also
has to supply details of the quantity and type of cargo.
Because of the nature of some chemicals other information may be required, both by the port
authorities and/or terminal operators. This is particularly true of cargo which is self reactive and
which is treated with an inhibitor. The I.M.O. regulations require a ship to be provided with a
certificate at the loading port covering the type and quantity of such cargo and the amount of
inhibitor, together with its useful life.
The above and other safety items will be needed for the authorities and terminal operators in the
discharge port. The same applies to cargo which is reactive when in contact with water or moisture
and/or air.
In the case of multi-grade chemical carriers, the problems are complicated by the fact that such
ships may visit two or more terminals in one port, discharge several parcels of cargo, clean tanks and
reload others before sailing to her next destination.
In practice, large multi-product chemical tankers have their cargo layout and details of products
to be discharged and loaded planned ashore by a team of experts representing the owners and/or
charterers. The experts using computers check cargo quantities,, compatibility of successive cargo
parcels, tank coatings and the type and amount of ventilation and tank cleaning required.
While the master is still responsible, the ships and cargo parcels arc so costly every effort is made to
get things right. The Master and officers must check the cargo plans and calculate stability and stress
factors. They should point out any defects in such plans and any break down of equipment or coatings.
In some ports with loading and discharging going on simultaneously with tank cleaning a high level
of supervision is required and too much dependence on overflow alarms and other safety equipment is
to be avoided. Shore labour is frequently used for tank cleaning and tanks must be checked to test that
each tank is safe to enter. Tank coatings and general suitability for the next parcel are frequently checked
by a surveyor representing the cargo owner. A ship's officer should always accompany the surveyor.
Where deepwell pumps arc used on a one pump one tank basis, the actual loading and discharge
operation is fairly simple. The main problem results from using barges and shore facilities simultaneously
which can stretch supervision to avoid overflows and the misuse of auxiliary systems such as I.G.
Systems.
Port Authorities may be strict and not permit barges alongside while discharging at some shore
terminals and it is frequently necessary to give them updates on operations and any problems that
occur.

The Chemical Tanker and Safety

Most chemical ships are provided with Safety Manuals by their owners/operators. These are
generally comprehensive and cover National and International requirements for chemical ships. These
manuals are constantly updated to meet changing requirements.
In addition to the ships' safety manual the vessel should also have on board The Tanker Safety
Guide (Chemicals) Vol. 1 to 5. This reading material is not in itself adequate for the operation of a
chemical tanker. The regulations require the Master and other officers to receive training and to have
sufficient experience for the rank they hold.
Individual chemical ships are certified to carry certain chemical parcels and must be provided with
an inert gas system, as well as special fire fighting and other equipment.
Crew training, in recognising potential hazards when on duty and when off duty, is a must.
Training for normal operation, as well as contingency plans for a number of different situations, can
be fairly complex as chemicals vary, but crews need to know the basic nature and likely hazards for
each chemical in terms of:
1. Poisonous and toxic chemicals.
2. Flammable chemicals.
3. Corrosive chemicals.
4. Flammable and toxic vapours given off by certain chemicals.
Where necessary instruction should be given on self reactive chemicals as well as those that react
with air or water and the inhibitors used to keep these chemicals safe whilst in transit.
116 TANKER HANDBOOK

It goes without saying that the main thrust of all training, drills and instruction should cover the
need for protective clothing and circumstances in which breathing apparatus is required.
Where shore labour is used for cleaning tanks they are often part of an experienced labour force,
but they should always work under the supervision of an officer and checked to make sure they are
aware of the hazards of smoking and lighters.
Elsewhere in this book we have discussed the dangers of static electricity and the use of certain
types of hand tools and cleaning materials. These dangers also apply to chemical ships.
Finally, the testing of the atmosphere in cargo tanks for explosive potential and the use of nitrogen
when cleaning tanks, is essential. Testing for oxygen contents of cargo tanks prior to entry is
mandatory. This cannot be done with an explosimeter as the use of inert gas when tank cleaning may
displace dangerous vapour, but the lack of oxygen may still require more ventilation if breathing
apparatus is not used.

Cargo Record Book For Vessels Carrying Noxious Liquid Substances In Bulk

The cargo record book for a chemical tanker requires a lot of detailed information about each
parcel of cargo, where it was loaded/discharged, as well as what preparations were taken to clean the
tank or tanks as well as the pipelines and pumps used. These entries have to be backed up with plans
where necessary. Appendix 4 to Annex 2 of MARPOL sets out the I.M.O.'s requirements in detail.
 CHAPTER 14 LIQUID PETROLEUM

GAS CARRIERS

THIS type of vessel is designed to carry certain gaseous hydrocarbons as a liquid, either
(a) Under pressure in special bottles or cylinders, designed and manufactured to handle pressures
at least twice that likely to be experienced under normal operating conditions.
(b) At or near normal atmospheric pressure in insulated tanks in which the hydrocarbon is kept
below its boiling-point by auto-refrigeration or by the self-cooling process of allowing a small
quantity of the gas to boil off.
In terms of ocean transportation, hydrocarbon gas is divided into two types: —
Liquid Petroleum Gas. — L.P.G.
Liquid Natural Gas. — L.N.G.

L.P.G.

This covers products such as butane, propane and butadiene, which are transported commercially
by tanker.

Butane

Commercial Butane is used for heating and cooking and for improving the volability of low-grade
gasolines and other fuels. Its S.G. at 60°/60°F. saturation pressure is 0-5844. It boils at 31° F. under
normal atmospheric pressure. Its normal gas to liquid volume ratio at 60° F. at atmospheric pressure is
about 230.

Propane

Like Butane, is a paraffin-based hydrocarbon which can be stored and transported as a liquid
mder pressure. It is used for metal cutting and flame welding as it burns with a hotter flame than
Butane. It is more volatile than Butane and has a wider explosive range.
Propane's S.G. at 60°/60°F. saturation pressure is 0-5077. At atmospheric pressure it boils at
-43-73° F. and its gas to liquid volume at 60U F., at atmospheric pressure, is 267-4.

tutadiene

Another hydrocarbon gas carried as a liquid under pressure. Used in the manufacture of synthetic
Libber, it is fairly sensitive to temperature change and should be discharged and loaded through
ipelines which have been purged of air.
Mixtures of Propane and Butane, as well as other L.P.G. gases, are sometimes transported under
ressure by special tankers designed for this purpose.

,P.G. Ship Safety Record

The transportation of L.P.G. by sea is fairly commonplace, and ships in the trade have a good
itistical safety record, but L.P.G. is a dangerous product and leakage from pressurised containers is
ry dangerous because of the rapid release of large volumes of gas.
The lower limit of flammability of most of these gases is approximately 2 per cent, gas to air.
,e upper limit varies from 8-10 per cent, gas to air according to the type of gas.
It follows, therefore, that a small amount of gas in air is a potential hazard, as it can be ignited
;nn a variety of sources.
117
118 TANKER HANDBOOK
 L.P.G. vapour is heavier than air and may flow along the ground, filling depressions, drains or
the bilges of boats without a strong wind to move it. The dissipation of vapour may be slow.
Because of the risk of fire and /or explosion, storage tanks, vessels and containers used in the
transport of L.P.G. are designed according to specific codes prepared by the regulatory bodies to
cover:
1. Maximum pressure requirements, material and design of container.
2. Pressure relief valves and pressure gauges.
3. Drains, piping, valves compressors, pumps and heat exchangers.
4. Means of determining liquid level.
5. Means of measuring temperature of the contents of the tank.
6. Access points such as manholes.
L.P.G. can also be transported in refrigerated storage tanks. The containers and equipment are
designed and covered by strict regulations and codes.

Loading and Discharging Liquid Petroleum Gases

Unlike ordinary oil tankers designed to handle the conventional products, L.P.G. ships have all
their cargo handling pipelines on deck. Both the vapour and liquid pipelines enter each container or
Scrubber vT^i
Tank ^*r#,F .-^....... TT;... M

-•-! ^
:i.
Shore
<£$
Vapour Lino_
Liquid
 X Turbo driven vapour compressor
capacity 150 T.P.H.
Ship-"
Diagram.7b. Simple arrangement for the discharge of L.P.G. from a ship to Shore Tank.

Diagram 7c. Typical Pumproom arrangement for modern L.P.G. Tanker.

LIQUID PETROLEUM GAS CARRIERS 11
9
 M.V.ftedff. Billup.1.

bottle from the top. The liquid line extends to the bottom of the container while the vapour line
terminates at the top. To load or discharge L.P.G., several different methods can be employed,
according to the type of equipment with which the particular vessel is fitted.
To start with we will consider one of the simpler methods. First, the ship's liquid system must be
connected to the shore liquid pipeline system. Then the ship's vapour system must be connected to the
shore vapour system to complete the circuit, as shown in Diagram 7b. To commence discharging the
valves on the ship's liquid manifold are opened simultaneously with those on the liquid system ashore.
The first liquid container to be discharged is opened and the pressure on the surface of the liquid forces
the liquid gas up the liquid line out of the container and ashore to the shore tank. In the shore tank,
the vapour builds up a pressure on the surface of the incoming liquid gas. As the pressure behind the
incoming liquid is greater, the gas generated in the shore tank is forced up through the vapour line
back to the ship, where it is collected in a small tank and passed through a compressor into one of the
cargo containers. Because the ship and shore L.P.G. bottles are kept tightly sealed, it is only possible
to ascertain the liquid level by automatic ullage or float system.
Experience has shown that these mechanical devices were not always 100 per cent, reliable, and
earlier L.P.G. ships were fitted with Slip Tubes and Test Cocks which allow the operators to keep a
rough check on the level of the liquids.
When L.P.G. is discharged by direct gas pressure without the aid of a liquid pump, it does not
matter if all the liquid is displaced from the container and vapour enters the liquid line. Liquid from
the next container to be discharged will displace the vapour ashore. Normally L.P.G. containers are
not filled to more than 90 per cent, of the capacity of the container, with some types of L.P.G. rather
less.
The equipment of many modern vessels allows much more flexibility in handling and discharging
L.P.G. In some cases two or more grades can be carried simultaneously. Some of the latest vessels
have one or more containers fitted with heating coils. The L.P.G. in these containers is heated to bring
the pressure up above that in the adjoining containers. The discrepancy in pressure is then utilised
during the discharge to force the L.P.G. ashore.
When discharging L.P.G. to tankage located some distance from the ship, or when the static head
is considerable, it is necessary to discharge L.P.G. with the aid of one or more liquid pumps. The
pressure in the L.P.G. container is used to push the liquid out of the container up on deck and along
to the pumproom where the liquid pump takes over and displaces it ashore.
When using liquid pumps it is important that no vapour should enter the liquid line and reach
the pump, or the pump will lose suction. It is therefore necessary to shut off the container when it has
a little liquid left in it, approximately 112 feet. When the valve on the liquid line has been closed the
remaining liquid is allowed to vaporise, and pass through the vapour system to a condenser, where it is
condensed and drained into the liquid receiver which serves the condensatc pump. This pump can
120 TANKER HANDBOOK

either discharge the newly liquefied gas to the main liquid pump, to a partially filled container or direct
ashore.
Sometimes ocean going tankers equipped to carry L.P.G. use a circulation system similar to that
described above, to control the temperature and pressure of the L.P.G. when it is effected by heat from
the ordinary cargo in her main tanks. The vapour is taken from the tops of the L.P.G. containers
and after being passed through the condenser is returned to a single L.P.G. container, via the liquid
line. The receiving container being changed at regular intervals. This process is known as auto-
refrigeration.
Diagram 7c illustrates a typical L.P.G. carrier's pumproom layout and gives some idea of the
variety of equipment which these ships carry.

Gas Freeing L.P.G. Ships

Normally if an L.P.G. ship is carrying the same cargo on successive voyages, the containers are
not gas freed but retain L.P.G. in vapour form at low pressure (5/6 Ibs.). If it is necessary to clear and
gas free the system as for instance when the vessel is going to dry dock, the containers arc generally
cleared of vapour in one of two ways.
(1) Displacing the containers, liquid and vapour lines with water.
(2) Displacing the container and pipeline system with CO 2 or N2.
Care must be taken that all pumps, compressors and other ancillary apparatus arc properly cleared
of L.P.G. vapour.

Methane Ships (L.N.G. — CH 4 — Liquid Natural Gas)

Natural Gas is produced from gas wells or in association with crude oil from what is normally
referred to as an Oil Well.
Natural Gas generally consists of a number of component gases present in various quantities.
The most common are:
Methane CH4
Ethane C2H6
Ethylene C2H4
Propane C3 H X
Butane C4H10
Hydrogen Sulphide H2S
Carbon Dioxide CO2
- Nitrogen N2
Oxygen O2
Helium He
In good commercial gas wells Methane or CH 4 is present in large quantities and represents 60—95
per cent, of the total volume of gas.
It is only in recent years that the techniques of liquefying and handling gas have made it
commercially attractive to transport large quantities of Methane by sea.
Methane boils at -258-7° F. It is because of improved cryogenic technology that it can be liquefied
and stored economically on board ship in sufficient volume to justify transportation across the oceans
of the world. Methane is used primarily as a fuel. It has a higher calorific value than town gas, and
can be supplied to the consumer through pipe mains.
In recent years a number of new projects have been implemented involving the construction of
liquefaction plants in North Africa, and other natural gas producing areas which coupled with special
new gas ships has meant that a new source of energy can be made available to the industrial areas in
Europe which need this type of fuel.
With the aid of Diagram A, let us take a quick look at what happens to the gas from the time it
leaves the well-head to the time it reaches the consumer at the final destination.
The natural gas is piped from the well head to the gas liquefaction plant. Here it goes through a
number of process steps which are aimed:
1. At removing water and other impurities from the gas.
2. Separating the Hydrocarbons from the other gases such as Carbon Dioxide.
LIQUID PETROLEUM GAS CARRIERS 12
1
 Methane Progress, an L.N.G. Tanker.

3. Reducing the volume or removing those Hydrocarbon gases which may become solids at low
temperatures.
4. Cooling the remaining gas (predominantly Methane) below its boiling-point and pumping it
to special storage tanks to await shipment.
5. The liquid natural gas is then shipped aboard the L.N.G. tanker and transported to its
destination.
6. It is then pumped ashore as a liquid, where it is used as a fuel or processed and diluted for a
variety of other purposes.
The important thing to remember with L.N.G. or Methane transportation at sea is, that the ship
supplies insulated storage tanks but has no liquefaction or refrigeration equipment on board. L.N.G.
which boils off the surface of the liquid in the tanks is cither burnt as fuel in the ship's boilers or vented
to atmosphere. This important fact has led to a departure in normal procedure and paper-work
covering L.N.G. shipments.
Under normal agreements operating today, the B/L figures are based on the measurement of liquid
and gas received on board at the loading port, as opposed to shore figures when a normal oil cargo
is involved.
The whole business of measurement and computing cargo shipped and/or delivered, is much more
complicated than with oil cargoes as the L.N.G. tanker not only suffers a high loss from cargo boil-
off when proceeding to its destination. Older L.N.G. ships had a boil-off rate of 0-25% per day but
more modern ones arc designed with a boil-off rate of 0-15% per day. In addition a certain amount of
L.N.G. must be retained in each cargo compartment to keep the tanks cool on the ballast passage.
This necessitates calculating the volume of gas and liquid on board before and after each operation of
loading and discharging to arrive at the actual volumes loaded and discharged, as opposed to those
remaining on board.
Another factor which must be taken into account is the method of payment. Current practice
recognises that Liquid Natural Gas shipments contain other gases besides Methane, so each shipment
is analysed and broken down into component cases by volume and calorific value, payment being by
unit, or so much a Therm or Kilogramme Calorie.

Methane Ships

The first ship to carry L.N.G. across the ocean was the Methane Pioneer, This vessel was a
122 TANKER HANDBOOK
 EQR LQflDl>.& FCLLOW (iNfrl FHOM 5WOKF.
TO TflNKS FOLLOW [&N&1 ffl
TflNKS TO SHORE Vlfl HOC.
Fgff c stnPfir.'Vfr foktow (LN &-] Fflow
PUMPS (INSIDE TBNK51 ro
HEADER ro JHORE

relatively small tanker reconstructed for the purpose and provided with specially insulated tanks for
carrying L.N.G.
Something of an experiment, she made her first voyage from the Gulf of Mexico to the Thames
in 1959. This and subsequent voyages proved beyond doubt that the carriage of L.N.G. was feasible
and paved the way for the construction of larger, more economic units.
In 1964, the Methane Progress and Methane Princess came into service carrying Methane from
Arzew in Algeria to Canvey Island in England. These vessels, which were built to the design of
Conch International Methane Limited, were fairly large, having the approximate dimensions of a
26,000 d.w.t. oil tanker.
The hull of each vessel is provided with three holds into which are inserted a total of nine aluminium
tanks. Each of the aluminium cargo tanks is heavily insulated and arc independent of each other.
Constructed on the Membrane principle, the tanks are heavily lagged. (See Diagram 8 on page 127).
Methane is loaded and discharged through a piping system from the top. Each aluminium tank is
divided by a longitudinal bulkhead fitted with a sluice valve. Cargo is discharged by means of specially
designed submersible pumps fitted in the bottom of the Methane tanks.
Construction of L.N.G. tankers have fallen into two broad categories or types in terms of
L.N.G. tank construction:— (a) Membrane, (b) Freestanding Moss Rosenberg.
On January 1st, 1978 there were 40 L.N.G. carriers in existence constructed on the Membrane
principle. Of these, 22 had a capacity of 125,000 M3 or more, and only one was under 5,000 M3.
 LIQUID PETROLEUM GAS CARRIERS 123

On the same date there were 41 L.N.G. carriers with Moss Rosenberg-type cylindrical tanks of
which 18 had a capacity of 125,000 M 3 and 7 less than 5,000 M3.
In 1998 there were some 106 L.N.G. ships in existence with a capacity of 11-2 million cu. int.
Most of the ships fitted with freestanding tanks have tanks fitted in the form of spheres or
cylinders, such as there arc on the Hoegh Granada, which was built in Germany in 1977.
Examination of the specifications and general arrangement plan of the Hoegh Granada reveals that
the ship is a large one by any standard, with the following principal dimensions:—
O.A.L.— — 287-55 m.
Beam — — 43-04 m.
Depth — 25-00 m.
S.L. Draft — 11-05m.
Gross tonnage 95,683-38m.
Nett „ 65,681-95m.
A single screw driven by a 40,000-h.p. steam turbine gives her a service speed of 19-5 knots.
The cargo tanks consist of five aluminium alloy spheres, each with a diameter of 36-5m. and a
capacity in excess of 25,000 M 3. Each sphere is supported at the equator by a vertical cylindrical skirt
and insulated by a panel system of polystyrene covered with Al-Foil and mastic. The insulation is
approximately 260mm. thick.
The vessel is designed to carry L.P.G. as an alternative to L.N.G., and is fitted with two L.P.G.
compressors for this service, as well as two heat exchangers for L.P.G. reliqucfaction.
Examination of the cargo-handling equipment specification and ancillary equipment shows the
Custody Transfer System used for measuring the cargo content of the spheres is quite elaborate.
Each sphere is fitted with one Whessoe float gauge with manual read-out on top of each sphere,
and electronic read-out in the control room.
In addition, there is a Pressure Transmitter Probe System with an accuracy of ±1 per cent, of the
span measured. Temperatures of cargo content are recorded at three levels in each sphere. The
temperature readout system is displayed in the cargo control room.
A Liquid Nitrogen tank with a capacity of 25 M 3 is used for the supply of Nitrogen gas to purge
liquid and vent lines which may have been used to transfer L.N.G. Under normal circumstances
L.N.G. ships receive liquid nitrogen at the loading or discharge port from specially insulated tanks or
tank cars. The liquid L.N.G. is pumped on board with a special pump through an insulated line.
Nitrogen Gas is also supplied from the terminal to purge empty cargo tanks of air prior to starting
cool down and to fill void spaces as necessary.
Each cargo tank is fitted with two immersed electrically-driven pumps with a capacity of 1100M_,
against a head of 120M, which in theory permits the ship to discharge a full cargo of L.N.G. in
12 hours.
Two large L.N.G. compressors, each with a capacity of 17,000 M 3 are fitted. The compressors
are used to handle the flow of L.N.G. gas returning on board via the vapour line as it is being
displaced by the L.N.G. liquid going into the shore tanks as the ship discharges her cargo.
For cool down, tanks Nos. 3 and 4 are fitted with two spray pumps, each with a capacity of
50 M3. These spray pumps are used when it is necessary to cool the cargo tanks.
As there is no liquefaction capability for L.N.G., once loaded on board boil off from the cargo
tanks is passed through an L.N.G. heater to the boilers, where it is burnt as a fuel.
As many ports authorities prevent the venting of L.N.G. to atmosphere in port, the practice of
burning L.N.G. boil off in the boilers at sea as well as in port is accepted.
The 125,000 M 3 L.N.G. carrier is a very expensive unit and crews have to be well trained to handle
the equipment and cargo correctly.

L.N.G. Ships and Safety

Before going on to discuss the loading and discharge of L.N.G., it may be as well to discuss
L.N.G. in terms of safety and potential hazard.
There can be no question that L.N.G. represents a potential hazard. It is a dangerous cargo even
though 30 years of ocean transportation shows that historically it has a remarkable safety record.
For the purposes of safety let us regard L.N.G. as Methane with the following characteristics.
Specific gravity of liquid at -255-7° F. = 0-42
Specific gravity of gas at 68° F............ = 1-29
124 TANKER HANDBOOK

Boiling Point........................................ = -258-7° F.

Freezing Point...................................... = -296-1° F.
Lower flammability limit
(% of volume gas to air).................. = about 5%
Higher flammability limit
(% of volume gas to air)................. = about 15%.
As a liquid, L.N.G. is so cold it presents some unusual hazards. It causes most metals to lose their
ducitility on contact, causing them to crack or fracture. It follows, therefore, that special metals have
to be used to handle L.N.G. aluminium alloys, stainless steel, 9 per cent, nickel-steel and bronze
have the necessary characteristics to perform some of the functions required in handling L.N.G.
Liquid L.N.G. spills have not shown that conventional metal coatings provide any significant
protection against brittle fractures. Living tissue can be damaged by contact with liquid L.N.G., and it
is not soluble in water.
Above its boiling point, L.N.G. becomes a gas and expands to about 250 times its original volume.
It is heavier than air and does not readily mix with it unless influenced by wind. As the cold vapour
warms up it expands, and at ambient temperatures, expands to approximately 600 times its own
volume when it mixes much more readily with air.
While L.N.G. liquid docs not burn, it gives off vapour which, when mixed with the right
proportions of air, produces a flammable and/or explosive mixture.
From an historical safety standpoint there have been no major marine disasters involving L.N.G.
cargoes. Most of the experience to date is limited to a few serious incidents in shore installations, and a
great deal of test work carried out by Oil Companies and various regulatory bodies, in laboratories.

Rollover

As far as the author is aware, rollover has never been experienced in an L.N.G. tanker, and is
unlikely to occur under normal trading conditions. The phenomena is caused by the introduction of
L.N.G. with a considerably different density to that already in the tank.
The heavier layer of L.N.G. is unable to mix or vaporise, and as a result, lies under the lighter
layer, warming up until it approaches the density of the lighter layer, whereupon it rises and mixes
under somewhat turbulent conditions. The results of rollover whereby the originally heavier layer
displaces the lighter, causes excessive boil off, and if vents and relief valves fail lo cope the tank may
rupture.

Fire and Explosion

Most of the concern over L.N.G. involves the possibility of major spills and the consequence of
such spills. It is argued that a major L.N.G. spill from a ship represents an undcfinable risk to other
vessels, industry and human habitation. The argument is based on the comparison of shore storage for
L.N.G. where banks or other containment systems provide a secondary containment system if the
actual tanks are ruptured or set on fire.
While L.N.G. ships also have secondary containment systems, they are more limited by the nature
of marine transportation, and are also more vulnerable from contact and damage involving own and
other ship movements as well as other factors.
If L.N.G. is split in any quantity the risk of a major disaster is a distinct possibility if the spill
occurs in a crowded harbour or dock. The liquid L.N.G. may be carried by current and tide away from
the spill area and damaged metal piles supporting jetties, or get sucked into cooling water intakes of
ships, or other industrial plants.
Ignition from a variety of sources is always possible as the liquid gives off vapour and the gas
expands. In a large spill, the expansion of the gas may gradually produce a vapour cloud which could
cover a vast area and travel a considerable distance, risking ignition from a variety of sources before
it finally dissipates.
Potential risks may be high with the transportation of L.N.G., but the fact remains that it is a risk
which an energy-hungry world seems to accept, at least for the moment.
Historically it would appear a justifiable risk, but only time will tell if the technology and planning
is adequate. The limited numbers of L.N.G. ships and cargoes carried, make it inconclusive.
Recent advents, particularly in Japan, where a number of L.N.G. terminals have been sited in
 LIQUID PETROLEUM GAS CARRIERS 125

crowded ports, undoubtedly increases the risk. Looking at accidents to date involving L.N.G. ships
were liquid or vapour L.N.G. has escaped, one is forced to the conclusion that all were minor
accidents, and no major damage resulted.

Accidents Reported

1. A number of vent fires, mostly the result of lightening strikes. Nearly all extinguished by the
use of nitrogen with no damage.
2. Overflows involving the spillage of liquid L.N.G. from ship's tanks while loading. All minor
in nature, some resulting in cracks in deck plating and other structural members.
3. Damage to cargo-tank insulation. There were a number of cases of this potentially worrying
problem. The cause in most of the cases involved resulted from salt water getting into the void
spaces from ballast tanks or elsewhere.
4. Liquid leaks from flanges and manifolds as well as joints on shore-loading arms appear to be
higher than desirable.
In most cases the leaks were minor and taken care of by water curtains or spillways, or in the case
of loading arms, by discontinuing the use of an individual loading arm, if the armjoint did not respond
to spraying and icing up.
It is possible that some future accident may reveal the shortcomings of present technology and
practice, but this still lies in the future.

Safety Practices and Check-Lists at L.N.G. Terminals

On arrival of a loading or discharging port, the L.N.G. tanker is subject to a rigorous code of
safety rules and procedures.
In many cases the L.N.G. tanker will not be permitted to proceed to her berth during the hours
of darkness. When she does get permission, it may well be that special escort vessels may proceed
ahead of her and all other traffic forbidden to move.
The type of precautions taken vary with the country and the port. The Master of the individual
vessel affected has to be familiar with requirements.
On arrival at the L.N.G. terminal, the ship is subject to the same rigorous safety checks and
procedures. The Terminal Safety Check List will form the basis of the relationship between the ship
and the shore terminal staff. All safety systems, working and emergency communication links must be
tested prior to any preparation to load.
Broadly speaking, all activities such as bunkering, taking water, provisioning or repairs, are not
permitted while actually loading or discharging L.N.G. If it becomes necessary to undertake any of
the above — written permission from the terminal and Port Authority is generally required.
In some terminals it is necessary to shut down loading or discharging operations.
1. If other vessels are passing or berthing at docks in the near vicinity.
2. If thunderstorms are experienced.
3. If wind speeds exceed the stated maximum.
4. If one or more moorings break.
5. If communication between ship and shore is lost.
6. If there is an occurrence on board or ashore which may adversely affect the transfer of
L.N.G. or cause a breach of the Port or Terminal Regulations.
It cannot be stressed too highly that L.N.G. is a potentially dangerous cargo, and the consequences
of a major accident could very well be disastrous.

Cool Down Prior to Loading L.N.G, (Methane)

A new vessel, or one which has recently been to a repair yard, has to cool down its cargo tanks
prior to loading.
It is necessary to make sure that all tanks, lines, pumps and other equipment are free from air or
water, as well as other materials.
Waste material, nuts and bolts can be a hazard if they are left in the L.N.G. tanks or piping. A
126 TANKER HANDBOOK
 The L.N.G. Aquarius delivering the first cargo of Indonesian L.N.G. to Osaka in Japan.

new ship, or one which has had repairs to any part of the cargo system, must be inspected and
rigorously checked for such material.
Air is normally displaced from the cargo system by the introduction of nitrogen gas on a systematic
basis until all lines and tanks have a negative reading. Only then is the vessel ready for cool down.
L.N.G. is loaded using special loading arms. A large 125,000M 3 is normally designed to use 16-in.
loading arms. As many as three liquid and one vapour arm may be connected.
During cool down only one liquid arm and a vapour line will be used, as the quantities of
L.N.G. required and the rate of loading are small.
When everything is ready, L.N.G. is introduced into one or more ship's tanks through special spray
nozzles. On entering the tank the liquid L.N.G. turns into vapour and the transition from a liquid to
a vapour is accompanied by a reduction in temperature in the tank. As the L.N.G. vapour expands it
finds its way back ashore via one of the ship's L.N.G. compressors and the vapour line.
The cool down process will take anything from 24 hours to 72 hours, depending on the number of
tanks cooled down simultaneously and the maximum rate of cool down permitted by the manufacturers.
A too rapid rate of cool down may not permit the uniform response of the metal plates from which
the tank is made, and problems, such as hot spots, may be experienced.
When a tank is approaching the end of its cool down period and temperatures fall, pools of liquid
form in the bottom of the tank, caused by the fall-out of any L.P.G. gases entrained in the L.N.G. with
boiling points considerably higher than Methane.
The time when normal loading can be started will vary with the type of L.N.G. or Methane to
be loaded, and the manufacturer's instructions relative to the material used in construction of the
ship's tanks.

The Ballast Voyage

On leaving the discharge port on a normal Voyage, an L.N.G. ship retains sufficient L.N.G. in each
of its tanks to keep the vessel in a cooled-down condition till it arrives at the loading port.
LIQUID PETROLEUM GAS CARRIERS 12
7
 L.N.G. tankers normally have a service speed of 18 to 20 knots, and are designed to make fast
passages as well as quick turnarounds in port. If the ship is delayed and the tanks allowed to warm up,
by reason that the remaining L.N.G. is exhausted, additional time and L.N.G. is required to cool the
tanks down.
L.N.G. vessels arc normally designed for specific long-term contracts, and are subject to the
confines and limitations of a captive trade between one or possibly two loading terminals and a limited
number of discharge ports.
On the ballast leg of the voyage, the ship will have adequate salt water ballast in her segregated
ballast tanks for the particular voyage. This ballast is discharged overboard while she is loading
L.N.G., so that no delays occur.

The term is peculiar to the L.N.G. tanker trade and really covers the measuring procedures which
occur on arrival, and then again prior to the departure of an L.N.G. tanker.
Unlike the oil tanker, the L.N.G. vessel does not normally use shore gauges or dips to establish
the quantities loaded and discharged.
The custody-transfer procedures are aimed at establishing the amount of L.N.G. liquid and gas
on board prior to, and after each, loading and discharge operation.
The system is aimed at providing accurate data for quantities used for export and import
documents, as well as freight. It also keeps a reasonable check on the amount of L.N.G. burnt in the
boilers or vented to atmosphere on each voyage.

Loading L.N.G. (Methane)

Again, discharging L.N.G. is very similar to discharging oil. The process, however, is normally
much more automated than in a conventional tanker. The cargo control room providing all the data
and necessary controls for operating and stopping pumps, as well as providing information on
temperatures, pressures and liquid levels in the individual tanks.
While the ship uses the electrically-driven immersed pumps to discharge L.N.G. ashore, she
receives L.N.G. vapour from the shore to take the place of the displaced liquid. The pressure in the
tanks and the rate of boil-off is dependent on keeping the balance within tolerances provided.
Normally a small amount of L.N.G. is left on board in each tank, so that tanks arc not drained,
as in oil tankers.
On the completion of the discharge, the loading arms and ship's connections are purged with
 t IB *> •> « 10 FT .

NK^
\ /
\t CARGO TANKS,. f tAltGOTANtlS

No't ••' 4 •*- -

 IKIMTID SPACE IKSULATIOM
ALUMIHIUM —',

vssda;
3ECTOK THRO1 MOID INSULATION

Diagram 8.
128 TANKER HANDBOOK

nitrogen. While discharging, the vessel is taking on salt-water ballast and should be ready to sail as
soon as Custody Transfer Procedures are complete.

Loading Methane

As previously stated it is normal procedure to carry a small quantity of Methane back to the
loading port to keep the temperature sufficiently low.
The one exception to this is after repairs or drydock. In such a case, the cargo tanks have to be
purged of air and other gases or liquids which might become solid at low temperature and then the
temperature of the system dropped slowly to allow for metal contraction at a normal controllable rate.
Nitrogen can be used to purge the tanks and piping of air, and it in turn can be displaced by
Methane gas. The only way the system can be cooled is by releasing small quantities of L.N.G. liquid
into the ship and allowing it to boil-off as the temperature drops.
L.N.G. is normally transferred from shore to ship by specially constructed flow booms instead of
hoses. Normally large 12"/16" diameter flow booms are used to load L.N.G., and one similarly
L.N.G. vapour boom is used to transfer the gas or boil off displaced by the incoming liquid back to
the shore. Essentially the loading system is a closed circuit similar to that already discussed when
handling L.P.G. such as Butane.
Spring loaded tapes fitted with floats or a Teledip System are used to measure the liquid level in
the individual tanks, and for additional security as well as accuracy, ullage boards are fitted inside the
tanks at or near the top so that the liquid level can be read off through a clear view screen in the
trunkway.

Discharging Methane

Again flow booms are normal practice as opposed to hoses, and once connected up the system
must be purged of all air. The vapour booms have the reverse flow, and this time bring Methane gas
on board to replace the liquid being pumped on shore.
It is worth mentioning that the steel booms and flanges are generally untagged. The moisture in
the atmosphere condenses on the metal surface, icing up flanges and making it difficult to release or
uncouple in an emergency.
Methane is classified as a dangerous Hydro-carbon, and the loading and discharge arrangements
are covered by special regulations in the U.S. and United Kingdom. Normally ship and shore pumps,
as well as the loading system, arc fitted with a number of alarms and some fail safe devices and
controls.
 CHAPTER 15

OIL TANKERS IN BALLAST

Ballast And The Oil Tanker

The main purpose for putting salt water ballast in a tanker is to make sure that the vessel can be
kept under control when she is moved from a dock or jetty, turned in harbour, or making a sea
passage to the next port of call. The amount of ballast required will vary with the size of the vessel, the
weather conditions, as well as a number of other factors which have to be considered.
Masters and officers of oil tankers should be aware of the ballast arrangement plans that the
shipyard has prepared for the individual ship. These plans show the amount of ballast that the vessel
should have on board in good, as well as heavy weather, and the tanks that the ballast should be
loaded into. Each plan is accompanied by a set of graphs which indicate the bending moments,
hogging and sagging stresses that occur during the loading of ballast and unloading ballast. The plans
indicate the right order in which tanks should be filled or emptied as well as the draft of the vessel
for all conditions. Modern vessels are equipped with Loadicators and Computers which make these
calculations quickly and easily, but there is no excuse for failing to understand what is going on. It is
particularly important to understand the stress involved when ballast is loaded simultaneously with
the discharge of cargo, or vice versa.
Ballast can be very useful in correcting a list which results from damage as a result of contact with
a dock or jetty, or when in collision with another vessel. In other circumstances, such as stranding in
bad weather, additional ballast can in certain circumstances help a vessel to stay in position and
prevent movement and working which could do further damage.
Even when in port, ballast can be used to tip a vessel so that the propeller can be examined to
see if one or more blades have been damaged or to repack the stern gland. Care has to be taken that
the vessel is not over-stressed during such an operation. Not all vessels, particularly the larger ones,
can undertake this kind of tipping operation safely.
MARPOL '73/78 Annex 1. Chapter 2. Regulation 9 to 20 inclusive provides the I.M.O.'s
requirements for handling ballast for existing as well as new tankers. Regulation 13 deals with
Segregated Ballast Tanks, Dedicated Clean Ballast Tanks as well as Crude Oil Washing. In summary
the objective is to have S.B.T. or C.B.T. with sufficient capacity to allow:—
(a) the moulded draft (d.m.) in metres (without taking into account any ship deformation) shall
not be less than—

D.m. = 2-0 + 0-02L;

(b) the draft at the forward and after perpendiculars shall correspond to those determined by
the draft amidships (d.m.) as specified in subparagraph (a), in association with the trim by the
stern of not greater than 0-015L;
(c) in any case the draft at the after perpendicular shall not be less than that which is necessary
to obtain full immersion of the propcller(s).

Dirty Ballast
Currently the regulations concerning pollution of the sea by oil are such that any discharge of oil
into the sea is tightly controlled.
Any tanker wishing to do this must not be in one of the special areas, and at least 50 nautical miles
from the nearest land. The vessel must be proceeding en route and is now limited to discharging not
more than 30 litres per mile.
The total quantity the vessel is permitted to discharge is 1/15,000 of her last cargo if she is by
definition an existing tanker. If the vessel is a new tanker only 1/30,000 of her last cargo may be
disposed of in this way. All such discharges must be accounted for in the Oil Record Book. With state
of the art equipment monitoring the escape/or discharge of oil overboard into the sea, the master
129
130 TANKER HANDBOOK
 Kiho Mam in ballast prior to leaving the discharge port.

should, where possible, work on the basis of not discharging any oil overboard at sea. Water from tank
washings must be decanted carefully and any discharge overboard stopped well before there is any risk
of oil escaping. Every effort must be made to discharge contaminated ballast water and tank washing
into slop facilities ashore.

The Use of Double Bottom Tanks For Ballast

Ballast loaded in double bottom tanks can make an oil tanker very stiff and cause her to roll
excessively. It is therefore necessary to make sure that when in the open sea there is sufficient ballast in
the vessel's wing tanks to reduce the G.M.
Double bottoms often collect a considerable amount of sand and/or mud when ballast is loaded
in muddy rivers or docks. When possible they should be flushed out and clean ballast loaded in the
open sea.

The use of Cathodic Protection

As a result of extensive research, it has been found that tanks used exclusively for salt water ballast
suffer from a considerable amount of corrosion. On the 1st July '98. Oil Tankers and Bulk Carriers
arc required by I.M.O. Regulations to take the necessary measures to protect ballast tanks from
corrosion. In the past a number of methods have been used. The use of Cathodic Protection. This
system has been credited with considerable success. Ships with ballast tanks that are uncoatcd arc
fitted with sacrificial metal anodes. These anodes consist of magnesium or other suitable metals.
Provided the interior surface of each tank is clean and free of grease or oil, the salt water sets up a
galvanic couple. The galvanic current attacks the anodes and distributes a protective coating to the
steel work around each anode in the tank.
Unfortunately cathodic protection requires the ballast tanks to be full of salt water for a reasonable
period and on short ballast passages is not so effective. In addition the humidity in empty ballast tanks
on long loaded passages can result in corrosion unless the vessel is fitted with a dehumidifier to keep
the tanks reasonably dry.
 OIL TANKERS IN BALLAST 131

Coatings

In recent years increased use of special anti-corrosion coatings have been introduced for use in
segregated ballast tanks. Such coatings have the advantage of reducing corrosion and keeping the
ballast water clean. Many modern vessels with S.B.T. have all their salt water ballast tanks coated with
Epoxy Coal Tar. Such coatings can, over time, be damaged or lose their effectiveness and need to be
repaired or renewed.
 CHAPTER 16 SMALL COASTAL TANKERS,

INLAND WATERWAY CRAFT AND BARGES

IN recent years, a great deal of publicity has been given to the development of the large ocean going
tanker which brings crude oil from the Middle East, Central and South America. By comparison little
is heard of the small coastal tanker and the various types of self-propelled and dumb barges which play
an important part in distributing refined products from our refineries to various marketing terminals
and storage plants located strategically around the coast and up many a river and canal.
Basically it is still true to say that water transportation offers considerable economic advantages
over the other types of transport, unless there are mitigating circumstances. Improvements in the
operational efficiency of road and rail transport and particularly pipelines, coupled with the fact that
any, or all, of these alternatives can reduce the mileage between a refinery and a particular storage
plant, have increased competition. The small coastal and inland waterway tanker must meet
competition by increasing their general efficiency.
The physical limitations of many of the ports, berths, rivers and canals, impose size limitations
on these craft, and there arc definite limitations to the improvements in carrying capacity which the
designer can build into such vessels. For increased efficiency it is necessary to look in other directions,
e.g. more speed, increased pumping capacity, and improved turnrounds.
Statistics show that the small coastal tanker is in decline in many parts of the world. In the U.S.
there are very few left and have been replaced by alternatives. Large ocean going tankers carry most of
the oil that is shipped by sea around the U.S. coast, but where these larger vessels cannot be used, tank
barges owned by the large tug companies still find plenty of employment. In Europe there is also a
steady decline in the number of small coastal tankers. Around the U.K. coast there are fewer vessels of
this type in service today.
Larger road tankers and more pipelines have played their part in this decline but there arc other
factors which have had a hand in the decline. Many coastal tankers used to find their way up tidal
estuaries on a rising tide and berth at tidal berths, where they discharged and took the ground as the
tide ebbed. Port Authorities with oil pollution in mind, tend to frown on the practice of coastal tankers
sitting aground. In addition the I.M.O. requirements for new vessel to be fitted with double bottom
tanks or for smaller vessels a space between the tank bottom and shell plating. This has increased the
cost of the small coastal tanker and has not provided much incentive to build new vessels.

Small Coastal Tankers

The term "small coastal tanker" is meant to include tankers of 5,000 d.w.t. or less, designed for,
and employed in coastwise trade. As is the case with the larger vessels, coastal tankers are classified by
the type of cargo they carry, and fall into three groups:—
(a) Clean product ships.
(b) Dirty product ships.
(c) Special product ships.
Coastal tankers have a tendency to be built for a specific trade and do not often change from clean
to dirty, or vice versa. Special product ships must be capable of a certain amount of flexibility, and
are generally designed with an alternative cargo in mind.

Construction and General Arrangement of Coastal Tankers

Nearly all coastal tankers are built with a continuous centreline bulkhead. It dividcs-the cargo
tanks into two separate compartments or tanks, so that a vessel with four tanks actually has eight
individual cargo compartments or tanks, four starboard, and four port.
The larger coastal tankers often have expansion trunks, but no summer tanks, as shown in
Diagram la. In all cases the propelling machinery is aft, and in most of the modern and smaller ones
the navigation bridge and accommodation is all concentrated on the after end of the vessel.
132
 SMALL COASTAL TANKERS, INLAND WATERWAY CRAFT AND BARGES 133

Many Governments and Harbour Authorities no longer permit coastal vessels to sit aground when
loading or discharging cargo but there is no doubt that this practice still goes on in some parts of
the world. Most of the old coastal tankers were steamers but today they are generally propelled by
diesel engines. They vary considerably in size and carrying capacity. In appearance, hull form,
principal dimensions and speed do not conform to any one type but tend to be built for a specific
purpose.

Cargo Handling Facilities

With the exception of vessels designed to handle special products, most of the modern coastal
tankers have very simple cargo handling facilities. In the clean trade, the larger coastal tankers
(3/4,000 tons), seldom have more than six tanks, or twelve individual cargo compartments. The older
ones sometimes have a 6-in. or 8-in. Ring Main pipeline system, with single suction in each tank,
and two stream reciprocating pumps in a midship pumproom. The pumproom gives cofferdam type
segregation to the two sets of tanks, and vessels such as this will handle between two and four grades,
with little or no trouble.
The smaller and more modern coasters in the clean trade all have their cargo pumproom aft, and
according to size have one or two diesel driven positive displacement cargo pumps. Most of these
vessels have no boilers, and all ancillary machinery is electrically operated or motivated by a small
diesel engine.
In the dirty trade most modern coastal tankers have their pumprooms aft, as it is necessary for
them to heat some of the fuel-oil cargoes they carry. The cargo tanks arc fitted with heating coils and
the vessel is generally equipped with a small boiler which burns diesel oil. The coils arc frequently filled
with a non-corrosive fluid fed from a reservoir in much the same manner as the central heating system
in a house.
Steam-reciprocating pumps are now largely out of date and have been replaced by diesel- and
electrically-driven pumps of various types.
By comparison with an ocean going tanker, a coaster spends much more of its working life in
loading and discharging cargo, and consequently her cargo handling facilities are subject to a great
deal more use. It is therefore essential that the pumping equipment be robust, simple to operate, and
reliable. The ballast passages for this class of vessel arc very short, and there is a limit to the amount
of maintenance work that the crew can carry out.

Esso Brixfiam. Overall length 196 feet, beam 33 inches. Summer loaded draft 12 feet, 1,082 d.w.t.
134 TANKER HANDBOOK
 S.S. Anteriority. High and dry, overall length 277 feet, beam 41 feel 6 inches. Summer loaded draft 6 feet
6 inches, 2,455 d.w.t.

Loading and Discharging Coastal Tankers

The basic principles in loading and discharging these vessels, lining up for cargo, operating pumps,
etc., are very much the same as those in the big ships. The quantities of oil carried, and the rates at
which they are loaded and discharged are on a reduced scale, but the products are the same, and
require the same segregation and attention.

Sitting Aground in Tidal Berths

The picture of the old steam coastal tanker Anteriority sitting aground alongside the oil wharf in
Cardiff is now a part of history. Neither the ship nor the wharf are in existence today. The wharf and
the surrounding area are now part of a major redevelopment and no doubt the vessel has long since
been scrapped. All this is part of modernisation, but such vessels did achieve a lot and the crews were
very skilled.
Some coastal tanker crews become very experienced is discharging at various types of tidal berths,
particularly those with difficult mud bottoms. By trimming the ship well by the stern, so that when
she takes the bottom she sinks into the mud and lays buried to the propeller boss in a seemingly
inextractable position. As the tide rises, the empty for'd section floats first, and the suction is broken
gradually, along the length of the ship as the water rises. The same tactics and trim in a berth with a
firm bottom might cause damage to the stern frame. The question of whether cargo should be loaded
or discharged when the vessel is aground depends entirely on the regulations, circumstances, size of
ship, and the berth in question. Some countries and ports have bye-laws and regulations which prohibit
tankers carrying low flash products, from lying aground. Others permit them to lay aground but not
to load or discharge this type of cargo while aground.
In those countries and ports which do permit vessels carrying low flash products, as well as high
flash products, to load and discharge while aground, care should be taken to do this only in berths
which are safe for such operations.
 SMALL COASTAL TANKERS, INLAND WATERWAY CRAFT AND BARGES 135

^>VA-f^,;^^W^^

Essa Saltend, Overall length 127 feet, beam 17 feet, draft 7 feet 3 inches, 225 d.w.t.

Inland Waterway Tanker Craft

Inland Waterway Tanker craft vary in size considerably. In the U.K. units of 500/600 tons arc
considered large, and a lot of such vessels have a carrying capacity of only 200 tons. On the Rhine and
other large rivers in Northern Europe a 1,500 ton self-propelled tanker is not unusual. In appearance
these vessels are remarkable for their lack of freeboard and superstructure. Built for calm rather than
rough water, they require less freeboard than a coastal tanker with similar carrying capacity.
Superstructure and masts would not allow them to pass under low bridges which span many rivers and
canals.
From the constructional standpoint these vessels are more closely related to the barge than the
conventional ship, in fact they are often referred to as self propelled barges. In most cases they are
constructed without a centre-line bulkhead, and though many of the larger ones have several tanks and
are capable of carrying two or more grades, each tank extends the width of the vessel. The construction
of Inland Waterway tankers is often governed by regulations or bye-laws in the countries or areas in
which they trade. This is particularly true of rivers on canals which pass through large cities and other
congested areas. In some cases, vessels carrying low flash cargoes are required to have a double skin,
and arc limited as to size and carrying capacity. The propelling machinery and cargo pumproom arc
invariably located aft and arc very similar to those found in similar sized coastal vessels.

Dumb Barges and Dracones

The dumb barge represents the lower end of a long line of vessels which carry petroleum products
in bulk. It ranges in size from the 50 ton barge which has a single tank, to the larger barge with several
compartments capable of carrying two or more grades. The dumb barge has neither engines to propel
itself not pumps to discharge its cargo. It has a simple pipeline system through which oil is loaded,
and the same pipeline system is used to unload. Terminals consistently used by dumb barges arc
generally equipped with a number of positive displacement pumps located on or close to the wharf or
dock used by the barges. These pumps discharge the cargo from the barges with the aid of flexible
suction hoses connected to the barge's cargo manifold.
Fuel oils with a high viscosity arc often transported by barges which are fitted with heating coils
though steam is not available when the barge is in motion. Fuel oil cargoes which require heat to make
them readily pumpable, are loaded with the temperature as high as possible. When the barge arrives
at the discharge point, steam hoses are connected to the barge coil system, and the temperature of the
cargo raised before the discharge commences.
Surprising as it may seem, there has been considerable improvement in the design, method of
towing, and discharge of dumb barges over the last 40 years or so. In the U.S.A. with its big rivers,
locks and complicated Inland Waterway System, a high level of efficiency has been achieved with this
type of craft. A good example of this are the Mississippi Barges.
The dimensions of Mississippi Barges together with the tugs and other propulsion units are largely
136 TANKER HANDBOOK
governed by the depths and widths of the navigable channels and the dimensions of the locks on the
Ohio and Kanawha Rivers.
During the low water season a 300 ft. channel with a minimum depth of 9 ft. is maintained over
the length of the lower Mississippi from Baton Rouge to Ohio. This restricts the loaded draft of barges
to 8 ft. 6 in. for six months in the year, but during the high water season the draft can be increased
to 9 ft. 6 in. The Ohio and Kanawha Rivers have a minimum depth of 9 ft. in the navigable channel,
and the maximum draft permitted is 8 ft. 6 in.
The Ohio River has twenty-six locks (110 ft. x 600 ft.) and the Kanawha River several more
(560 ft. x 360 ft.).

Ten-Barge Tow
This type of tow consists of ten barges each 195 ft. x 35 ft. x 9 ft. 9 in. arranged in a double
column and propelled or pushed by a twin screw tug (2,000/3,600 h.p.) on the upstream leg. The
average speed through the water is 8 m.p.h. and the average cargo 11,600 tons. The total length of the
tow is 7,975 ft. and it has a width of 75 ft.

Integrated Tow

This type of tow has been developed and refined over the last 30 to 40 years. It consists of five
or more barges. The first and last barges arc specially designed; the former to provide a bow shape,
and the latter, a stern filament for a large pusher tug.

DRACO'NK

Dracone being turned under tow.

 SMALL COASTAL TANKERS, INLAND WATERWAY CRAFT AND BARGES 137

It is quite commonplace for an integrated tow to have a length exceeding 1,000 ft. and a capacity
over 12,000 tons. Essentially designed for long river passages, the integrated tow is unsuitable for the
open sea.

Dracones

A Dracone is a type of dumb barge. The word itself is derived from the Greek and means "serpent 11.
It would be wrong, however, to say that a Dracone is just another type of dumb barge. It is a flexible
container which can be towed and is designed to carry liquids lighter than water, not only in sheltered
water, but in the open sea. The Dracone has no compartments; it has one skin of great strength and
resilience which is made of strongly woven nylon, proofed inside with acrylonitrile rubber and coated
outside with Neoprene. The inner lining remains unaffected by all kinds of petroleum products.
This type of flexible vessel or container can withstand rough seas better than any normal barge.
It is more versatile and is just as simple to manoeuvre. Dracones weigh far less than their cargo and
can be easily removed from the water for cleaning, storage, or transport.

Loading and Discharging

The Dracone is loaded and discharged through a hose connection in the stern by means of a
portable pump. The size and capacity of the pump depending on the size of the Dracone. They have
been used commercially in the United Kingdom, Nigeria, and other parts of the world for carrying
cargoes such as kerosene, gas oil, and various other types of petroleum products.
Due to pollution risks, the Dracone has largely fallen out of favour as a substitute for barges
carrying petroleum products.
 CHAPTER 17

MISCELLANEOUS PUMPING DATA

The effect of Atmospheric Pressure

The barometer reading has a definite influence on the suction lift of a pump. With a high
barometer, or high atmospheric pressure, a pump will have a higher vertical lift than with a low
barometer. One pound of additional pressure will give nearly two feet extra of vertical suction lift. The
term suction is used for convenience, but in actual practice it does not exist. A pump is merely a lever
which alters the pressure in one compartment, and enables the difference in pressure between two
adjoining compartments to assist in the transfer of liquid.
An air compressor can be used to displace liquid from a tank, and during the war large numbers
of tankers were fitted with air compressors and connections to their various cargo tanks with the
object of using compressed air as a medium for keeping torpedoed vessels afloat.
Steam ejectors which arc often fitted in cofferdams and other compartments of oil tankers, perform
the same duties as a pump. The steam ejector utilises the rapidly expanding powers of steam to create
a vacuum which draws the liquid out of the tank and allows it to escape overboard.

Absolute Pressure

A ship's pump shows pounds per square inch on its back pressure gauge. This pressure is in excess
of atmospheric pressure. Similarly, when a gauge shows vacuum it illustrates a lack of pressure. 1 inch
of vacuum equals 13-7 Ibs. per square inch, whereas 1 Ib. of pressure equals 15-7 Ibs. per square inch.
Atmospheric pressure being added to both for purposes of comparison.

Vacuum

30 inches of vacuum is a perfect vacuum, and a reciprocating pump in good condition, with air
tight suction lines will create a vacuum of more than 20 inches. Due to working in a seaway, ships'
pumps often have small leaks at the glands and at the expansion joints on the suction pipelines.
Consequently, the pump does not create such a good vacuum. Vessels at one time were fitted with
barge suctions. This was a connection which pierced the vessel's side halfway up the pumproom, and
to which a hose could be connected. The loose end of the hose was inserted into a barge which tied
up alongside the ship, and the vessel's pump sucked the oil out of the barge. This operation taxed the
snip's pumps to the limit owing to the heights of the suction lift.
The efficiency of the pump is affected by the length of suction pipeline, and the closer the pump is
to the suction, the more efficient it is. Centrifugal pumps do not create such a good vacuum as
reciprocating pumps, and consequently are not cable of lifting liquid as high as a reciprocating pump.

Principles of a Double-acting Steam Reciprocating Pump

The withdrawal stroke on the piston of a reciprocating pump creates a vacuum which opens the
valves in the suction plate of the first pump chamber, and allows the oil to enter. While the piston is
withdrawing and creating a vacuum in one chamber, it is compressing the liquid in the other chamber,
thus forcing the delivery valves into the open position, and allowing the liquid to pass out of the
chamber. The quick succession of perfectly timed piston strokes means a continuous flow of oil
through the pump. The valves in both the suction and delivery plates ensure the one-way passage of
the oil, therefore these pumps are known as positive displacement pumps.
When the air enters a pump chamber, the stroke of a pump becomes more rapid, as air is
compressible, and pressure has to be built up before it can be forced through the valves. Steam
reciprocating pumps are generally fitted with air vessels which are situated on top of the pump and
which collect any small quantities of air, or gas, which may pass through the pump, thus keeping the
138
By Courtesy of Hay ward, Tyler & Co., Ltd. Diagram 8. — Horizontal Steam Reciprocating Pump.
MISCELLANEOUS PUMPING DATA 13
9
Two Stage Centrifugal Pump.
By Courtesy of Drysdale & Co.
A I (Art
Diagram 9a. Diagram 9b.
pipelines full of oil, and avoiding unnecessary pulsation and vibration at the hoses and hose
connections.
The pump chambers are fitted with test cocks which allow gas and air to be released from the
pump, when the pump is gassed up.

Draining with Reciprocating Pumps

Reciprocating pumps are far better suited for draining than centrifugal pumps. They will not lose
suction when small quantities of air mixed with oil enter the pump, and as a result will drain tanks far
drier than a centrifugal pump, which docs not require much air to make it lose suction. When draining
with a reciprocating pump, the speed of the pump should be reduced till the pump has a nice easy
stroke, and the gauge shows a maximum vacuum. The pump can safely be left running until it is heard
to suck air in the tank. By shutting down the suction valve, and reducing the aperture, the pump is
assisted in draining the tank dry.
140 TANKER HANDBOOK

Principles of a Two Stage Centrifugal Pump

The oil enters the centrifugal pump through the eye of the first stage impeller from which it is
thrown out by revolving motion of the impeller. It then passes up the inter-stage pipe to the second
stage, where it is thrown out again by the second impeller. The speed and centrifugal motion of the
impellers can be likened to a bucket with a hole in the bottom. If the bucket is swung at speed, through
a complete circle, the only water which leaves the bucket comes through the hole in the bottom, in
the form of a jet under pressure.
When air enters a centrifugal pump, it generally means that the pump will stop pumping and lose
suction. The inter-stage pipe, which is the highest point in the pump, is fitted with an air cock, which
can release air when opened. Each stage in the pump is fitted with a test cock, so that the progress of
the liquid through the pump can be tested and gas and air released should the pump lose suction owing
to the presence of as mixture of gas and air.

Draining! with Centrifugal Pumps

Draining with centrifugal pumps depends entirely on being able to keep air out of the pump.
Whirlpools and eddies around the suction often allow sufficient air to reach the pump for suction to be
lost. For this reason, when using this type of pump on tanks where the level of the liquid is dangerously
low, it is advisable to shut in the suction and partly crack open another tank to help feed the pump. In
this manner the rush of oil from the low tank is reduced and less likely to create whirlpools, and at the
same time the pump is obtaining sufficient oil from the full tank to compensate for the oil lost when the
suction valve was shut in. Centrifugal pumps arc often fitted with a vacuum line which leads to a
draining pump, the principle being that any air or gas entering the pump is immediately drained off by
the vacuum or draining pump before the main pump has time to lose suction.
It is not always possible to leave a tank which is being drained for a visit to the pumproom to see if
the pump still retains its suction, and in some tanks, even with the aid of a good gas-tight torch, the oil
motion is not apparent. Diagram 9a illustrates a pump working properly with oil leaving the tank. The
removal of the oil from the tank creates a vacuum. This draws air from the outside atmosphere
through the ullage plug. When a pump loses suction, the oil in the pipeline drains back into the tank,
displacing the gas and air inside the tank, which leaves via the ullage plug, see Diagram 9b. By placing
a square of cloth over the ullage plug, it is possible to tell whether the pump has lost suction or is
pumping properly. When pumping properly, the square of cloth tends to be pulled into the tank, and
when suction is lost, it billows outwards like a tent.
In many modern ships the discharge is regulated from the control room and cargo tanks are
inerted. In such circumstances, it is not practical to open ullage caps and test the suction with a square
of cloth. Such ships frequently have instrumentation which helps the operator control the situation.
Tank ullage remote readout allows personnel to see when the ullage in any particular tank is
becoming critical. The pump revolutions can be reduced and vacuum pump started remotely. The
pump gauges show the suction and back pressure. In some circumstances partly closing a discharge
valve will steady the pump so it will retain suction longer.
If the pump loses suction the revolutions will rise and should be shut down, but most pumps will
trip when the load decreases and the pump revolutions will increase significantly.
When the centrifugal pump is stopped, the remaining oil should be removed with a positive
replacement pump or eductor.
When C.O.W. is being undertaken the bulk of the liquid should be removed with the main cargo
pump, but when the bottom is being washed a stripping pump or eductor is preferable.

Various Stages of Pumping out a Tank

As illustrated in sketches A, B. C, D, oil may be seen leaving a ship's tank and passing via pump
and pipeline to a shore tank.
Sketch A shows the pump when stopped, with suction and delivery valves open. Suction gauge is
showing a pressure of 12 Ibs., and the delivery gauge a pressure of 30 Ibs.
Sketch B shows the pump in motion. The suction gauge shows 2 Ibs. of pressure, or in other words,
the energy developed by the pump has reduced the value of the suction head to 2 Ibs. The back
pressure gauge shows a pressure of 40 Ibs. and is a measure of the energy developed by the pump in
overcoming the static head.
MISCELLANEOUS PUMPING DATA 14
1
 S
.2 a)
*a
142 TANKER HANDBOOK

Sketch C shows a reduced suction head and a small vacuum. Should the pump be stopped at this
stage the suction head would still flood the pump suction, but owing to its loss of height it no longer
feeds the pump as fast as the pump can take it, hence the 2-in. vacuum. The back pressure has dropped
slightly to 38 Ibs. which is the result of the loss of suction head, the pump no longer pumping on a full
tank.
Sketch D shows the level of the liquid below the centre line of the pump, and illustrates the amount
of suction lift. The suction gauge is showing 14 ins. of vacuum, and the back pressure gauge is showing
35 Ibs., another drop as the pump is now having to lift the oil.
Note. — The figures shown on these sketches for pressure and vacuum are only examples.

Priming Pumps

When a pump loses suction as a result of excessive suction lift, or gas or air entering the pump,
the pump needs to be primed before suction can be regained. When a full tank is available, the suction
head can be utilised to flood the pump chambers, and the gas and air released from the pump via
the air cock. A centrifugal can be primed whilst the pump is stopped or stationary, but a reciprocating
pump must be put in motion. When no suction head is available, the static head is utilised by opening
the drop valve and allowing the oil to reach the suction and fill the pipeline.

Suction Supply Conditions

Atmospheric pressure (approximately 14-7 Ibs.) exerts a pressure on the surface of the liquid being
pumped. It is the source of energy which causes the liquid to flow through the suction line as far as
the pump, only when the liquid reaches the pump does the pump take over and superimpose conditions
on the flow. Atmospheric pressure is for convenience converted into terms of liquid head when
pumping problems arc under consideration, and in terms of water is represented by a column 34 feet
high. Atmospheric pressure varies from place to place with altitude and latitude, therefore the pressure
it exerts is also variable, and this fact must be carefully borne in mind.

Suction Head

It is possible that the liquid head representing atmospheric pressure may be supplemented or
increased by an actual liquid head consisting of the head or column of the liquid being pumped. The
liquid head is measured from the centre line of the pump to the surface of the liquid above the pump
and is expressed in feet and inches.

Suction Lift

Sometimes however, the level of the liquid being pumped is below the centre line of the pump.
The distance measured vertically from the surface of the liquid to the centre line of the pump is
referred to as the suction lift. The energy required to lift or push the liquid up the suction pipe as far
as the pump is proportionate to the amount of suction lift, and results in a considerable loss or
reduction in the head created by atmospheric pressure.

Friction Losses

A considerable loss of energy or reduction in head is due to friction caused by the flow of liquid
as it passes through the strum and the entrance to the suction pipe. Friction losses arc increased by
any bends, valves and strainer plates that may be encountered between the tank and the pump suction.
It is also true to say that friction losses are proportionately higher with smaller bore pipes than with
large ones, whilst the greater the velocity of the liquid through a given size pipe, the greater will be the
friction losses.
It should be reasonably clear by now that great care has to be taken in designing and installing
the suction supply lines in a ship's pumping system, as there is a definite limit to the energy or head
available for supplying liquid to the cargo pumps. It is not sufficient for the suction head to be capable
 MISCELLANEOUS PUMPING DATA 143

of supplying liquid to the pump, it must be capable of accelerating the liquid through the length of
the suction line at sufficient speed to keep the pump properly fed. In addition to accelerating the liquid
to keep pace with the requirements of the pump there must also be sufficient reserve head or pressure
left to stop the liquid from vaporising.

Pump Performance

Several different types of pumps have been described in Chapter 2 most of them working on
entirely different principles, and deriving their motive power from such varied sources as steam
engines, turbines, diesel and electric motors. The one thing all these pumps have in common is their
ability to convert a given amount of energy into terms of velocity and pressure and superimpose these
conditions on the flow of liquid. In other words when running at a given speed, a pump displaces a
given volume of liquid against the resistance to flow of that liquid.
A pump will stop transferring oil from a tank when the Nett Positive Suction Head (N.P.S.H.)
reaches a given value in which all the plus factors have been reduced by suction-flow conditions, such
as suction lift, friction losses, etc., to a point that normal atmospheric pressure is insufficient to move
the oil into the pump.

Resistance to Flow

The resistance to flow which the pump has to overcome is composed of the following:—
1. The internal resistance to flow of the particular liquid being pumped. Liquids with a high
viscosity provide more resistance to flow than those with a low viscosity.
2. Friction in the discharge pipeline.
3. The static head or liquid head measured from the centre line of the pump vertically to the
surface of liquid in the shore tank.
A practical indication of the resistance to flow is the pressure indicated on the pump discharge or
back pressure gauge. For practical purposes pump performance and the resistance to flow are often
expressed graphically. The pump's performance being depicted by what is known as a head capacity
curve, which shows the relationship between the head and the volume of the particular liquid being
pumped. A resistance curve, on the other hand, will illustrate the measure of resistance to be expected
in a given size and length of pipeline with a given volume of liquid passing through it. These curves
are very useful in estimating performance under different conditions.

Cavitation.

Cavitation effects centrifugal pumps as well as reciprocating pumps. Should the supply of liquid
be restricted so that a portion of the liquid passes into vapour immediately in front of the bucket of a
reciprocating pump or the impeller of a centrifugal pump cavitation takes place. When discharging
low flash products in warm climates, or products such as crude oils that require heating, cavitation
occurs much more easily, especially as the level of the oil falls below the suction lines and it has to be
lifted higher and higher. The liquid flashes off into vapour filling the pump suction and eventually
the suction line, bringing pumping operations to a standstill.
To counter such conditions, the obvious answer would be a reduction in the temperature of the
cargo. This can be effected in the case of cargoes that are being heated, by reducing or cutting off the
heating in plenty of time. In the case of spirit cargoes in warm climates, however, there is no such easy
solution, but it sometimes helps if the discharge is arranged so that draining operations are done
during the night, thus taking advantage of any drop in temperature that might be experienced after the
sun has gone down. As has previously been mentioned, the speed of a reciprocating pump should be
reduced to give the pump a chance to fill with liquid, whilst the centrifugal pump should be assisted at
this stage by the small gas extractor pump provided, this pump will draw off the gas and air before
it reaches the impeller and breaks the flow of oil through the centrifugal pump. It sometimes helps a
centrifugal pump if the discharge valve is throttled in against the pump, thus reducing the flow of oil,
thereby helping to maintain pressure with the reduced quantity available.
Increasing use is being made of automated and semi-automated priming devices involving vacuum
assistance for centrifugal pumps. Tankers equipped in such a way are able to reduce the amount of
144 TANKER HANDBOOK

oil left for the stripping system to handle, and in some cases strip the tanks with the main pumps, thus
eliminating the need for stripping pumps and systems.
Such priming devices require each pump to be equipped with a tank or vertical cylinder, which is
fitted into the suction line so that oil passing into the pump passes through it. When discharging from
full tanks the cylinder is normally full of oil, and the high and low level electronic sensors fitted in
the cylinder arc covered, and the discharge proceeds normally.
The two electronic sensors are connected to the controls of a vacuum pump which takes suction
from the top of the cylinder. The low level sensor starts the pump and the high level sensor stops it. As
the N.P.S.H. reduces, gas can be expected to gather in the top of the cylinder till first the high level
and then the low level sensors are uncovered. When the latter is uncovered, the vacuum pump is
started and removes the gas which in turn allows the liquid level in the cylinder to rise. When it covers
the high level sensor, the vacuum pump stops.
The low level sensor is located at a level reasonably well above which the Minimum Nett Suction
Head is reached. In this way suction conditions can be controlled so that the pump does not lose
suction.
In earlier devices of this type a float was used to start and stop the vacuum pump. More
sophisticated versions used for actually draining tanks have priming tanks and the capability to adjust
the main pump speeds automatically as the vacuum pump is started.

Pumps in Series

Under normal conditions there is nothing to be gained by passing oil from one pump to another
before it is discharged ashore. Pumps are as a rule quite capable of dealing with the usual back
pressures experienced during routine discharges. Sometimes, however, a pump may be unable to lift
the oil to the pump and discharge it against a normal but high back pressure. Under these
circumstances it is sometimes advantageous to put one pump sucking from the tank in question and
discharging into the suction of the other. In this way the pump discharging ashore is assisted by having
its suction flooded with oil from the discharge of the first pump, with the suction under pressure the
second pump will be able to build the pressure higher, and as a result stands a better chance of
delivering the oil against a big back pressure.
As a general rule it is advisable to restrict this practice to reciprocating pumps. The pump
discharging ashore should be started first, followed immediately after by the pump drawing from the
tank; careful checks on the back pressure and suction gauges should be made at frequent intervals and
the speed of the pumps adjusted accordingly. There is nothing to be gained by putting two centrifugal
pumps in series, and under certain conditions the pressure build up may prove dangerous. Sometimes
one or more stripping pumps (reciprocating or rotary) are used to feed a main pump (centrifugal),
though it is generally necessary to throttle in the discharge valve against the pump, and if possible
reduce the revs., in order that the pump can adjust itself to the reduced quantity of oil that will be
passing through it.

Containing Overflows

For one reason or another, even on a highly organized vessel, accidents occur, resulting in the
overflow of oil from one or more tanks. Unfortunate as this may be, quick action in stopping the flow
of oil, and containing the spillage on board, minimises the damage and prevents the pollution of
harbour waters.
Most oil terminals have regulations which strictly enforce the use of scupper plugs to minimise
oil leakage overboard, should there be any accidents whilst the vessel is loading or discharging. The
terminal also supply Emergency Stop apparatus for stopping shore pumps.
Unfortunately, the depth of scuppers in a large number of modern vessels does not exceed 2 in.,
and unless additional action is taken to stop overflows the oil easily overflows from the scuppers.
Sawdust and sand are very useful in containing overflows. It should be standard practice to have a
supply of sawdust available both on the fore deck and main deck whilst loading operations arc in
progress. It is useless having the sawdust in a container stowed in the centre-castle or forward stores,
as whilst it is being located and brought to the scene of spillage, the damage is done.
In the case of dirty oils such as crude, once the oil has been contained, it can be drained back into
one of the cargo tanks, by removing a Butterworth plate, and sweeping all free oil through the opening.
However, it is advisable to remove all oil impregnated sand and sawdust in drums, for disposal ashore.
 MISCELLANEOUS PUMPING DATA 145

With clean oil, the spillage should not be returned to the tank unless permission is received from the
shore.
In the case of oil spillage from leaking lines and connections, this can be contained in drip trays,
which should be emptied every few hours. Failure to empty these trays at regular intervals means that
the oil reaches the scuppers and though in very small quantities might easily be floated overboard,
should rain or leaking fresh water hoses fill the scuppers. Drip trays are a permanent feature under all
main cargo and bunker manifold connections. These trays may have to deal with significant spillage
and are generally emptied through special small bore piping, cither by pump or gravity.

Safety Hints whilst Handling Oil

From time to time accidents occur which result in loss of life through gas accumulating in
pumprooms. Modern vessels are fitted with gas ejectors and these should always be kept in a working
condition, and switched on before commencing any loading or discharging operations. The gas is
generally in the pumprooms as a result of leakage from pumps and pipelines, and one way of ensuring
a gas-free pumproom is to reduce the number of leaks to a minimum, also regular pumping out of
the pumproom bilges, and flushing with salt water.

Line Clearance with Water

As previously mentioned, according to the latest theories, line clearing by using water between
grades, should be kept to an absolute minimum. Oil and water mixtures generate an electric charge,
through friction of the molecules in the pipeline. After passing out of the pipeline, the water sinks to
the bottom, and the oil floats to the top, each containing an electrical charge. The charge in the water
will discharge from contact with the steel sides and base of the tank, but the oil floating on the surface
of the tank, docs not so readily lose its charge of electricity. The danger lies in the fact that as more
water and oil enter the tank the charge on the surface is increased, until eventually when the charge is
strong enough, and the gap just right, the charge earths itself in the form of a spark which jumps from
the surface of the liquid to a metal contact at the top or side of the tank. Should the atmospheric
conditions in the tank contain the correct combination of gas and air, an explosion will occur.
The reasons why low flash products cannot be loaded overall through an open ended hose is due
to the possible build up of static electrical charges resulting in a possible explosion.
Experiments carried out with the object of determining the strength of static charges built up by
different liquids flowing through different lengths and sizes of pipes, show that most liquid hydro -
carbons build up small static charges when flowing through steel pipes. However, in most cases these
charges disperse rapidly. It was found that static charges of quite considerable strength were built up
when the liquid was accelerated through a small bore pipe. With certain products even at quite
moderate rates of flow, a strong electrical charge was built up. It was also noted that the stronger
charges took considerably longer to disperse under normal conditions.

Bonded Cables

In order to safeguard against accidents when the shore hoses are being connected or disconnected
in a petroleum vapour laden atmosphere, and to help any static charges to disperse as quickly as
possible, bonded cables or earth wires are used at some terminals to connect the ship to the shore. The
bonded cable or wire is generally clamped to a section of bare metal on the ship, preferably one of
the pipeline crutches or supports near the manifold. This operation is always performed before the
hoses are connected.
 CHAPTER 18 LIGHTERING

OPERATIONS

OIL tankers frequently use barges to take on bunkers, fresh water and stores, as well as to load and
discharge cargo when the vessel is unable to get alongside due to draft restrictions. In recent years Port
Authorities have become much stricter in controlling such operations, but the controls vary
considerably from port to port.

Bunkering and Storing from Barges

As a general rule tankers carrying high-flash products arc treated in the same way as dry cargo
ships with non-dangerous cargo. A tanker loaded with crude or low-flash products is generally
required to stop loading or discharging, and secure cargo tanks while the bunkering or store barge is
alongside. There are exceptions to this. Some ports will allow a barge alongside provided it is not
moored along that section of the ship which is directly opposite any of the cargo tanks. In certain
European ports where tankers discharge in special petroleum basins these rules are relaxed, but special
precautions are taken by making the barge anchor off and keep a minimum distance from the ship's
side. The bunker barge has to be specially built and equipped with an extended bunker arm and hose
to reach the vessel.
There are certain risks involved in bunkering an oil tanker from a barge which cannot be
overstresscd. Normally, the barge has a lot less freeboard than the tanker, and the barge crew cannot
see what is going on aboard the ship. It is therefore, essential that there be a deck watch on both
vessels, who have a mutual understanding with regard to the necessary signals for starting, controlling
and stopping the flow of oil. If available, U.H.F. portable radio sets facilitate communication.
Another factor is the barge moorings. Even when anchored off, the barge will require two or more
moorings on the tankers to assist her maintain position, these arc frequently subject to shock loads
caused by passing traffic making the heavily-laden bunker barge move and roll. It is therefore, of
primary importance that the moorings are sufficient, both with regard to quality and quantity. The
hose is generally connected by the crew and should be supervised while it is being connected so that

Oil tanker bunkering and storing from barges.

146
 LIGHTERING OPERATIONS 147

the gasket is correctly installed, and the bolts tightened to give a good leak-proof connection. The hose
or hoses should be rigged so that there is sufficient slack on board, and that normal barge movement
won't exert a strain on the connection.

Lightering Low-Flash Cargoes

In some countries the lightering of tankers handling low-flash products is prohibited. In others it
is permitted under fairly strict controls exercised by the Harbour Authority or other administrative
body.
These controls vary considerably, but as a general rule have as an objective:
(i) To limit the areas where such operations can be undertaken so that other users of the port
will be affected as little as possible as a result of any mishap or disaster, resulting from the
operation.
(ii) To monitor the operation so that improper equipment is not used, thus endangering the lives
of crew members on board both the tanker and the lighter.
When loading low-flash products from a lighter or barge, whether it be alongside a dock or at
anchor, the operation should be treated with the same care and attention that loading such products
from a dock requires.
A check-list covering all the safety measures should be filled out after an item by item check by a
responsible officer. The check list should include a dry run on the communication media for starting
and stopping the lighter's pumps, the display of the cofrccl signals and warning notices to other vessels
and'small craft, as well as internal safety requirements for the tanker itself.
When discharging low-flash products into a barge or lighter, much the same precautions arc
required. In this case the roles are reversed and the lighter is on the receiving end. Extra caution has to
be exercised as the lighter may not be capable of taking the oil at high rates, and the tanker's pumps
must be adjusted to give the desired rale and nothing more. Starting and stopping can be critical, and
where no automation or "panic buttons" arc available, the engine room staff should be alerted as to
the needs of such an operation.

Lightering U.L.C.C.s and V.L.C.C.s

Due to the fact that the number and size of V.L.C.C.s and U.L.C.C.s has steadily outpaced the
growth of ports which can handle these large vessels. The pressure to lighter these vessels in the open
sea or in sheltered bays, to a draft which would allow them to enter such ports has increased over the
years. Lightering operations have been undertaken in many locations with various sizes of tanker,
many of them spasmodic and on a once only basis, to meet a particular requirement. During the war
the need to replenish bunker supply of whole fleets while at sea and warships escorting convoys saw a
more organised system come into being. These wartime operations provided a lot of useful experience,
some of which has proved useful when considering the problem of lightering large oil tankers.
In Northern Europe some International Oil Companies equipped a number of medium sized
tankers as lightering ships with special equipment

Lightering Vessel Equipment

Fenders

The lightering vessels are equipped with special fenders, normally the main fender system consists
of four heavy duty pneumatic fenders which will float in salt water and have a high-energy absorption
factor. On the smaller ships, each fender weighs about 5-4 tons and has a length of 6-5 metres, and a
diameter of 3-3 metres. The bigger vessels have larger fenders. The fenders are housed on special raised
platforms when not in use. When required for lightering, they are hoisted outboard on special davits
and lowered into the water till they are afloat. The four main fenders are normally arranged so that
they cover the lightering vessel's port side, and are spaced and securely moored at equal distances
along the parallel body. Smaller secondary pneumatic fenders are used to protect the hull plating on
the port side at either extremity of the ship. These small fenders are housed on small cradles and are
LIGHTERING OPERATIONS 14
9
 Hoses and cranes used for lightering

The Lightering Manual provides guidance as to the documentation required to meet the legal
requirements of such a transfer of oil, as well as the necessary steps to be taken in case of any pollution
which might occur during the operation. .
The Master of each ship is responsible for the safety of his vessel at all times, both with regard
to navigation and the transfer of oil. In most cases there is a high level of co-operation between the
two ships' Masters and their respective crews.

Mooring the Lightering Vessel

At first it was the practice to bring the V.L.C.C. to anchor in the approved anchorage, after which
the lightering vessel made her approach and moored on the starboard side of the V.L.C.C. It was
found that this procedure had very definite limitations, as the deeply-laden V.L.C.C. responded to
wind and current by swinging to her anchor. The motion of the anchored vessel was not always
predictable and in marginal weather conditions the approach and mooring operation became quite
hazardous. Trials with gas-free vessels revealed that it was easier to moor with both ships underway,
and to anchor the V.L.C.C. after the mooring operation was completed.
Using the new technique the V.L.C.C. steers for the agreed anchorage on a fixed course which
takes into account current and tide, as well as the prevailing weather. The V.L.C.C. adjusts her speed
to approximately 3 knots, and the lightering vessel begins her approach about five miles from the
intended anchorage.
As a general rule, the approach is made from the V.L.C.C.'s starboard quarter, the lightering vessel
gradually overtakes the V.L.C.C. and reduces speed as she comes up parallel with the big ship. The
fenders are lowered into the water and secured well before the lightering vessel commits herself, while
the davits are swung back inboard to make sure that nothing but the fenders will make contact with
the other ship.
As the bows of the lightering vessel come level with the V.L.C.C.'s midship cargo manifold, a light
line is fired across her foredeck by means of which a heavier messenger line and mooring rope are hauled
on board the V.L.C.C. in quick succession. The object at this point is to get mooring lines out at both
ends of the ship, so that they can be used to control the lightering vessel and bring her in parallel to
the other vessel First contact is generally on the forward main fender, which compresses and deflects
the bow away from the V.L.C.C., bringing the after fenders into line against the other ship's side. Once
moored securely, the V.L.C.C. reduces speed through the water and proceeds to anchor.
150 TANKER HANDBOOK
 Within the above framework the technique will vary with the ship's equipment, weather conditions
and manoeuvring skills of the lightering vessel's Master. Vessels fitted with a Doppler are able to
measure the speed over the ground exactly, which helps in a manoeuvre such as this. At least one of
the lightering vessels is equipped with a bow thruster, which undoubtedly facilitates the final moments
of the approach, as well as the departure of the lightering vessel from the V.L.C.C.
Obviously the co-ordination requires that nothing be left to chance on either ship in preparing
for such an operation. An item by item check-list is perhaps the only way of avoiding errors caused by
human limitations of operating personnel.

The Transfer of Cargo

The lightering vessel does not normally discharge any ballast from her cargo compartments. Some
lightering vessels are equipped with S.B.T. and may discharge ballast from these tanks as required.
Usually any ballast carried in cargo space is retained on board, and the vessel's cargo system has been
lined up and made ready to load prior to mooring alongside the V.L.C.C.
The lightering vessel's crew hook up the hoses and the transfer operation commences as soon as
the V.L.C.C. can open her valves and start her pumps. The lightering vessel will stipulate and control
the rate at which she loads, and to do this it is very necessary that good communication should be
established between the V.L.C.C.'s cargo control room and the lightering vessel. Usually U.H.F.
portable radios arc used for this purpose.
Both ships have to maintain a deck watch as well as the normal bridge watch while they are at
anchor. Fire hoses must be rigged, and engines kept on standby in case the weather deteriorates, or an
emergency occurs. The normal warning signs and signals must be displayed the whole time the
operation is in progress. Obviously all precautions necessary to avoid pollution must be taken.
Scuppers must be plugged on both ships, in addition to which the lightering vessel should have a
supply of chemical dispersant ready to spray on any oil-slick caused by an overflow or leakage. In most
cases a motor launch is swung out on the starboard side away from the V.L.C.C., ready to be lowered
and help with any such operation by spraying chemical on the slick and agitating it with her screw.
On completing loading and the necessary cargo documentation completed, the hoses are uncoupled
and stowed back on board the lightering vessel. If both vessels are proceeding it is normal for the
V.L.C.C. to pick up her anchor and get underway before the lightering vessel unmoors. The forward
motion facilitates the separation of the two vessels with the minimum of engine movements.

Lightering vessel leaving V.L.C.C. with full load.

 LIGHTERING OPERATIONS 151

Conditions Governing Lightering Operations

Lightering operations are seldom started if the sea and swell condition exceeds four feet. When
the weather deteriorates unexpectedly during such an operation, lightering is sometimes continued by
the mutual agreement of the two masters. It would appear that with six-foot seas the fenders become
unmanageable, and in most cases it is necessary to break off the operation. Normally lightering
operations arc timed to start in daylight, but if weather conditions are good enough and both masters
are agreeable, the mooring operation can be undertaken at night.
It is essential on safety grounds that both vessels' inert systems arc working properly.
In Chapter 1 we mentioned that the U.S.C.G. had established three lightering areas in the Gulf
of Mexico (with the possibility of more to follow). These lightering areas are under the control of
the U.S.C.G. Vessels using these areas for lightering operations have to comply with the require -
ments laid down by the U.S.C.G., even though the operations take place sixty miles off the U.S.
coast.
From an operational standpoint the operation in Northern Europe and in the Gulf of Mexico arc
similar, but there are major differences. In Europe a V.L.C.C. lightering in Lyme Bay to reduce the
vessel's draft so that she can enter Southampton Water or Rotterdam only needs to unload enough
cargo into the lightering vessel to achieve the required draft. In normal circumstances she will fill the
lightering vessel up. She will then proceed to her discharge port in the normal way.
In the Gulf of Mexico the V.L.C.C. needs to get rid of her, whole cargo. This means that she
may have to fill up two or more smaller tankers which will then proceed to one or more ports on the
U.S. Gulf Coast. Fitting out one or more lightering vessels was judged not to be economic or suitable
for lightering operations in the Gulf of Mexico. Except for periods during July to October (Hurricane
Season) the weather in the Gulf of Mexico is reasonably good and it was decided that all the necessary
lightering equipment could be loaded on an oilfield supply boat which could take the lightering
equipment out to the V.L.C.C. and help rig it on the vessel's starboard side. The same equipment could
then be used by several lightering vessels and could be removed from the V.L.C.C. before she was
ready to depart.
The Meridian Lion, a double hulled tanker with a m.d.w.t. of approximately 274,000 tons on
charter to the Kuwait Petroleum Co.: delivered a cargo of Kuwait Crude to Scarivcr Maritime Inc.:
which was discharged into lightering vessels in one of the special Lightering Zones 60 miles off the
Coast of Texas. The operation covered a period of several days in very good weather.
All the vessels involved had double hulls and were very modern ships with cargo systems which
incorporated the latest technology. It is not proposed to cover in detail the mooring and transfer of
cargo between each of these vessels which is similar to that already described for similar operations in
Northern Europe. Instead the author would like to concentrate on the planning and overall execution
of such an operation.
The Meridian Lion loaded her cargo in Kuwait and the owners and charterers have to plan for
the long voyage from the Persian Gulf to Offshore Texas in the Gulf of Mexico. Bunkers and stores
for the voyage have to be considered. The amount of bunkers is quite critical. It is easy to bunker for
the loaded passage in Kuwait, but this would reduce the amount of cargo that could be loaded. The
owners and the master must work out with a great deal of care to what depth the vessel can load
legally as she crosses from one zone to another for the entire route. They must also consider the cost
of bunkers at several locations, such as Capetown and other bunkering ports en route through the
Caribbean. Port charges and possible delays have also to be taken into consideration. Sometimes the
amount of cargo will be restricted by agreement with the receivers due to the size and availability of
the lightering vessels.
The cargo receiver has to be kept informed on all matters including cargo quantity and any changes
in E.T.A. caused by bad weather and other factors. The U.S.C.G. have to be informed of all the details
of the proposed operation. This includes timing as well as the name of the lightering vessels so that a
check can be made on each vessel.
Apart from the practical operational requirements, such as arranging for the supply boat to take
the fenders and hoses out to the lightering zone, arrangements have to made for the transportation of
officials, and other personnel such as mooring masters and independent petroleum inspectors if
required. This is generally done by helicopter.
Seariver Maritime Inc.: used, for this operation, three chartered vessels:-
(1) The Neptune Otome — a double hulled vessel of about 92,000 d.w.t.
(2) The Sanko Quest a double hulled vessel of about 96,000 d.w.t.
(3) The Gaelano Alseio -- a double hulled vessel of about 80,000 d.w.t.
152 TANKER HANDBOOK
 Meridian Lion,

Neptune Olome coming alongside Meridian Lion.

LIGHTERING OPERATIONS
15
3
Fender System for Meridian Lion
Helicopter used for transferring personnel to Meridian Lion.
154 TANKER HANDBOOK

The objective was to berth and load the Neptune Olome first on the 29th of May, To berth the
Sanko Quest on the 30th of May after the Neptune Otome had departed. The Neptune Olome was to be
followed by the Gaetano Alseio the last vessel to load from the Meridian Lion. This vessel was
scheduled to berth and start loading on the 31st of May and to complete on the 1st of June.
On this occasion everything went very much to plan, but in planning an operation on this scale
things can go wrong particularly if the weather gets bad.
Such a lightering operation has advantages and disadvantages. To ship a large quantity of crude
oil around the Cape of Good Hope to the Gulf of Mexico in one vessel is economical. To be able lo
redistribute it into three vessels helps considerably. The lightering ships can supply oil to three
refineries or pipeline terminals either in ports located on the U.S. Gulf Coast or one or more of the
vessels can travel round to the East Coast and discharge its cargo at an East Coast Port.
The disadvantages arc those that come from unforeseen delays which prevent or delay the
lightering operation from keeping to plan. If the delay is extensive it can be very costly.
 CHAPTER 19 OIL TERMINALS, DOCKS AND

SEABERTHS

LARGE oil tankers do not normally use the facilities or docks frequented by dry cargo vessels. The
nature of their cargo has made local authorities and the oil industry careful where it locates such
facilities. In general they tend to be built on the fringes of highly industrialised areas in the outer
estuaries of big rivers leading to major ports and similar locations.
In this chapter we are going to look at some of the type of terminals available for loading and
discharging large oil tankers. While not forgetting the requirements of the smaller coastal vessels, it is
felt that they do not require the special facilities and jetty design that large vessels call for.

Oil Docks and Jetties

Diagrams 1, 2 and 3 show typical jetty arrangements normally used by large tankers.
^

<
r
 ___ FLOOD TIDE _________

Diagram 1.
Diagram 2.

Diagram 1 shows a large marginal type which could be Diagram 3.

found at a crude loading terminal in the Persian Gulf or in
some large estuary close to a refinery servicing a large
industrial area.
Diagram 2 shows a typical finger pier likely to be found
in harbours and protected bays servicing smaller refineries «.
and/or large product distribution terminals.
Diagram 3 illustrates a T Head jetty which could be one
of several in a large, crude terminal, or a single berth
servicing a major utility like a power station.
There are other types in use all over the world, each ,
design having advantages and disadvantages; some more
suitable to one set of local conditions than the other, but all
of them specially designed to take the impact load of large
tankers in ballast or fully laden as the case may be.
Jetties are costly structures built with steel piles, concrete
cassons and other expensive equipment. When damaged they
are expensive to repair. The designer and construction
engineer are caught in something of a dilemma when building
jetties for large tankers. Obviously they want to build them
as strong as possible, but the cost of additional strength and
safety factors can be prohibitive for very large tankers.
Much research has gone into examining the problem and
the results have been something of a compromise.
Model tests have shown that a controlled approach with
contact between the ship and jetty at the lowest possible
speeds allow the ship to berth safely without spending a
fortune on the jetties.
Generally speaking large tankers use two or more tugs
and do not berth in unfavourable conditions when weather or
tide or current might cause the vessel to get out of control
or accelerate her motion beyond the limits allowed.
155
156 TANKER HANDBOOK
 Tugs berthing the 170,800 d.w.t. tanker Esto Mercia at the old Esso Refinery at Milford Haven,
which has stopped operating and has been dismantled.

Jetty Design

The approach speed of the ship is of major importance in jetty design, as the basic formula used
to calculate the kenetic energy of the ship indicates:—
W x V2

K.e. = Kenetic Energy

W = Displacement
V ~ Velocity of the ship
g ~ Acceleration due to gravity in ft. per sec/

Approach Speed

It can be seen at once that while the Displacement of the ship is important, the velocity is squared
and therefore a smaller ship travelling at higher speed can do as much or more damage than a big one.
OIL TERMINALS, DOCKS AND SEABERTHS 15
7
Angle of Approach

The angle of approach and contact are also very important, obviously a ship hitting a dock end
on does a lot of damage even at very slow speeds:—
(1) Because the full force of the impact has to be absorbed.
(2) The area of contact is limited to the bow which is virtually a cutting edge.
The ideal way to berth a ship from the Engineer's standpoint is broadside or normal to the jetty.
This reduces the approach speed and gives the broadest possible area of contact between ship and jetty
fendering.
Unfortunately ships are not designed to move sideways and even with the aid of tugs most big ships
make contact with the jetty while lying at a slight angle to the face.
Model tests have shown that these angular landings or impacts can be tolerated provided the angle
is not too great and the forward movement too high, as the vessel tends to pivot on her longitudinal
centre of gravity and absorbs much of the kenetic energy as the bow swings out after impact and the
stern in.
Engineering opinion varies on design theory on the maximum approach speed optimum for design.
According to location, size of ship and the amount of protection from wind and sea. Other factors like
the adequacy of tug assistance have considerable bearing. Designers use approach speeds which vary
from 60 feet a minute to 5 feet a minute.

Fender Design

Tanker jetties arc generally equipped with resilient fendering. Diagrams 4, 5, 6 and 7 show several
different types of resilient fenders used on tanker jetties and designed to take from 20-40 per cent, of
the total impact load.
Diagram 4 shows a concrete jetty protected by a row of fender piles with rubber compression
blocks mounted between the concrete face of the jetty and the head of each pile.
Diagram 5 shows a suspended fender framework incorporating large compression springs behind
the main vertical members of the fender.
Diagram 6 illustrates fender piles protecting a concrete floor of a jetty mounted on steel tubular
piles. The fender piles are protected with heavy rubbing strips and are designed to bend or yield under
load, returning to the vertical once the impact load cases.
Diagram 7 shows a jetty which incorporates Raykin Fenders behind the fender beam. These
fenders consist of laminated steel and rubber leaves and are considered very effective for certain types
of jetty.
DIAGRAM 5,

0 0

c E
£ i i
d f w ^ "Iff
^
158 TANKER HANDBOOK
 P'AfrMM 6.

While covering the berthing aspect of jetty construction, it should be remembered that tankers
berth and unberth at jetties for one or two reasons, which are to load oil or discharge oil, and whilst
they are engaged in doing this, they must be securely moored.

The Mooring Problem

A big ship moored to a jetty may be subject to several different forces, such as wind, current or
tide, sea and swell. These forces may be combined or alternatively opposed to one another, increasing
or decreasing the loads the vessel's-moorings have to take to keep her immobile alongside the dock
Various formulas exist for calculating the load imposed by wind, current, tide, sea and swell, but
when designing a jetty every attempt should be made to locate and orient it so that each of these forces
has the minimum effect.
Because jetties are normally located in sheltered or good-weather areas sea and swell are not
normally a critical factor, and where current or tidal streams are a major factor the jetty is aligned so
that when moored, the ship is end on to the current.

Wind Loads

The problem of mooring a tanker safely at a jetty is very largely linked to the loads imposed by
the wind when the ship is empty, as when she has discharged her ballast and just before she starts to
load cargo. Alternatively, when she has discharged her cargo and prior to taking on ballast.
In such a condition the large tanker is most vulnerable to wind effect. Winds from the bow or stern
have least effect, whilst those from broad on the beam, the most effect, but winds on the offside merely
push the vessel firmly onto the jetty, and provided they are not strong enough to overstress the fender
system, do no harm. Winds blowing the ship off the jetty put the biggest strain on the mooring roped
and mooring points ashore.
How are the mooring loads calculated? First, the area of ship's side has to be calculated with due
allowance for superstructure, funnels, etc., as well as shaped bow and stern section which do not
present a flat, straight surface to the beam wind.
 OIL TERMINALS, DOCKS AND SEABERTHS 159

The next step is to calculate the pressure exerted on the hull in terms of Ibs. per square foot for a
given wind velocity. The result is the total wind load expressed in pounds.
The basic formula used for calculating wind load is:—
K2 ,_____________
P = ™\/l +0-06 (A- 5)
600v v
'
p — Pressure in Ibs. per sq. ft.
V = The wind velocity in miles per hour at a height of 40 ft. h
— The height of the wall or vertical face above ground level, s
— The height of structures or obstacles given shelter to h,
For marine purposes the formula is modified in various ways, e.g. wind velocity is measured or
adjusted to 50 ft. above sea level. For tankers -9 is recognised as the normal height coefficient, but
model tests indicate that the coefficient varies considerably with different sizes and tanker shapes.
Using 1-3 as the tanker shape coefficient, a useful formula is:—

P = -003 (-9K)2
The O.C.I.M.F. have published a book entitled Prediction of Wind and Current Loads on V.L.C.C.s.
This work deals with wind and current load prediction procedures., as well as agreed equations for
computing wind-loads.
The results are obviously more precise than those obtained by the use of the base formula given
above, and are better suited for detailed study of V.L.C.C. ship and dock mooring requirements and
the study of mooring loads under varied conditions.

Current Loads and Forces

Currents are the result of water movement caused by a number of factors, either in combination
or singularly. The outflow of water in a river is perhaps the best-known source of water movement
which sets up current, but tides, storms, earthquakes and seasonal changes can also be responsible.
The force of a current will equal W/2g x V2.
Where W — The weight per cubic foot of water.
V — The velocity of the current in feet per second. g
— 32-2 feet per second.
Rivers in spate sometimes run with a velocity of 10 knots or more, but normally currents of 1 to
4 knots arc normal, and experienced fairly frequently in tidal estuaries used by big ships as well as in
some coastal waters.
Docks are normally aligned with prevailing currents. Current is seldom a controlling factor, though
it may have a major effect on a ship when it is being swung before or after it docks at a particular pier
or jetty.
Obviously the effect of current is proportionate to the draft of the vessel, and has much more effect
when the ship is broadside than end on. There are other factors which make a considerable difference,
such as:—
1. Keel clearance.
2. Shape and cross sectional area of channel.
3. Whether or not the current is working in conjunction with, or against other forces, such as
wind, sea and swell.
The total current force on a ship's hull can be said to be derived from two sources.
(a) The resistance derived from the current striking the vertical underwater side of the ship.
(6) The resistance resulting from the water moving around the underwater perimeter of the hull.
In the latter case, frictional resistance is a major factor, and the difference between a clean and
dirty hull could be significant.
The sum of the two forces is the total of the current force.
Useful formulae for each of the current components are listed below.
Df = Adxhsx 2-86 x V2 F
= Awxklx V 2
160 TANKER HANDBOOK

Where Df — The dynamic force in pounds. Ff =

The frictional force in pounds. Ad ~ The
vertical side of the vessel in sq. ft.
ha — The hull constant for the underwater section of the hull (varies from 0-75 to 1 -00). V
= The velocity of the current in knots. Aw — The underwater area of the hull in sq. ft.
(wetted surface). kl — Underwater hull length constant (normally 0-01 used).
The O.C.I.M.F. publication entitled Prediction of Wind and Current Loads on V.L.C.C.S provides
improved equations for computing current loads where precise dimensional data for the ship is
available.

Waves and Swell

With the increase in the size of ships, particularly tankers, more and more facilities for loading
and discharging large tankers are located in exposed locations, if not in the open sea. In such locations
the effect of sea and swell increases considerably.
It, therefore, becomes necessary to understand something about the behaviour of waves and swell
and the effect they have on vessels moored in exposed locations.
Waves arc normally the result of energy transferred by the wind blowing over the surface of the
sea. The size and horizontal distance between waves is largely the result of the strength of the wind,
the length of time the wind persists, and the area over which it blows. Waves are normally measured
from trough to crest, and the distance between crests is known as the period.
Waves arc influenced by many factors, and arc even caused by things like earthquakes and tidal
bores. They come in all shapes and sizes, and rarely uniform in size or shape.
From an engineering standpoint it has been necessary to quantify waves by measuring them and
providing values which can be used in construction.
The Significant Wave is the average height of the highest one-third of the waves for a stated
interval of time.
Significant waves can be exceeded on occasion by waves of nearly twice the significant height,
and from a practical standpoint the operators of offshore facilities must be careful to appreciate
exactly what the design-significant wave really is and that it can be exceeded.
Large waves are normally associated with the oceans like the Atlantic and the Pacific, where the
land provides no break in the continuity.
The area to windward is known as the fetch, and while the large oceans do produce bigger waves,
the fetch itself is only one of several factors of major significance.
In 1864, Thomas Stevenson provided us with a formula which illustrates the effect of long and
short fetches. He used 30 nautical miles as the dividing line.
His formula for a long fetch was // = \-5*/F
And for a short fetch H = 1-5^/F + 2-5 - </F.
Over the years this basic formula has been modified, but the fundamental truths underlining it
remain.
Storm-winds are, therefore, the predominating generator of large waves. Storms also generate
swell, sometimes at considerable distance from the actual storm location. Swell can proceed or be the
aftermath of a storm.
In effect it is the ripples on the pond which move out from the centre of the disturbance. The waves
generated may be large at first and reduce in size proportionately with the distance travelled.
The distance between the swells may increase the lower they get, and the further they travel. They
can move through still smooth water and retain considerable trough to crest height.
In certain circumstances long low swells can be very dangerous to offshore facilities and vessels
moored to such facilities, as they cause excessive ship motion.
Normally waves and swell arc not factors which have to be seriously considered in the design of
jetties, docks and other tanker facilities located in protected harbours or rivers.
In the open sea, particularly in the higher latitudes, they frequently prevent the use of rigid
structures and require the use of totally new concepts in mooring, as the rigid alongside-mooring
concept is not practical.
 OIL TERMINALS, DOCKS AND SEABERTHS 161

Jetty Mooring Points and Accessories

The bollards, hooks and strong points on a jetty which are subject to mooring loads are designed
to take the pull loads to be exerted by the largest ship likely to use the jetty.
Jetties designed for very large ships have individual mooring points designed to take pull loads of
100 tons or more. The maximum load may only be acceptable over a narrow arc and care has to be
taken when heaving a tanker into position to apply the loads in the correct arc and to distribute the
moorings evenly according to the design requirements. Pilots and dock masters are normally familiar
with these requirements.
Another factor which can lead to problems is the use of different types of moorings such as wire
and nylon. Whilst nylon is extremely strong, it is much more elastic than wire and will stretch much
more before breaking, leaving the wires to take the load.
It is essential that an even strain be kept on all moorings and that no slack develops as the vessel
loads her cargo, ballast, or the tide drops.

Tanker Mooring Concepts and Equipment

Tankers which use jetties and docks in rivers and protected harbours are normally responsible
for providing their own moorings and ropes, and tending these moorings whilst the ship is
alongside.
Most conventional berths provide either breasting dolphins or strong points against which the
tanker is breasted, and moorings arc run to mooring points located at suitable points along the length
of the jetty or dock.
Other than small vessels, the usual tanker has to provide at least 10 mooring lines used as
follows:—
2 Bow lines.
2 Forward breast lines.
1 Forward spring line.
1 After spring line.
2 After breast lines.
2 After stern lines.
When moored in such a way, the concept is based on holding the ship rigidly alongside, and
moorings are tendered to allow for dropping or falling tides.
In some cases extra moorings are required or the shore supply supplementary moorings. Model
tests show that breast lines are normally required to carry higher loads than bow or stern lines, and in
some cases the spring lines are doubled up to permit bow and stern lines to be done away with. The
spare lines fore and aft being used as additional breast lines.
Mooring lines should never be less than 150 metres long for vessels using multi-buoy moorings,
and in some cases 250 metres arc required. Short moorings alongside docks arc dangerous. A
minimum of 60 metres is required outside the leads for breast lines and 80 metres for bigger ships if
the moorings are to be effective.
In the finger pier configuration, breast lines cannot normally be led to advantage, and it is
necessary to double up on springs and bow and stern lines.
Vessels under 20,000 d.w.t. frequently use synthetic ropes, as they are often in and out of port
and use a variety of docks and piers.
In the synthetic range commercially available ropes are made of:—
1. Nylon.
2. Polypropylene.
3. Natural fibres (i.e. manilla, sisal).
It is important to be aware of the limitations of each type.
Nylon is strongest and very elastic, but suffers damage from abrasion and friction. It can also be
dangerous on the barrel of a winch.
Polypropylene is not as strong or as elastic as nylon, but certain types float on water, and if sized
correctly can be very effective moorings.
Manilla and sisal arc seldom used today as they cannot match the synthetic ropes economically
or for strength.
Synthetic ropes can be used and permanently installed on winches. Care must be taken to prevent
162 TANKER HANDBOOK

chafe and protect them from damage from oil and sunlight. Eyes should have chafing leathers, and
the ropes should only be used through roller leads.
Care should be taken not to use mixed mooring systems involving some nylon with polypropylene
moorings or wires. In practice, braid ropes appear to be easier to use and provide longer life than
the normal three-stranded type.
Splicing synthetic ropes calls for different techniques than natural fibre, and it is normal to down
grade ropes with splices in them.
For moorings in normal use, they should be numbered and sized so that under average high-load
conditions, the individual mooring is not stressed beyond 60 per cent, of its safe working capacity.
Additional moorings should be carried and put out in plenty of time to meet emergency or storm
conditions.
Large tankers, such as V.L.C.C.s, U.L.C.C.s and L.N.G. carriers with high freeboard, normally
have wire mooring systems.
The smaller ones carry a minimum of 12 wires mounted on winches. The larger one, 16 or 18 wires.
Sizes of wires range from 90mm. to 150mm. There is a considerable difference of opinion on both
the type and size of wire which can be used in mooring service for maximum effectiveness when using
a wide range of tanker facilities.
Large, heavy wires provide additional strength, but are heavy for boats to pull out to buoys in
multi-buoy moorings. They also are less flexible and require larger drums on the winches. Under load
they can damage turns lower down on the drum.
For the most part, tankers tend to be provided with mooring systems for conventional berths
alongside rigid structures which incorporate the principle of holding the ship as rigid as possible.
Tankers using offshore facilities have to be provided with more flexible systems, and this is taken
care of in two ways:—
1. By orienting the berth or berths to reduce the effect of all major forces.
2. By providing more elasticity in the mooring systems to allow for increased ship movement.
In the case of multi-buoy moorings the flexibility is provided by orienting the berth so that it heads
into the prevailing wind and sea.
The anchors are used on long scopes of chain, and all mooring ropes or wires are considerably
longer than in conventional berths. The buoys to which the moorings are attached have buoyancy and
limited freedom to move. They, therefore, act as shock absorbers and allow a certain amount of energy
to be spent before passing on the load to the chain and anchor system below water.
Jn summary, a tanker moored in an M.B.M. is restrained by the mooring system in the horizontal
plane, except for minor degrees of movement. The effect of sea and swell in so far as they cause the
vessel to pitch, roll and heave, can be tolerated to a far greater extent than when moored alongside a
conventional jetty or dock.
With Single-Point Moorings the problem is approached differently. With all such facilities, the
vessel is moored by the bow only. It has freedom to rotate 360° around the mooring, and will normally
end up head to wind and sea.
This results in reducing the forces on the ship, as the area presented is smaller than with the wind
and sea on the beam.
Frequently special nylon moorings are provided, and these are linked by short lengths of chain to
the ship and S.P.M. Such nylon moorings are used to provide a breaking strain of several hundred
tons.
It follows, therefore, that the ship has considerable freedom to move and spill energy by moving.
The moorings restrain the vessel and keep the bow within the tolerance distance required.

Cargo Handling Equipment

Most big ship jetties are fitted with oil handling facilities of two basic types:—
(1) The hose handling gantry such as the one illustrated in Chapter 8 — "Connecting up Hoses".
(2) Rigid arms or metal flow booms which use metal pipes and joints and eliminate hoses. A
sketch of a typical Chicksan assembly is shown below. (See Diagram 8).
For clean and dirty products 8" hoses or flow booms seem to be in general use. For loading or
discharging crude oil, larger sizes 10" and 12" are quite common, and some of the bigger terminals
have 24" I.D. flow booms for loading very large vessels.
OIL TERMINALS, DOCKS AND SEABERTHS 16
3
 Bunkers are delivered by 6" or 8" hose or flow booms.
It is important to know any limitation which may be imposed on a given terminal's discharge
equipment, whether it be hoses or metal arms, or a combination of both. These limitations cover
pressure and velocity as well as temperature where this is applicable.
As a general rule, hoses are built for specific duties and are designed for a maximum life of several
years, provided they are used within the design limitations. Normally there are two types of hose in

Dia gram 8.

MAXIMUM CAPACITY 12" & 8" DIAMETER — HOSES AND LOADING ARMS
 HOSE LIMIT
DO NOT EXCEED

< LOADING ARM LIMIT

MOO 3000 ttOOO £000 6OOO 7OOO tOGO 1OOO lOOffO »OOO
MAXIMUM DISCHARGE RATE LT/HR (Long Tons of Seawaier Per Hour)

Diagram 9,

MAXIMUM CAPACITY 24" & 16" DIAMETER — HOSES AND LOADING ARMS
 "- HOSE LIMIT
. 0 H DO NOT EXCEED
5
U ^ LOADING ARM LIMIT

30°

4000 aooo 13 ooo \tooo 20000 2*000 xsooo 31000 3*000

MAXIMUM DISCHARGE RATE LT/HR (Long Tons of Seawater Per Hour)

Diagram 9a.
164 TANKER HANDBOOK

use on jetties, Rough bore hose and Smooth bore hose. The former is a heavy hose with a steel wire
helix securing the inner lining. Apart from the weight, it generally has a restricted bending radius,
compared with a similar smooth bore hose. Hoses are generally manufactured to operate at pressures
of 150/250 Ibs. per sq. inch, and fluid velocities not exceeding 40 feet per second.
Heavy duty submarine hoses are generally smooth bore and use light materials to keep the weight
factor down. They have special covers to protect them from abrasion on the seabed.
Floating hose is normally smooth bore and has up to 20 per cent, reserve buoyancy attached or
built in. Modern floating hose is usually constructed by covering the hose with water-resistant cellular
plastic under a water-tight cover. If the hose is submerged beyond a certain depth it loses its buoyancy
as a result of the compression factor which decreases the displacement, thus allowing the hose to sink.
Floating hoses with an I.D. of 24 in. are in service at several S.P.M. terminals.
Metal-loading arms arc becoming increasingly popular, largely because of the increased life by
comparison with hoses. As a general rule they have two 90° elbows and fluid swivel between any two
lengths of rigid metal-flow booms. The fluid swivels have a special packing which has to be replaced
if the swivel leaks.
Flowbooms of the type described above are generally limited to slightly lower velocities than
similar sized hoses because vibration can develop. In the same way reciprocating pumps draining tanks
and pushing slugs of oil and air ashore can set up dangerous vibration.
Special alloys and double-joined swivels are used for L.N.G., and similar products as the low
temperature is a major factor.

Multi-Buoy Tanker Seaberths

Diagram 10 illustrates a typical five-buoy seaberth suitable for ships up to 60,000 d.w.t. The vessel
is moored in position with both anchors down forward and the stern secured to five mooring buoys.
Cargo is loaded or discharged through a submarine pipeline and two submarine hoses which can be
seen connected to ships' midship manifold.
There are many different types of seaberths in different parts of the world handling various sizes
of oil tankers. Such berths are not new and the techniques for utilising them are well understood.
Seaberths are generally installed for economic reasons or because insufficient shelter is available
to build a conventional jetty.
Other factors must also be taken into consideration. For example:—
(1) There must be sufficient good weather in an average year to allow the desired quantities of
oil to be loaded or discharged.
(1) A small craft harbour must be available close by for shelter and access.
(2) The sea bed must be firm sand or clay, free of rock, and not shelve too quickly.
(2) The depth of water should provide at least 6' under the deepest ship likely to use the berth,
but not be too deep or it will be difficult to anchor securely and pick up heavy hoses.
(3) There should be sufficient obstruction-free manoeuvring area and sea-room for big ships
approaching and leaving the berth in difficult weather conditions.
Seaberths arc generally oriented so that the ship heads into the prevailing weather and so that
her own anchors take most of the mooring load.
If correctly positioned in the berth, the ship should swing clear on her windward anchor if blown
out of the berth by strong or gale-force winds from either beam.
Seaberths are normally operated with the help and guidance of a skilled mooring master and boat
crew who not only help to moor the ship but assist with hose connections and ship to shore
communications whilst loading or discharging.
Large tankers, including V.L.C.C.s, are consistently moored at seaberths in the Mediterranean
and Persian Gulf, but berths which handle these ships generally have seven buoys.
Special buoys which remain upright under load in rough weather have been developed in the
United Kingdom for tanker moorings. This type of buoy is called a Lamgar Eccentric Mooring Buoy.
These buoys and other equipment such as mooring anchors with high holding capabilities relative to
weight have done much to improve the modern seaberth.
In some of the crude loading terminals the submarine pipelines are 42" in diameter and with 20"
hoses on the seabed, and 16" hoses up the ship's side, flow rates can reach 60,000 barrels an hour. (See
Diagram 11).
OIL TERMINALS, DOCKS AND SEABERTHS 16
5
 Diagram 10.

Diagram 11.
166 TANKER HANDBOOK
Diagram 12.

Diagram 13.
 Tanlcer

Mooring Lines

Navigation Light

Mooring Buoy

Anchor Chain

Anchor Swivel

Shaft

Fluid Swivel Housing

Underbuoy Pipe
Universal Joint

Base

Piles Floating Loading Hose

Hose Diagram 14.
Und«rWater Loading Hose,

Pipeline
OIL TERMINALS, DOCKS AND SEABERTHS 16
7
Single-Point Moorings

As the size of the large crude tanker continues to grow, problems of finding suitable ports with
deep enough water and facilities to load and discharge the giants, have become more urgent. Scaberths
arc judged by many to be unsuitable for very big ships. Development work on single-point moorings
was triggered by this situation and channelled in two main directions.
(1) The fixed structure, or Bow Mooring was developed from a series of model tests and has
proved to be a successful, if relatively expensive facility. Basically it is an open pile structure
located in deep water. A submarine pipeline feeds the oil by means of a swivel joint through a
metal underwater arm to the ship's connections. The ship is moored to the tower in such a
way that with the arm alongside it is still free to rotate through 360°, and will head into the
wind and sea, thus reducing the wind and sea mooring loads to a minimum. (See Diagram 12).
Due to the cost of construction, only two such fixed Bow Mooring structures have been built
— one in Libya, and the other off the west coast of Italy; but the latter utilises floating hose
instead of a loading arm. Rigid structure have largely been superseded by S.P.M.s.
(2) Floating Single Point Moorings (S.P.M.). The single-point mooring buoy has proven to be
more popular than the fixed structure, the main reason being capital cost, rather than any
operational advantages. There are over one hundred S.P.M.s in existence all over the world.
In principle they are much the same as the Bow Mooring fixed structures. The ship heads into
the wind and sea whilst loading. Instead of a tower, the tanker moors to a large buoy fitted
with a swivel and loads through floating hose, as illustrated in Diagram 13.
The type of buoy illustrated is moored by several anchors and chains, in some cases as
many as eight chains and anchors are used. The main disadvantage of the multi-leg S.P.M. is
that the buoy is vulnerable to damage from contact with the tanker, as there is no way spring
lines can be secured to stop ride-up as in the case of the Bow Mooring Structure fitted with
a revolving arm.
Another development which has been tried out successfully at numerous major terminals
is the S.A.L.M. (Single Anchor Leg Mooring) as illustrated in Diagram 14.
Here the fluid swivel has been placed underwater below the level of the keel of the biggest
ship likely to use the buoy. The buoy is secured by a single large high-tensile steel chain.
Another version of the single anchor leg buoy, used in shallower water, locates the fluid
swivel on the seabed but retains the single mooring chain, as shown in Diagram 15.
The main advantage of both types of buoy is the removal of the oil swivel from the buoy
where it might be damaged by contact with the tanker.
 MANIFOLD
PIPELINE

MOORED
TANKER 7

MOORING
LINES

MOORING BUOY

FLOATING HOSE

ANCHOR CHAIN
ANCHOR SWIVEL
UNDERWATER HOSE
BASE HOSE
Diagram 15.
UNIVERSAL JOINTS

HOSE ARM
FLUID SWIVEL ASSEMBLY
•BASE
PILES
168 TANKER HANDBOOK
 General view of the Esso Warwickshire loading the first cargo of crude oil from 'Spar'. In the
background construction work continues on Brent 'A' production platform.

Third-Generation Offshore Tanker Mooring System

The world-wide fuel shortage and the increasing activity offshore has led to the development of
some new and interesting facilities for loading crude from offshore oilfields.
In Indonesia, crude produced from offshore fields has been pumped aboard large crude barges,
from where it is pumped aboard the tanker via an S.P.M.
In the Persian Gulf and South China Sea, tankers have been moored to S.P.M.s on a semi -
permanent basis, and the export tankers have gone alongside to load.
As a result of these ventures, improved methods of connecting the ship to the mooring buoy have
been engineered both from the standpoint of mooring, as well as the transfer of cargo.
Perhaps the development of S.P.M. systems in the North Sea have been the most interesting, as
in these high latitudes the systems have been repeatedly tested by the weather. At the present time
there are several S.P.M. systems operating in the North Sea with varying degrees of success.
The problem of weather and distance from sheltered harbours has led to the development of tanker
self-mooring systems in which the use of boat or tug is no longer used. The tanker is expected to pick
up the floating moorings without assistance, and the limitations imposed by the weather on mooring
boats has permitted tankers to moor in rougher weather.

S.P.M.s and Captive Tankers

In at least two cases the S.P.M.s used in the North Sea require the tankers that use the facilities
to be specially modified so that:—
1. They can moor by the bow with special equipment.
2. They can load over the bow with special connections.
3. They can manoeuvre and maintain station while moored in rough weather without greatly
increasing the risk of damage to the S.P.M. through contact.
 OIL TERMINALS, DOCKS AND SEABERTHS 169

The use of bow and stern thrusters, and the ability to run the engines astern continuously while
moored, has improved the capability of such ships to approach and moor as well as to maintain their
distance from the S.P.M. structure.

Shell/Esso Brent Spar

This device was built in Rotterdam in the mid-seventies. It is a large cylinder capable of floating
with up to 100,000 tons of oil and/or seawater in its cargo compartment.
Moored in deep water, it is held in position by eight chain moorings, and floats in a vertical
position.
The main cylinder is surmounted by a platform containing power-generating and pumping
equipment, as well as living accommodation. On top of this is a turntable which houses the mooring
system and the crane for hose handling, as well as a helicopter pad.
Connected to a nearby production platform by a submarine pipeline, the crude oil is pumped in
to Spar via two flexible hoses.
Crude oil enters the cylinder at the top and forces the heavier ballast water out through a pipe
which discharges into a central well which is open to the sea and runs the length of the cylinder.
Any oil which escapes into the well rises to the top and can be pumped back into the cylinder.
When loading a tanker, seawater will replace crude oil as it is pumped aboard the ship.
Spar was commissioned in December, 1976. Its main function was to permit the shipment of crude
oil before the completion of the pipeline to the Shetlands. It also provides an outlet if for any reason
the main pipeline or shore terminal arc damaged or put out of action. The Shell/Esso Brent Spar was
taken out of service in 1996/97. There was a great deal of controversy about this loading device as
the owners planned on disposing of it in deep water with Government consent. There was major
adverse publicity from environmental groups led by Green Peace. Spar was eventually towed up to
Norway where it was anchored in sheltered waters and later broken up. As far as the Author was
aware there was no major pollution incidents when this device was in service and the details about the
amount of oil residue which was reported to be left in Spar when the owners decided to sink it in deep
water was much less than Green Peace had stated.

Beryl Field S.P.M.

Designed by Co. Francaise d'Entreprises Metalliques/Equipment Mecaniques et Hydrauliques of

France, this S.P.M. is operated by Mobil on behalf of the Beryl Field Partners, which include Amerada
Petroleum, the Gas Council and Texas Eastern.
Designed to handle the output of the Beryl Field through the Condecp Platform, the S.P.M. is
located in approximately 400 ft. of water.
The S.P.M. itself consists of a composite steel and concrete base, which weighs approximately
1,400 tons. The base forms the anchor point for the S.P.M. The vertical section consists of a triangular
lattice steel tubular structure, which is attached to the base by an articulated pivot that allows the
tower to lean and respond to forces caused by storm and/or tanker pull loads.
On top of the steel lattice-work tower, but still under water, is mounted the main flotation
chamber, which provides floatation for the S.P.M. as well as providing a considerable righting moment
to the S.P.M. tower when it has been subject to any of the forces mentioned above.
Integrated with, and extending above water is the cylindrical column that forms the upper part of
the tower. The top of the tower houses a rotational head on which is mounted a helicopter pad, as well
as the loading arm and mooring system.
This S.P.M. is of major interest in as much as it is unmanned. The tanker moors herself to the
facility and then connects the hose without outside assistance.
The mooring hawser has a breaking strain of 600 tons, and the single 16-in. hose a loading rate
of approximately 40,000 b.h.p. The S.P.M. is connected to the Condecp Platform by a 32-in.
submarine pipeline from which loading operations are co-ordinated. The Condeep Platform
incorporates 900,000 Bbls. of storage in 16 cylinders at the base of the platform.
The tankers that use the Beryl facilities have to be specially modified for bow mooring and loading.
Currently, the Matco Thames and Matco Avon, with a deadweight of 90,000 and 80,000 tons
respectively, have been highly successful in this service.
170 TANKER HANDBOOK
Tankers Used as Floating Processing Plants

In recent years several storage tankers have been fitted with crude oil processing plants. Pumped
from the offshore wells, some types of crude are unsuitable for onward transhipment unless the crude
oil is stabilised and made safe. Where weather conditions permit, the tanker used for storage and
processing is moored rigidly to a swivel on top of a tower, generally by the bow, but sometimes by the
stern. Once processed and sufficient crude is available, the oil is pumped back to a tower and then
via an S.P.M. to the export tanker.
In more than one case the export tanker is secured astern of the storage tanker and using a small
amount of astern power maintains its distance from the storage tanker. It is free to swing with it to
align with wind and tide. Gas produced by this process is pumped back aboard the tower and back
down the oil wells.
A flare system on the tower can be activated in emergencies.

Matco Avon loading crude oil at the Beryl S.P.M. in the North Sea.
 CHAPTER 20 SHIP-HANDLING PROBLEMS AND THE

OIL TANKER

THE manoeuvrability and speed of a ship are dependent on a variety of things such as displacement,
power-weight ratio and rudder area. Ship for ship, the tanker of equivalent size and power should have
much the same performance as other types in still water. In strong winds differences in the amount
and location of superstructure can have a marked effect, particularly when manoeuvring at low speeds
in harbours or narrow channels.
The problem with tankers is one of size. Year by year they get bigger and heavier while the
power-weight ratio decreases. In addition to this it should be borne in mind that the vessel is designed
as a competitive, economic unit for transportation of crude oil over vast distances. The hull form
and propulsion machinery are blended according to an old-established formula. Maximum cargo to be
carried at the best possible speed for the lowest horsepower and fuel consumption.
Such ships spend 85 per cent, of their time at sea and if economic transportation of crude is to
be achieved, no major deviation from this formula is really possible without major capital expense.
From the standpoint of ship-handling, the big single-screw tanker of 100,000/600,000 d.w.t. as we
know it today has virtues as well as vices. The fullest possible knowledge of both will help the ship-
handler to know — (a) What he cannot do with certainty; (b) What he can do with safety.

Control and Communication Equipment

Most large, modern tankers are equipped with good communication and bridge control equipment.
In addition to engine telegraphs, telephone and/or talkback systems are provided while illuminated
rudder indicators and engine revolution tachometers are positioned strategically in the wheelhouse.
Telephone and/or talkback systems arc provided between the bridge-for'ard and after mooring
stations.
This control and communication equipment needs regular testing and checkouts while at sea and
before the vessel enters port. Breakdown in communications systems lead to misunderstandings and
accidents.

Approaching and Leaving Port

A large tanker in ballast when approaching a port should be ballasted and trimmed with due
regard to weather conditions. In good weather this generally means propeller covered and ship
trimmed not more than eight or nine feet by the stern. In strong winds and rough sea, more ballast is
required and the trim reduced.
When picking up or dropping a pilot it is essential to reduce speed in plenty of time leaving
sufficient safe manoeuvring area to turn as necessary and provide a lee for the pilot boat, but retaining
sufficient steerage way that the vessel will steer with engine stopped while pilot is actually boarding
or leaving.
A common mistake which can have serious consequences is to turn the vessel broadside to weather
and stop the ship in the water so that she drifts to leeward. Frequently the ship rolls heavily making
it difficult for the pilot to board or leave, and the vessel frequently goes down to leeward much
quicker, and further than expected.
In this connection ships at anchor in a choppy sea or off a port where swell is running, should
not expect a pilot to risk his life attempting to board. If room permits, heave up and provide a lee; if
not, put the helm over and steam, slowing on the anchor till the vessel's hull provides the necessary
protection.
Tankers in ballast should not normally have too much trouble approaching a port. Speed should
be reduced slowly so that the vessel is proceeding at normal slow manoeuvring speed 3/6,000 ft. from
the seabuoy or Pilot Boat. It is always easier to increase speed than to stop if going too fast.
Large tankers in the loaded condition have to reduce speed a considerable distance off the seabuoy
in order to run the weigh off. Frequently this means reducing speed 10-15 miles off the seabuoy.
171
172 TANKER HANDBOOK

Slowing down in plenty of time is absolutely essential in the loaded condition particularly in ports
served by narrow deep-water channels where violent astern engine movements are likely to result in
loss of steerage and cause the vessel to sheer out of the channel.
Most modern Pilot Boats and large oil tankers are equipped with V.H.F. radios. It simplifies
matters if an understanding is reached with the Pilot Boat on procedure prior to picking up or
dropping a pilot at a strange port.

Master and Pilot Relationship

There arc very few circumstances or ports where the pilot or mooring master acts in any other than
an advisory capacity, the master of the vessel being responsible legally at all times. This does not mean
that the pilot will not be held responsible for his actions, but it does clearly indicate that the master has
the ultimate responsibility for the safety of his ship and can overrule the pilot in case of necessity.
In practice, born of necessity, master-pilot relationships are generally harmonious and workman -
like. Pilots are employed for two reasons:
1. Because they have local knowledge of channels, tides, docks and port facilities,
1. Because they are skilled ship-handlers used to manoeuvring all types of vessels within the
confines and limitations of that particular port or pilotage area.
While the master has the right to avail himself of the pilot's skill and local knowledge, he has a
reciprocal responsibilty to the pilot:—
1. To see that the ship is seaworthy and everything is in good working order.
2. That the crew are alert and manning their mooring stations.
3. That the pilot is provided with all the appropriate information concerning the ship, such as
draft and other critical dimensions.
4. The master should tell him of any defects or limitations which might affect performance.
Only one man at a time can effectively handle a ship. If a master chooses to use the services of a
competent pilot, it is advisable to give him the con and the fullest possible co-operation rather than
retain the con and use' the pilot in an advisory capacity. The latter procedure frequently leads to
misunderstandings with tugs and mooring craft.

Handling Characteristics of Large Tankers

Some large tankers are powered by high-powered steam-turbines capable of developing up to

45,000 s.h.p. The ahead turbine shaft and propeller are designed to run most efficiently at or near
maximum speed. By comparison with motor ships the propellers are generally larger and slower
moving.
Turbine-powered ships have the reputation of being reliable but slow with engine movements.
Stern-power is often limited by comparison with a motor ship because the stern turbine is generally
designed with up to 60 per cent, of the power of the ahead turbine. Frequently, if it runs for more than
a few minutes it overheats and has to be stopped. In addition to this the efficiency of a tanker screw
when going astern is small compared to its efficiency when the vessel is moving ahead.
In other words, designed for the open sea, the big tanker is generally slow to respond to engine
movements and tends to have less stopping-power than smaller ships.
On the credit side, larger tankers have a high degree of directional stability. Not only do most of
them steer well under power but in good weather they tend to stay on the same heading when making
headway at reduced speed with the engines stopped. This virtue goes a long way to counter-balance
the lack of stern power. Directional stability is a characteristic which the big tanker possesses whether
loaded or in ballast, and provided it has adequate water under the keel. Obviously weather conditions
can have an adverse effect, particularly strong beam winds and seas from either beam when the ship
is in ballast.
Surprisingly enough large tankers answer full helm fairly rapidly. In ballast the response is
generally quick and the swing checked without delay by putting the helm over the other way. When
loaded the vessel is slower to answer, but as the rate of swing increases so it becomes harder to check
with helm only. At slow speed it is sometimes possible to increase engine speed after putting the helm
the other way. This action generally has the desired effect.
SHIP-HANDLING PROBLEMS AND THE OIL TANKER 17
3
Bridge Aft versus Bridge Amidships

Tankers have traditionally had the navigational bridge located just forward of the mid length. This
position has certain advantages and disadvantages when manoeuvring a ship in port or navigating in
restricted waters.
The main advantages in favour of a bridge amidships are:
1. Being on or close to longitudinal centre of gravity, navigation of river channels and bends
appears easier.
2. The distance to the bow is less than with bridge aft, making it easier to judge end-on
approaches such as entering locks, approaching Single-Point Moorings, and to control the
action of tugs or workboats which are receiving or running forward moorings particularly at
night.
3. The midship bridge is marginally better when navigating in fog and listening for fog signals.
Frequently there is less vibration to upset navigational instruments like the gyro compass and
radar.
The main advantages of the bridge aft position are:
1. When navigating up a straight but narrow channel, the slightest deviation of the ship's head
either way is apparent much quicker on the bridge aft ship,
2. When mooring in seaberths or directing tugs or mooring-launches, it is possible to sec when
the stern and propeller are clear from the bridge.
3. Going alongside docks or jetties, the entire single side of a ship over the length of parallel body
is visible at a glance in relation to the jetty or dock. It is therefore much easier to judge speed
of approach, angle to dock face, and detect swing toward or away from dock.
Once accustomed to navigating from aft and the apparent higher rate of swing when turning, most
pilots and masters prefer the bridge aft position for harbour and channel work.

M.T. Touia z Proceeding up the Mississippi.

174 TANKER HANDBOOK
 M/T Toula z about to berth at Baton Rouge.

Judging Distance and Speed

When proceeding on her voyage in the open sea the big tanker can utilise her navigational
instruments to fix her position, and from a number of fixes derive her true course and speed. Her log
will tell the master her speed through the water at any given time, and if he wishes to measure the
distance off the land or another ship, radar will provide the answer,
When manoeuvring a ship "in harbour, distance and speed become largely a matter of
judgement. Pilots with local knowledge commit to memory vital information about depths of
water, widths of channels, etc. They also become very skilled at judging distance down to a few
feet. This is done in a variety of ways, but the first step must be based on known factors as
shown in the sketch of two tugs swinging a tanker where the dimensions of all component parts
are known.
An experienced pilot making such a manoeuvre may well ehoose to do so between two fixed marks,
in spite of the fact that the channel may be slightly narrower at this point. Knowing the length of his
ship and that of each of his tugs, as well as the amount of tow line used, he would probably start
swinging the ship so that the tide would carry her down, and timing the manoeuvre so she is across the
channel when abreast of the two fixed points. If she gets too near the buoy he can go astern, while
ahead movements will keep the ship clear of the jetty. If the tugs fail to turn her quick enough he can
use the starboard anchor. (See Diagram 1).
Safe practice would dictate that he turned the ship heading away from the jetty to which the ship
will ultimately moor, rather than towards it.
Knowing the length of a jetty, the distance between bollards and other fixed objects help
tremendously in judging distance when approaching a dock. Judging approach speed and distinguish -
ing between the true and apparent motion of ship which is closing a jetty and swinging at the same
time is difficult. Big tankers should never be landed on a dock or jetty with any velocity or swing. The
safest way is to stop the ship and hold her off with tugs and/or an anchor, then run moorings from
bow and stern. The ship can then be eased in alongside gently with the mooring ropes tight, and so
checking any tendency to swing. (See Diagram 2).
SHIP-HANDLING PROBLEMS AND THE OIL TANKER 17
5
Diagram 1.
-
(roe.
Diagram 2.
176 TANKER HANDBOOK
 One of four Europoort tugs manoeuvring a 285,000-lon tanker towards her berth.

Manoeuvring Big Tankers at Night

The bridge of a big ship may be fifty feet or more above sea level. The master and pilot are in many
ways insulated by the dark. Their depth perception and ability to watch the shore for angular changes
caused by the movement of the ship is limited, and consequently speed through the water and over
the ground becomes difficult to judge. It is necessary to keep the ship darkened except for her
navigation lights, so that those on the bridge are not blinded by the curtain of light thrown out by
flood and working lights, and this often means securing tugs and handling heavy mooring ropes and
wires in the dark.
Night navigation of well-lit channels is probably no harder than doing the job in daylight, but
berthing in seaberths and approaching jetties against a background of refinery lights can be difficult.
The problem in both cases is similar. The pilot and master have to adjust the speed carefully and by
watching range lights and other aids keep the vessel proceeding slowly along the desired track.
Experienced pilots know at what range and bearing they can expect to see a particular light, how
far off they are when they see the water reflecting the flashing light on a channel buoy, or the distance
the dark shadow extends beyond the edge of a particular jetty. There is no substitute for experience
and practice where night work is concerned, and adverse weather can frequently make it unsafe to
carry on in darkness, though the same conditions would not be so limiting in broad daylight.
Some large tankers arc now fitted with Doppler equipment which tracks the ship's course and gives
the speed in feet per second or tenths of a knot. This instrument also indicates how fast the ship is
swinging or drifting to port or starboard. The use of the Doppler and similar equipment allows the
ship handler to measure accurately, where formerly he had to guess or estimate. When it comes into
more general use the Doppler will undoubtedly be very useful for night work.

Use of Tugs with Big Tankers

Large tankers require the assistance of tugs in many ports when berthing and unberthing. As
always happens in such cases opinions vary on the amount of assistance required and the best method
of providing it. Tugs are built for towing or pushing, and their engines and screws are designed to
provide the maximum thrust possible for the designed shaft horse-power.
Modern harbour tugs with 2/4,000 s.h.p. have a bollard pull of 25/50 tons. In most cases two such
 SHIP-HANDLING PROBLEMS AND THE OIL TANKER 177

tugs should be sufficient to berth or unberth a large tanker in ballast under favourable weather
conditions. Up to four such tugs may be required when the vessel is loaded, but there seems little
justification for the use of more than four, due to the difficulty of controlling a lot of tugs and using
them effectively. Difficulty often occurs when ports have a limited number of modern tugs and a large
number of old tugs. Old fashioned tugs are ineffective and expensive as it generally takes several such
vessels to do the work of one modern tug.
Opinions differ on the merits of pushing, as opposed to towing. Harbour tugs in some parts of
the world are capable of helping large ships by towing or pushing as required. Many new tugs built for
ocean towage as well as harbour work are unable to push because of their high-flaring bows. Pushing
is most practical where there is limited space as when berthing a big ship at one of several finger piers.
It is not possible in rough water or swell conditions.

Bow Thrusters

While not in general use, several medium and large tankers have been fitted with bow thrusters.
Essentially a bow thruster is a propeller mounted in an open transverse tunnel located well forward
and below the light water line. Powered electrically or by a diesel engine, it can be remotely controlled
from the bridge of the ship.
By comparison with tug assistance of equal horse-power, the bow thruster is much more effective.
It can be used in conjunction with the conventional rudder and engines to swing a ship very rapidly,
provided the vessel is stopped or moving very slowly. At speeds over 2 knots the effectiveness falls
away rapidly. In addition to bow thrusters some vessels have stern thrusters.

Entering Ports and Narrow Channels

The International Oil Tankers Commission has published a series of recommendations, as well as
observations on Big Tankers and Their Reception.
An attempt is made to examine the minimum safe requirements of such ship when entering a port.
One recommendation is that the width of approach channels should not be less than five times the
width of the biggest ship likely to use it.
The same recommendation goes on to point out, if strong currents or swell are present in the
entrance, the width of the channel should be increased. Unfortunately not all ports are in a position to
comply with such a recommendation and to provide an adequate depth of water over the full width
of such an approach channel.
The fact that large ships have a fairly high record of incidents in port approaches may in some part
be attributed to the limitations of some port approach channels. The problem is that as tanker-size
increases, outstripping expensive port improvements, the economics do not justify the continuous
programme of improvement, even if it is feasible from an engineering standpoint.
What has become apparent from the combination of practical marine evaluations, as well as
engineering studies, is that taken on its own, width of a navigable entrance channel may not be a
controlling factor and 1/5-beam ratio is no guarantee of safety.
The use of simulators and models have shown that some of the other features highlighted by this
study play an equally important part. Among these are:—
1. Bottom clearance.
2. Drift angle.
3. Speed of approach.
4. Stopping distance inside the port.
5. Type and amount of tug assistance.
It is not possible in this chapter to handle these items in any detail. The individual port and
prevailing conditions make each case a major study on its own.
From a practical standpoint, the Master and pilot on the bridge have to decide whether the width
of a given channel is adequate for the conditions prevailing in terms of weather and current. The bigger
the ship, the more caution is required.
What can be usefully discussed here is some of the factors which should influence the decision to
enter or abort.
Assuming the port is used regularly by vessels of the size in question and the water depth in the
178 TANKER HANDBOOK
SI NKflCrE ~ 110/250 MDwr cu3ss vuccs
* COHDITIOH
STERM Bo
w
CLEfl«flN(.E fir SrERW Feer

" ISO/25O MDNATT CLASS VLCCS

LOflDED *

STERN BO
W
, F«r, WHEN VCUEL /i STOPPED

Fyu. ix»/io
TO WTiKh TKeSE Cl/AyE&

M0wr
aso nowr
40 FT 45 FP
 SHIP-HANDLING PROBLEMS AND THE OIL TANKER 179

channel is adequate to provide safe bottom clearance, the issue then resolves around current, wind
and possible swell.
To steer without tug assistance, a big tanker needs to proceed at a speed of at least two knots,
possibly more. At a speed of four knots she may steer well, but needs sufficient room inside the port to
stop. Above four knots, the tugs may have difficulty making fast, whether this is done prior to entering
or after passing through the entrance.
If conditions permit the tugs to connect outside, the vessel can proceed at the minimum speed at
which she will steer, and tug assistance is available to help counter drift to one side from wind and/or
current, and also to keep her straight when the bow is inside and the transverse forces are still playing
on the stern half.
When the tugs are not able to connect up outside, the speed and drift angle are more important,
if not critical, and the decision to enter becomes more marginal.
The Reception of Big Tankers recommends that the tangent of the angle of drift according to wind,
current and vessel's speed, does not exceed 0-25. In practical terms, this means with no wind and a
transverse current of 1 knot, a big tanker would have to enter with a minimum speed of 4 knots, and
allowing 14° for drift to make the correct course.
It immediately becomes apparent from this simple example that the effect of current and wind
can be critical in narrow entrance channels. In addition, with ships that have an overall length
in the vicinity of 300 metres allowing more than 10°, even with tugs fast, really needs careful
consideration.
Apart from transverse forces caused by wind and current, the effect of swell and following winds
and/or tides, must be considered.
Deep-laden tankers are unlikely to be affected by the sea and swell unless wave-heights and periods
are fairly big. The tanker may have to increase speed, but if she is not steering well at suitable entry
speeds, it would be unwise to enter in the prevailing conditions.
Tankers in ballast are easier to handle and have fewer problems with draft. On the other hand they
have a large amount of freeboard. In a given set of conditions they may require more tug assistance
in strong winds and to use more speed to make a given course, with less draft and a higher power/
weight ratio a sensible increase in speed appears to be logical.
With a poor statistical record showing a fairly high proportion of accidents in port approaches,
care has to be taken to balance the risks against the economic pressures of delay where channel or port
entrances are limited, or inadequate for prevailing conditions.

Large Tankers in Narrow Channels and Canals

Much has been written about the navigation of large ships in canals and narrow navigable
channels, and the minimum bottom clearances necessary for safety. The amount of squat for given
sizes of ships at different speeds have been measured in tank tests and compared with life-size
experiments. From a practical standpoint deep-drafted ships navigating in canals or narrow channels
are known to draw more water than when underway in deep water. It is also true that the draft
increases with the speed. A deep-drafted ship will be harder to steer and control proceeding under full
power, than when moving at a slower speed.
The trouble is a big heavily laden tanker requires more power for a given speed in a canal than
she would when navigating in the open sea. A safe speed under such circumstances becomes a
compromise between the minimum that regulations and traffic conditions will allow, and the point at
which the vessel becomes hard to handle.
Astern engine movements are not advisable in narrow channels; any speed reduction affected will
be more than counteracted by loss of steerage control caused by the turbulence around the rudder.
Some simple ground rules for navigating in narrow channels with deep-drafted ships are:—
1. Proceed as slowly as practical and conditions will permit with the engines ahead.
2. Keep in the middle of the channel; anticipate rather than correct any tendency for the ship's
head to veer one way or the other. (Local knowledge is essential concerning water depth and
irregularities in river or canal banks).
3. Correct rapid swings with increased ahead engine speed and helm, but reduce speed slowly a
few revolutions at a time as soon as the vessel is steady and back in the middle of the channel.
4. When slowing down reduce speed slowly and early in preference to stopping the engine, as a
ship steers better under power.
180 TANKER HANDBOOK
Diagram 3
m
i
t
Diagram 4.
Diagram 5.
SHIP-HANDLING PROBLEMS AND THE OIL TANKER 18
1
Diagram 6.
Wind
a
4
Diagram 7.

Wind
a a e
4

Diagram
8.
182 TANKER HANDBOOK
Single-screw versus Twin-screw Tankers

As previously stated, large tankers are designed primarily as economic transportation units. From
this standpoint economics appear to favour the single-screw ship up to a maximum somewhere
between 3/600,000 d.w.t., at which point the power required to propel a big ship can no longer be
handled by a single shaft and propeller. This demarkation line is somewhat vague and moves up year
by year as technical progress is made on the design of propeller shafts and the propeller itself. In spite
of this, once the point is passed, big ships will be fitted with twin screws.
To date not many large crude tankers have twin screws, those that arc, are mainly motor ships with
faster revving engines and smaller propellers. Krom the standpoint of manoeuvrability, large twin-
screw tankers with twin rudders arc best. When fitted with one rudder, their steering capabilities are
normally not quite as good.

Wind

n
 Diagram 9.
LJ

Japanese Tanker loading at an M.B.M. in North Sumatra.

 SHIP-HANDLING PROBLEMS AND THE OIL TANKER 183

Berthing Large Tankers in Sea berths

This is an operation which requires considerable skill and is generally undertaken with the
assistance of an experienced mooring master. As seen in Diagram 3, the approach is made down a
track marked by two transit beacons which must be kept in line. The problem is to go as slowly as
possible without falling off to leeward and causing the transits to open.
Too much speed may result in a broken starboard anchor chain and put a stop to the whole
mooring operation. When the starboard anchor is dropped, the speed must be such that the vessel can
be pulled up in her own length without putting too great a strain on the anchor chain — say 2-2^ knots
at the most. (See Diagrams 4 and 5).
According to wind directions and weather conditions the manoeuvres which follow the dropping
of the port anchor will vary. In this case the wind is depicted as blowing the ship out and away from
the berth; the worst possible situation, particularly if no tug assistance is available.
In such a case the mooring master will have two and sometimes three ropes joined end for end
and start running the first mooring line to No. 1 buoy as soon as the starboard anchor is dropped so
that the rope is secured to the buoy at approximately the same time as the ship drops her port anchor.
The next step is to back the ship astern while heaving on the starboard anchor chain, and keeping a
good strain on the mooring rope. (See Diagram 6).
In a strong wind the rope frequently breaks and there is no alternative but to pick up both anchors
and start again, but the strain can be eased by stopping the windlass, putting the brake on, then
steaming slow or half ahead on the chain, with helm hard to starboard. This throws the stern up to
windward and towards No. 1 buoy. Heaving on the mooring line helps gets the stern up into the wind.
(See Diagrams 7 and 8).
The judicious use of anchors and engines, coupled with the assistance of a good mooring launch
is required for the vessel to berth safely. Success depends on good team-work and the mooring master's
ability to use the leverage provided by the anchors to assist the transverse thrust of propeller and
rudder in turning the vessel stern into wind. Without full use of anchors, rudder and engines, even a
tug would be of little assistance though it undoubtedly helps and reduces the time taken in mooring in
difficult conditions. (See Diagram 9).

Mooring at Bow and Single Point Moorings

Unlike the multi-buoy seaberth, these facilities are approached with the anchors secured, and
mooring is undertaken without using either anchor because of the risk of fouling pipeline and mooring
tackle. The operation is generally accomplished with the assistance of a single mooring launch.

Diagram 10.
184 TANKER HANDBOOK
 Experienced mooring masters approach the Single Point after the Loading Arm or hoses have been
positioned or towed out of the way. The approach is invariably arranged so that the vessel turns into
the wind, with the wind and sea ahead, and the Single Point Mooring slightly to one side. This is done
so that the ship clears the Mooring if she overshoots. Again, speed is all important. The slowest
possible speed consistent with good steering and directional stability are essential. The vessel should be
stopped in the water or moving imperceptibly ahead as the first mooring line is secured. Violent engine
movements frequently induce yaw and broken moorings.
(See Diagrams 10 and 10a).
When possible, most mooring masters prefer to keep the Single Point Mooring just clear to port
rather than starboard, as astern movements given to check the ship will make the bow go to starboard
rather than to port.

MCDRIN& ,

US'

Oivt ttt to

Diagram lOa.
 CHAPTER 21 TANKER DOCUMENTATION AND

SHIP'S BUSINESS

THE ownership of the world's tanker fleet falls into three broad categories:—
1. Tankers owned directly and indirectly by the Oil Industry.
1. Ships owned by public and private companies not associated with the oil industry. These
vessels trade on the open market and are paid freight for services rendered.
2. Vessels which are owned directly or indirectly by national governments. Such vessels may trade
on the open market, but in some cases they owe their existence largely to possible requirements
for military logistics in terms of national emergencies. Russia maybe regarded as having such
a fleet.
At one time the International Oil Companies probably had the largest owned fleets sailing under
a variety of different flags and crewed by nationals drawn from many countries. In more recent years
the picture is gradually changing. The Exxon Valdez and some other oil pollution disasters brought
in their wake a lot of bad publicity for the companies concerned. The result has been a gradual change
of policy by some of these Companies from direct involvement with the ownership of large fleets of
oil tankers. It has been argued by some oil companies that owning large fleets of oil tankers is not part
of their core business. It is easy to understand this point of view. The author feels that the international
oil companies contributed a considerable amount to improving the design of oil tankers. It is also true
to say that many operational procedures, such as C.O.W., which was the result of oil companies taking
firm action resulting in a marked reduction in oil pollution. If this input is lost the world will be a
poorer place as a result.

Intascalc
No longer in general use, Intascale was a standard freight reference by which the shipowner could
calculate the vessel's earnings on voyages of different lengths.
Originally Intascale "Flat" represented a level at which a shipowner would cover his costs with a
reasonable return. But rising costs and currency devaluation altered these values, and gradually
Intascale was replaced by World Scale.

World Scale
Universally used as the standard reference for freights for all tanker voyages, World Scale 100 is
the "Flat" and is quoted in U.S. dollars or sterling at so much a long ton per day. World Scale flat is
adjusted periodically to reflect cost changes and provide a more realistic base by which an owner can
compute returns at different rates on the assumption that World Scale 100 provides the same daily
revenue on any voyage.

U.S. Freight Rate Averages (U.S.F.R.A.)

These rates include the weighted average cost of commercially chartered U.S. Flag tanker on a
monthly basis. It includes vessels carrying crude and refined products in domestic U.S. trade. It also
includes vessels on long and short term charters as well as voyage charters.

T2 Equivalents
The T2 was a mass-produced vessel built in great numbers during the Second World War. It had
a deadweight of approximately 16,000 tons and an average speed of 14 knots. Produced in such
numbers it became for many years after the war the standard unit of oil transportation, and even
today it is quite common to reduce a bulk oil transportation requirement into terms of T2
equivalents.
185
186 TANKER HANDBOOK

Charter Party

This is the name given to a formal document covering an agreement between a charterer and the
owner of a ship. It contains a description of the vessel and gives the essential particulars concerning
her capacity, speed, fuel consumption, as well as the rate of hire and the method of payment. It is
legally binding on the owner, as well as the charterer, and always provides details of where and how
differences and disputes can be resolved legally if cither party feel it is necessary to go to arbitration or
court.
There are several types of Charter Party used in the oil trade.
1. Time Charter.
2. Consecutive Voyage Charter.
3. Voyage Charter.
4. Bareboat Charter.
The Time Charter is, as the name implies, an agreement based on a period of time which generally
varies from one to five or more years. Under such a charter the owner operates the vessel for the
charterer and supplies Master and crew. He is responsible for wages, stores and running cost, as well
as commercial insurance which will normally include "Tovalop", a special insurance to cover claims
against a tanker, which are associated with oil pollution caused by the vessel.
The charterer pays for bunkers and boiler water, as well as port charges, including wharfage.
The individual clauses in a Time Charter may vary considerably in terms of warranties, to cover
speed, fuel consumption and discharge rates. These warranties may carry significant cash penalties or
awards for under or superior performance.
The Consecutive Voyage Charter is an agreement covering a ship for a period of time. It may vary
from three months to several years. In this case the owner is paid for the cargo he carries on each
voyage over the period of the charter, and his profit depends to some extent on the speed and
efficiency of the ship in carrying as much cargo as possible during the period of the charter. Normally
bunker, boiler water and port dues, excluding wharfage, are for the owner's account.
The Voyage Charter is a charter for a single voyage in which all the costs, with the exception of
wharfage, are for the owner's account and the charterer pays freight on the actual cargo carried.
The Bareboat Charter is fairly rare these days. Essentially a time charter for a period of years,
the owner supplies the ship, and the charterer is responsible for manning her and all the costs of
running and maintaining her.
As a general rule tanker charter parties follow the same legal and operational ground rules which
apply to dry cargo vessels. They differ mainly because of the special nature of their cargo. To cover
this the tanker charter party has a number of special clauses which define the responsibility of owner
and/or charterer in handling oil cargoes.

Bills of Lading

A Bill of Lading is a receipt for goods shipped. In the case of an oil tanker the Bill of Lading
contains a description of the oil shipped, listing each grade and the quantity shipped. Before signing
the B/L a ship master needs to assure himself that the figures are indeed accurate and fall within the
permitted tolerances as far as quantity is concerned, and that the description of the oil in terms of
specific gravity, temperature, etc., are correct and sufficient.
Bill of Lading figures are normally based on shore tank or meter readings. Ship's figures can only
be used to check.
The original Bill of Lading is an important document once the Master has signed it:—
1. It is a receipt and legal proof that the goods described have been received on board in good
condition.
2. By endorsement of the Bill of Lading the ownership of the cargo can be changed while the ship
is en route to her destination.
3. Legal possession of the Original Bill of Lading is proof of title or ownership of the cargo,
and the Master is obliged under normal circumstances, to deliver the cargo at the ship's
destination to the person who presents the Original Bill of Lading.
In practice the nature of an oil tanker's cargo restricts delivery to oil installations. Disputes
 TANKER DOCUMENTATION AND SHIP'S BUSINESS 187

concerning the ownership of the cargo are few. Much more common are claims concerning cargo
shortage or quality.

Cargo Manifest

This document lists all the cargo loaded at a particular port. It is essentially a document needed
by the Customs Authorities at the loading port for the calculation of cargo dues and other purposes.
The details required vary from country to country. Some require the value of the cargo to be listed on
the manifest.
Customs and port authorities at the discharge port will require copies of the Cargo Manifest before
granting permission to discharge. Sometimes it is necessary to have the Manifests stamped by the
Consul of the country in which the discharge port is located prior to leaving the loading port.
The Bill of Lading and Cargo Manifest are the basis of all cargo documentation involving the
shipment of oil on board an oil tanker. Other supporting cargo documentation required are:—
1. Tanker Time Sheet or Statement of Laytime.
2. Notice of Readiness.
3. Tanker's Ullage and Deadweight Report.
4. Tank Inspection Report (sometimes called Dry Certificate).
5. Quantity and Quality Certificate.
6. Certificate of Origin (not always required).
7. Ballast Certificate.
8. Sample and Document Receipt.

Tanker Time Sheet

This is a record of the ship's movements and activities from the time she arrives till she departs.
The information it contains is extracted from the log book. It forms the basis for calculating the
vessel's laytime and whether or not demurrage will have to be paid.

Notice of Readiness
This is generally a preprinted form which is filled in and signed by the Master and presented to
the Consignor or his agent. Its purpose is to notify the cargo shippers:—
1. That the vessel has arrived at a given time and date.
2. That she is ready to load.
3. That lay hours will commence at a given time and date.
It does not follow that the Notice of Readiness will be accepted at the time the Master tenders
the ship.
Such factors as when a ship is deemed to "have arrived" vary with the custom of the port. In some
cases it will not be accepted till the vessel is actually moored alongside. In other ports Notice of
Readiness will be accepted when the vessel anchors off the port or the pilot boards.
The Notice of Readiness is generally worded in the following manner:—
Dear Sirs,
I hereby beg to formally tender you the m.v./ss........................................
as being in all respects ready to commence LOADING/DISCHARGING
cargo. Lay hours will commence upon the expiration of six (6) hours after
the receipt of this notice, or when cargo is commenced loading/discharging,
which ever is first.
Notice accepted................................. Time Tendered.................................

Date...............Local Time................ Date...............Local Time................

Date..................G.M.T................... Date...................G.M.T...................

Signed....................................... Signed...................
Shore Representative. Master.
188 TANKER HANDBOOK

Normally the Master should tender at the earliest reasonable time, such as arrival off the Seabuoy or
when the vessel anchors awaiting pilot. This may not apply where the pilotage to berth takes several hours
or even a day or more. In difficult or exceptional cases where no precedent is available and the Charter
Party gives no specific guidance the Owners/Charterers advice should be sought well in advance.
Most oil ports and major terminals berth and unberth ships on a twenty-four hour basis
throughout the year. By custom every day is a Running Day. This does not apply at some public ports
in which a refinery or oil terminal is located. Notice of Readiness in such cases may not be accepted
after office hours, and official holidays may be deducted from laytimc.
It is the normal practice of the trade to deduct any deballasting time from the laytimc unless the
vessel is capable of loading and deballasting simultaneously.
In most cases the laytime stops on the completion of the loading or discharge operation.

Demurrage

Demurrage is incurred when the number of lay hours used exceeds the allowable lay hours, for
loading and discharging a particular cargo.
For instance a voyage Charter Party may state that 96 lay hours are allowed for loading and
discharging the cargo. The ship uses 56 hours in the loading port and 46 in the discharge port. If the
Time Sheet shows that the vessel was in no way to blame for the delays and it was due to non -
availability of cargo or other causes, the vessel has incurred 6 hours demurrage and the owner/
charterer will be compensated at the agreed rate for the lost time.
The Demurrage Clause in a Charter Party is an attempt to recognise the principle that ship time
in port is costly, and to protect the owner/charterer from delays for which the vessel is not to blame.
The principle is a good one as it provides an incentive for oil companies and terminals to instal
efficient oil-handling facilities.

Dispatch

This is the reciprocal of demurrage whereby the shipowner pays for good dispatch. Because tankers
depend on their own equipment for discharge, dispatch is not always included. Where it is payable,
the terms and conditions are given in detail.

Lay Time

This is the number of hours or days allowed for the loading and discharge of a cargo by Charter
Party. Normally lay time in a tanker Charter Party is expressed in "Running Hours or Days", and is
continuous including Sundays and holidays.
Though it is increasingly uncommon these days, some port authorities do not permit discharging
or loading at night. In such cases a Charter Party may well incorporate special conditions and use the
term "Working Day" instead of "Running Day".
Another point which should be borne in mind for a tanker using seaberths: Port Closures due to
weather are not counted as lay time.

Tanker Ullage and Deadweight Report

This document has been discussed in detail in Chapter 8. Its inclusion in the list of official cargo
documents is not universal but it is useful in cases of cargo loss, etc.

Tank Inspection Report

In the case of a tanker which is about to load this is a statement signed by the cargo Consignor's
representative stating that the ship's tanks are empty and suitably cleaned for the cargo about to be
loaded.
If there is oil in any of the tanks which is to be co-mingled this should be noted together with the
amount.
 TANKER DOCUMENTATION AND SHIP'S BUSINESS 189

When a tanker has completed discharge this certificate indicates that the tanks have been inspected
and they are free of all pumpable oil.

Quantity and Quality Certificate

This is a document which is not always issued. Essentially it is a report on the quantity and quality
of each shore tank used to load a tanker.

Certificate of Origin

This is a document which is sometimes required by Customs Authorities. It indicates the country
of origin or where the oil comes from.

Ballast Certificate

Some countries merely require a Cargo Manifest across which is printed "In Ballast". Others call
for a Ballast Certificate which lists the actual quantity of ballast on board.

Sample and Document Receipt

This is a receipt signed by the Master indicating that he has received the Cargo Documents listed
and any samples which are to be taken by the vessel to her destination.
While the above deals with most of the cargo documents and difficulties likely to be encountered
by an oil tanker engaged in normal trade, it does not include all the Documents required for Inward
and Outward Clearance such as:—
Bill of Health from last port of call.
Crew Lists.
Store Manifests.
Crew Declaration of Dutiable Goods.
Light Due Certificates.
Fumigation Certificate.
Each port has different requirements and priorities.
 CHAPTER 22 TANKER EMERGENCIES, TRAINING

AND SAFETY

THE oil tanker is now subject to a complex set of regulations which start with its construction and
operations. The regulations cover many aspects, such as;—
1. The design, construction and operation of the oil tanker.
1. The navigation of such vessels on the high seas, as well as in port approaches in the context
of the Rule of the Road and other types of ships.
2. Communication by radio and other means.
2. Safety of ship and crew in the context of the storage of highly inflammable oil in the ships 1
tanks.
3. The safety of personnel and property when highly dangerous oil is being loaded and
discharged.
3. (a) Pollution of the Sea by oil.
(/?) Pollution of the Sea by noxious substances,
(c) Pollution of the Sea by sewage and garbage.
7. Manning levels, Organisation, Records.

Classification Societies (C.S.)

There are six major Classification Societies and a number of minor ones. Most of the major ones
are independent and compete with each other for business. Each society tends to have a different
National base from which it draws a substantial proportion of its business, but as stated before is free
to compete elsewhere.
Critics of the C.S. point out that the competition caused a lowering of standards, but with
Maritime nations increasingly adapting an International approach to shipping, the indications are that
Government input has changed attitudes and slowly the Societies are applying the same, or similar
criteria on the more important issues.
Each C.S. is composed of representatives of:—
1. Government
2. Underwriters
3. Ship builders
4. Ship owners.
Ship owners are the customers of the Society and critics say they have undue influence.
Government input is largely concerned with channelling National and International regulations into
practical action and results. Underwriters are concerned to the extent that they do not want to take
unnecessary insurance risks.
Ship builders' representatives are responsible for the practical considerations involved in producing
ships that meet C.S. requirements, but allow them to produce a ship at a price which is competitive
and which their customers can afford.
When a ship owner decides to build a tanker, the C.S. becomes immediately involved with the
design, then the construction, as well as the maintenance of the vessel and her equipment during its
life, while it remains in class.
The C.S. does not design the ship, this is done by the ship owners and ship builders' Naval
architects. The C.S. is responsible for checking the design and of over-seeing construction. Once
launched and completed the vessel receives its Class and thereafter the hull and equipment are subject
to periodic surveys. The role of the Classification Society can be said to be the setting of minimum
standards during the design and construction periods, as well as the life of the vessel.
Government and Insurance yardsticks are maintained by various Certificates issued, relative to
the construction of the vessel, as well as her service life. Some Classification used to hold the records
of the vessel's class as confidential. To-day there is a more liberal attitude, particularly when the vessel
is involved in a casualty.
190
 TANKER EMERGENCIES, TRAINING AND SAFETY 191

Navigational Regulations

The oil tanker has to obey International Regulations covering right of way and Rule of the Road.
This includes showing the correct navigational lights and other signals, such as fog signals, not under
command, and distress signals.
In port approaches the tanker has to navigate with extra caution. The Master and officers must
understand the system of buoyage and display the correct signals when asking far a pilot, and after he
boards. Harbour Authorities and Tanker Terminal Operators have their own regulations and check
lists. Most tankers are required to provide much of the information by radio, prior to arrival.
The other side of the coin is the interest of Governments and the Insurance broker. The former is
interested in safety for the construction and operation of oil tankers, while brokers do not want to
cover ships which are an undue risk.
It has to be said that mistakes are made. Ships are sometimes built and lost as a result of design
faults and though this may be infrequent, it has happened and is a fact of life. Much more frequently
mistakes are made through Classification Societies' surveyors missing faults in the tankers' hull
and/or equipment, which may in time result in the disabling or loss of the vessel.
At one time the records and reports on a vessel held by a Classification Society were confidential
to the owner. With the advent of inspections carried out by I.M.O. inspectors as well as the U.S.C.G.
this is no longer the case, unless the vessel trades in areas outside I.M.O. and/or U.S.C.G.
jurisdiction.

Life Saving Equipment

It has to be understood that all equipment such as lifeboats, rafts, and fire fighting equipment
are also under the jurisdiction of the Society which classifies the tanker, but may also be subject to
inspection by national inspectors.

Tanker Casualties

Statistics published by various authorities tend to be misleading. When considering oil pollution
the variation from year to year is considerable. While double hulls and other measures taken by the
I.M.O. and U.S.C.G. will undoubtedly help, only time will tell just how effective they really are. The
reader therefore should be careful in jumping to conclusions on statistics alone, unless they cover 20
years or so. In addition it is necessary to know the amount of oil carried in a particular year and the
number of tankers actually trading. Improved equipment and better training for crews are likely to
help most.

Tanker Personnel and the Tanker Work Environment

Over the last 30 years tankers have grown in size, and their propulsion and cargo-handling
equipment have grown in complexity. In addition, tanker speeds are higher and cargo-handling rates
have increased considerably. The total time on a given round-voyage has been shortened, while the
amount of cargo handled has increased.
By comparison, the crew has grown smaller. Thirty years ago a 15,000 d.w.t. tanker might have
had a crew of 40 or more. Today a V.L.C.C. is likely to have a crew of 30 or less, depending on the
type of equipment and amount of automation.
The broad picture shows more and larger tanker units manned by few people, utilising more
complex equipment which frequently requires a high level of technical skill to operate and maintain.
The working environment on board the tanker has also changed. Time spent on board by
individual officers and crew members has decreased considerably. In many cases vacation varies from
three to six months in a working year. In large companies, officers and crews may change vessels fairly
frequently, and in others, tanker experience may be limited.
The changes outlined above were inevitable with the passage of time. It is not the author's intention
to provide solutions to any, or all problems brought about by such changes. The main intent is to
make tanker personnel aware of the generally poor safety record and high level of casualties, as well as
to discuss possible ways in which improvement can be achieved.
192 TANKER HANDBOOK
 Double Skinned Oil Tanker Eleo Maersk built in 1993. Deadweight (m.t.) 298,900.

Safety, Training and Drills

Smaller crews, less time at sea and in port means that more emphasis has to be put on safety and the
prevention of emergencies by stressing safe working practices and highlighting possible danger areas.
Training can play a major part in making the individual tanker safer. Circumstances dictate that
more and more training must be done ashore. This is now invaluable, and ranges from fire-fighting
courses to marine seminars, as well as courses on simulators for ship handling, cargo system operation,
as well as engineroom operation.
All of these training aids have much in common, though they deal with vastly different problem
areas.
1. They break down the emergency or problem into its components to provide a clear understand
ing of the cause and the best opportunities for solutions.
2. They endeavour to provide a systematic approach where the individual is a member of a team
which is co-ordinated and operates to a pre-established plan.
Shore training establishments are expensive to operate, and training of this type is not as
widespread or in sufficient general use as the author could wish, but hopefully, with increased facilities,
more use will be made of shore training in the future.
On board the tanker, drills of all kinds must be made more realistic and the lessons learnt in shore
training must be utilised so that all can benefit. Drills can meet statutory requirements and validate
official log-book entries without providing any real foundation for dealing with emergencies. To be of
value, the interest of those taking part must be aroused and the need for teamwork emphasised.

Shipboard Safety Committees

Shipboard Safety Committees are now in general use, and some masters regard them as
unnecessary or of nuisance value only.
 TANKER EMERGENCIES, TRAINING AND SAFETY 193

Over a period such committees, properly organised with representations from all levels of the crew,
have proved very successful in improving safety standards on board individual ships, as well as
monitoring and recording all accidents or near accidents which might have an adverse effect on the
individual ship's safety record, and future safety targets.

Crew Response to Emergencies

Experts are generally agreed that the response time of a crew between the sounding of an alarm
and the actual action taken, can be critical in dealing with some types of emergencies, such as man
overboard and fire. The same experts frequently point out that in drills, crew response is slow and
sometimes disinterested. In real emergencies, such as collision and strandings, shock is frequently
followed by panic where basic discipline goes out the window and self-preservation is the only
motivation left to badly trained and undisciplined crew members.
Much can be done to prepare and train individual crew members to reduce the effect of shock if
they can be persuaded to participate in all drills with reasonable enthusiasm and learn how to make
their individual contribution as effective as possible.

Communication

In an emergency communication becomes vital. Emergency alarms and signals can vary
considerably. Audio alarms are the most common, and may consist of alarm bells, sirens and/or
whistles.
Normally alarm bells are electrically operated with dual power sources, so that if the mains supply
is cut they will operate on batteries. In areas such as machinery spaces where there is a high level of
noise, visual aids are frequently used, such as flashing red lights.
With the advent of automation, unmanned enginerooms, alarm systems can be many and varied,
but it is important that the crew are aware of the different types and the response required.
The use of public address systems in an emergency is very important. By keeping the crew informed
of what is required and the status of any emergency, panic is avoided and the most effective use of
manpower can be obtained. In incidents where extensive damage is experienced, portable radios can be
very effective in keeping working parties in touch with each other.
If the emergency justifies it, radio messages can be sent out as a precautionary measure to shore
stations and ships in the vicinity. The purpose of such a message should be to provide the vessel's
correct position, together with a brief summary of the problem and the type of assistance required, if
any.
Apart from the typical collision and fire situation, which are covered by agreed international radio
procedures, radio messages can be very effective in warning other ships to keep clear in case of steering
failure of main engine breakdown, even though their condition may be a temporary incapacity.

Man Overboard

Tankers, like other vessels, sometimes are unfortunate enough to have a man lost overboard. In
many vessels there is no evidence that any worthwhile preparation has gone into working out:
1. How to mark the position where or near where the man fell overboard.
2. To turn the vessel round and reverse course.
3. To post special lookouts forward to look for the lost man.
4. To prepare and launch a boat to recover the man and then the boat.
The circumstances may vary considerably under which a man can be lost. If the man has been
missing for some time and the ship is in a well-frequented traffic-lane, the most obvious course is to
notify other shipping in the vicinity, while turning the vessel and returning along the original track. If
a second vessel is in the vicinity, the search may be more effective if they steam on a parallel course
about a mile apart.
In a very moderate sea condition, it is unlikely that the head and shoulders of a swimming man will
be sighted from more than half a mile. Speed, of course, is essential. In cold water, a man without a
lifejacket is unlikely to survive more than half an hour unless he is fit and a good swimmer.
In cases where the man is seen to fall overboard, the hard, over-continuous turn and engine
194 TANKER HANDBOOK
Reduce Lo Slow Ahead
Helm hard to Pott

Engine speed and

helm as required to
keep ship's head \
swinging to port and ^
stop vessel in the
vicinity of the man. - - - Original
Track
 Stop Engines when ship's
head is on the reverse
course to original track.
Vessel should carry Its
way to the vicinity of the
man in the ua tsr.

Engine Full Ahead

Helm Hard to Port ----
starboard of ship's
head on original track
movements illustrated in Fig. 1 is probably the quickest method of closing and recovering the man.
If the helm cannot be put over straight away and the man is already astern, the Williamson turn, as
illustrated in Fig. 2, is probably the best method of turning the ship.
Both methods require ample water-depth over the turning circle of the ship and the absence of
traffic.
While the vessel is turning and the additional lookouts are posted, the 'emergency boat' should
be manned, swung out and made ready for lowering.
Most tankers with bridge aft have only two lifeboats, one on either side. The boat to be used
should, therefore, be the one on the lea side after the vessel has turned and stopped. In big tankers, the
boats' painter can be something of a problem. A different length and anchor-point is required when
the tanker is in ballast and when she is loaded for it to be effective.
One Company requires all its vessels to have boat painters rigged at all times, changing painters
and anchor-points at both the loading and the discharge port.
Weather conditions always play a big part in the effectiveness of any recovery measures taken,
and it is important to remember that the ship and crew must not be put to unnecessary risk in forlorn
recovery attempts which have little chance of success.

Tanker Fires

Recent statistics show that 46 tankers were involved in fires and/or explosions, and no doubt
caused a fairly high proportion of the deaths and injured quoted in the same set of statistics.
TANKER EMERGENCIES, TRAINING AND SAFETY 19
5
 Training ships' crews to handle oil fires and utilise protective equipment during a Mobil Oil Fire
Fighting Course.

Statistics are of little value unless we can learn from them. Unfortunately relatively few people
can relate personally to disaster. It is always the other ship which blows up, and the crew members
represented by such statistics are regarded as faceless humans unlucky enough to be involved. Some
fire-fighting courses are designed to paint a fairly vivid picture of what can happen if things get out of
hand.
The options provided by one instructor, who stated that candidates would 'burn or drown' if they
didn't measure up, was perhaps not too far from the truth for some who may be tomorrow's
statistics.
The truth is that fire is bad enough on shore. At sea on an oil tanker, it is beyond description. Most
oil tanker fires are caused by human error of one type or another. In a few cases the cause may be
attributed to lightning or machinery failure.
Smoking is the most frequent source of fire and explosion. Statistics show that fires have been
started by personnel falling asleep in bed with a lighted cigarette. Smoking in unauthorised locations is
another major problem. The careless smoker is a menace to himself and his shipmates.
Collisions, accidents while loading or discharging cargo, machinery and electrical failures may at
some time or other be followed by fire which endangers the tanker and crew. To fight and control a
tanker fire, it is essential to know what type of fire it is and how best to deal with it.
There is no real substitute for a shore fire-fighting course, which provides the classroom data on
how best to deal with the various types of fire, as well as the most practical methods of dealing with it.
The practical side of the course will illustrate the need for teamwork and the best use of all types of
equipment.
In this chapter it is only possible to cover this material in outline; All fires need four ingredients
to start and burn successfully:—
(a) Fuel.
(b) Oxygen.
(c) Source of Ignition.
(d) Heat.
In certain circumstances spontaneous combustion can take place where there is no external source
196 TANKER HANDBOOK
 of ignition. Oily rags left in an unvented paint locker are perhaps a good example. Here the
atmospheric conditions arc such that the temperature of the oily rags is increased gradually to a point
where it exceeds the ignition temperature, and the fire starts without the aid of a spark from a separate
source.
To contain and extinguish a fire, the fuel used by the fire must be established. For convenience,
fires are normally divided into four main groups, distinguished by the fuel on which the fire feeds. This
helps determine the type of extinguishing agent which is likely to be most effective, and those which
may be dangerous.
The Extinguisher Fire Chart, published by George Angus & Co. Ltd., may help in determining
the right distinguishing agent.
Tanker fire-fighting equipment is constantly being improved and increased in capacity. High-speed
foam and other chemicals have been tried out, and those which appear to be the most successful will,
no doubt, receive general acceptance.
Fires in machinery spaces, if small enough, are dealt with by the use of hand and portable CO 3
and^ all-purpose extinguishers. If the fire spreads, ventilation is cut off; crew are evacuated, and the
CO2 main fire extinguisher reservoir (which normally consists of a large number of CO 2 cylinders) is
discharged into the empty machinery spaces. Because of the presence of electrical equipment, the use
of water and other conductor type extinguishers could be extremely hazardous.
Accommodation fires are normally handled by the use of all-purpose dry chemical powder portable
extinguishers. In certain circumstances CO 2 extinguishers can be used, but personnel should be using
smoke helmets and have an uncontaminated source of air.
Some ships may be fitted with automatic sprinkler systems throughout the accommodation, but
water should not be used unless the electricity is cut off.
Oil fires, such as those experienced after a collision or some other type of major accident where
the vessel has one or more ruptured tanks, requires a maximum effort.
As the fire is open to the atmosphere, there is no possibility of cutting off the supply of oxygen
on a permanent basis. The main hope lies in speed, smothering the fire with foam and once it is out,
keeping the area cool and saturated with water, fog or spray.
As even large ships have a limited supply of foam, re-ignition can be serious, and as the
temperature increases the harder it will be to put the fire out and stop it spreading.

Ship's crews containing and extinguishing an oil fire at Coryton during a Mobil Oil hire Fighting
Course.
 FIRE CLASS
BS 4547 and
EUROPEAN
STANDARD EN2
A. B.C. ALL MONNEX&B.
PURPOSE POWDER C DRY CARBON DIOXIDE

NO

Fires involving solid

materials usually of Rapid flame Rapid flarne
organic nature in knockdown and knockdown
which combustion excellent protection
normally takes place against re-ignition
with the formation of
glowing embers.
Wood, paper, textiles
etc.

Rapid Rapid Rapid

Fires involving liquids flame flame (lame
or liquefiable solids.
Burning liquids, oil, fat
paint etc:

Fires involving gases

Use of wrong Use of wrong Forms a crust over Use of wrong

Fires involving medium could cause medium could cause burning metal and medium could cause
metals Magnesium, explosion explosion excludes oxygen explosion
Sodium Titanium,

Fires involving
electrical hazards
Non-conductor
Leaves no residue
CO; Cartridge CO; Cartridge
and Stored Pressure and Stored Pressure

Replacement
cylinder on site
EXTINGUISHER SERVICING BRITISH APPROVALS FOR FIRE EQUIPMENT (B.A.F.E.I
Angus service does not end with the supply of reliable fire-fighting equipment. It is Angus are founder members ot BARE. This is a logical step in the pursuit of quality and
paramount that our extinguishers are maintained in excellent condition Testing, charging high standards of manufacture. The B.A F.E scheme incorporates the Kitemark for BS
and filling equipment is readily available from Angus In order to maximise performance it is 5423 and the manufacturing 'Quality Systems' of BS 5750 Products are tested and
recommended that all spares, refills and accessories are obtained from Angus. assessed by B.S I against the relevant British Standards Quality control systems are
EXTREME ENVIRONMENT EXTINGUISHERS monitored against the UK national standard for quality systems BS 5750.
Angus are at the forefront in the development of Extreme Environment extinguishers This
revolutionary concept has been tested in the most arduous conditions exceeding the
demands of specifiers requiring extinguishers with outstanding weathering characteristics
APPROVED STANDARDS
Full details are available on request
Angus products are designed, manufactured and tested 10 ensure that they satisfy the
WHEELED UNITS. TROLLEY UNITS AND MOBILES highest UK and International Standards. In specialised areas such as the Marine, Offshore,
For larger scale risks, Angus supply a wide range of wheeled, trolley and mobile units. Government and Military markets, Angus can manufacture and supply equipment capable of
These appliances are available for use with Water, Foam, Dry Powder, CO Z and Halon 1 2 1 1 . meeting or exceeding the particular specifications required
ANGUS FIRE PROTECTION EQUIPMENT
The Angus range ot equipment is extensive and includes Hose Reels, Dry and Wet Riser
Valves, Breechings, Cabinets, etc. Literature and technical information on these and other
Angus products is available on request
Angus Fire Armour Limited operates a continuous programme of product development The right is therefore reserved to modify any specification without prior
notice and Angus should be contacted to ensure that the current issue of all technical data sheets is used.
 smm
Export Sates THAME PARK ROAD THAME
OXFORDSHIRE OX93RT ENGLAND
Telephone: Thame (084421) 4545
Telex: 83425 Fax: (084421) 351112
•-T-7
U.K. Sales SOUTHGATE WHITE LUND TRADING ESTATE
MORECAMBE LANCASHIRE LA3 3PR
Telephone: Lancaster (0524) 35881
Telex: 65216 Fax: (0524)841005
 TANKER EMERGENCIES, TRAINING AND SAFETY 197

Ships fitted with Inert Gas Systems have less chance of catching fire initially, and for obvious
reasons the fire is easier to contain and deal with.
Fires in port, whether minor or major, will generate a lot of excitement on shore. In such
circumstances a good communication channel by telephone or V.H.F. radio can save a lot of
confusion, as well as directing help and assistance to where it is most needed.

Tanker Strandings and Collisions

Statistics show that the majority of tanker strandings and collisions occur in port limits, or in port
approaches. Some port authorities have investigated the cause of such incidents, and though the results
provide a variety of reasons, it does appear that the master and crew may relax to some extent once
a pilot is on board and the end of the voyage is in sight or alternatively, when the pilot has left on
leaving port.
The question may well be asked: 'What can be done on board to prepare the ship for entering
and leaving port that will help reduce the risk of stranding or collision, and make the vessel and crew
better prepared for emergencies if they do occur?'.
Some companies use check-lists, which are signed by the Master and Chief Engineer prior to
entering or leaving port. Such check-lists are designed to make sure the vessel has been properly
prepared.
While the author has limited details, the facts, show there is a considerable number of strandings
and collisions that occur in poor visibility. The decision to enter or leave port in poor visibility may be
necessary for a variety of reasons, the discussion of which is outside the scope of this book, but the
reasons for moving a large heavily-laden tanker, in really bad visibility, in or out of port, must surely
rest on something more than the economics of limited delay.
The circumstances in which a tanker is involved in a collision or stranding can be many or varied.
In most cases involving low speeds, the consequences of a collision is not disastrous, though the
damage may be serious in terms of bottom plating and damaged bows, etc. Where higher speeds are
involved, the damage is always far greater, and frequently results in pollution of the sea, with the
possibility of fire if the leaking oil and gas is ignited.
By far the worst cases occur when the engineroom and/or pumproom are flooded and there is little
prospect of using the ship's power and cargo-handling systems. Even with the engineroom flooded,
the vessel may stay afloat for a considerable time, and if aground, can generally be refloated with the
right type of assistance.
In major disasters, such as this, it becomes essential to make the maximum effort to save the life
of crew members. If possible, help should be summoned by radio if it is safe to transmit.
In some disasters the distress calls have not provided adequate information, resulting in help not
proceeding to the correct position. All factual information on the damage, pollution and assistance
required saves time.
Because of their size and weight, many large tankers when disabled require powerful tugs to move
them, even slowly. If possible, heavy towing equipment and the means of securing such tugs should
be prepared prior to their arrival.
When heavily aground, particularly on rocks, big tankers are unlikely to be refloated by tugs.
Normally it is necessary to lighten the vessel by pumping cargo into a smaller vessel. Sometimes
refloating can be achieved by induced buoyancy, using compressed air.
Most major salvage operations require special knowledge, but the master and ship's officer can
contribute by preparing detailed information on the depth of water around the vessel, the number of
compartments ruptured, and where they are located. Additional information on the condition of the
engine and pumprooms and functioning power supplies still available, could be extremely valuable and
time-saving.
The stranding and salvage of the fully laden L.N.G. tanker, El Paso Paul Kayser is a fine example
of the type of planning and co-operation of owners, crew and salvors.

Pollution

Whenever a large tanker is badly damaged and the cargo tanks ruptured, pollution becomes a
major problem. In the open ocean the issues are clearer. They resolve themselves into co-ordinating all
the efforts into making the vessel as seaworthy as possible, and clearing all damaged or ruptured tanks
198 TANKER HANDBOOK

so that the vessel can obtain permission to enter a port. Port authorities are very reluctant to allow
badly damaged tankers to enter. More than one has been deliberately sunk because the combined
efforts of owners and sailors have failed to find a safe haven,
In territorial waters, the consequences of major pollution are always a major problem and in some
cases can be unlimited in terms of third-parly liability.
 INDEX
Page
Accidents ....................................................124, 125,147,193-195
Accommodation, crew........................................................2, 4, 196
Acids..........................................................................Ill, 112
Air, compressor ........................................................................ 138
ventilation.........................................................................23-28
Alarms .....................................................................................19, 21
Alcohol....................................................................................... 112
A.P.I, gravity ....................................................................32, 65, 91
Arms, loading................................................17,123, 126, 162,163
Asphalt, see Bitumen ..........................................................106, 107
Automated loading systems.........................................................18
Axial, pumps ................................................................................8
B tanker......................................................................4, 99
Back Pressure...................................................................53, 69, 138
Ballast, arrangements..............................................57, 99,126,127
plans ........................................................................... 129
certificate....................................................................... 189
clean ..............................................................................72
dirty................................................................... 45, 46, 129
disposal .......................................................................57, 72
systems....................................................................127-129
tanks ............................................................................ 130
Barges...................................................................132, 135, 136, 146
Barrels, unit of volume—US ..............................................2, 5, 65
Bellmouth, suction (Strums)....................................................9, 10
Bilge, spaces..................................................................................47
engineroom.........................................................................57
pumproom ........................................................................50
Bills of Lading .......................................................................... 186
Bio Accumulation...................................................................... 110
Bitumen .......................................................................90,106,107
Black oil, colour type...............................................................29, 34
Boilers ....................................................................................2, 15
Boil off, L.N.G.....................................................................121,122
Bow thrusters.............................................................................. 177
Box, see strainer............................................................................64
Bridge, navigation (see Navigation)........................................4, 173
Bulkheads, types..............................................................2, 3, 13, 23
leaks.............................................................3,15,57,68
Bulk Oil Carrier...................................................................2, 87, 88
Bunkers ..........................................................................2, 146, 163
Buoys, see S.P.M..................................................................164, 167
Butadiene.................................................................................... 117
Butane ...................................................................................... 117
Butterworth, equipment...............................................................46
Butterfly, valve.............................................................................II
Cables, chain .......................................................................167-169
electric/power ............................................................... 145
Calculations, tables .................................................................65, 66
tank capacities ......................................................65
cargo.......................................................................81
stress.......................................................................81
Calibration, tables .....................................................................65
Canals......................................................................................... 179
Cans, see Samples
199
Page
Carbon Dioxide ........................................................................ 120
Cargo, type..............................................................................21, 91
systems .................................... 13-18,23,24-28,150,162
plans....................................................65, 67, 68, 78, 85, 86
layouts ........................................................78, 85, 86,162
manifest ....................................................................... 187
Casualties................................................................................... 191
Cathodic Protection................................................................... 130
Cavitation.................................................................................. 143
Centrifugal pumps .......................................7, 15, 16, 73, 139, 143
Certificates...........................................................................187, 189
Charter Party............................................................................. 186
Check lists—see "Lists"
Chemicals.....................................................40, 103, 109,110,115
Classification Society................................................................ 190
Clean oil, type .......................................................................4, 90
Coastal tankers.......................................................................... 132
trade .....................................................................132,137
Coatings..........................................................4,111,112,131
Coffer Dam ..........................................................................19,111
Coils...................................................................................23, 24, 64
Colour .......................................................................................34
Combined Carriers......................................................................88
Compound Pumps .......................................................................7
Control room...................................................................18, 19, 171
Convention........................................................................43, 47, 50
C.O.W. (Crude Oil Washing)...............................52, 53, 56, 79, 80
Cracking...................................................................................29, 30
Creosote...............................................................................107,108
Crude Oil .................................................29, 63, 67, 70, 73, 74, 78
Currents...............................................................................155, 159
Custody Transfer ...................................................................... 127
D
Deadweight .................................4,17, 18,43,54-57,81,99,156
Deballasting.................................................................................72
Deepwell Pumps............................................................8, 9, 73, 102
Demurrage................................................................................. 188
Density, molasses...................................................................32,105
oil...................................................................................32
Design, tanker ..............................................................48, 59, 190
Detectors, oil/water....................................................................48
interface ..................................................................48
Diesel........................................................................................90, 91
Dirty Oil...................................................................................90, 91
Dispatch..................................................................................... 188
Displacement ............................................................................ 156
Distillation...................................................................................29
Docks...................................................................................155,157
Documentation....................................................................185-189
Double bottom tanks..........................................................130, 131
Dracone ...............................................................................135-137
Drop, pipelines (see Risers)
valves...................................................................................3
Duplex pumps .............................................................................7
Eductors....................................................................................... 18
Ejector, gas...................................................................................36
200 INDEX
 Pag
e Electrical, alarms (see Alarms)
fail safe devices (see Alarms)
pumps .................................................................... 123
ullage systems ...........................................................21
Emergency, drill...................................................................192, 193
equipment.............................................................. 191
situations................................................................ 193
Emulsion ....................................................................................45
Ethane ..................................................................................... 120
Ethylene...................................................................................... 120
Existing oil tanker .................................................................55, 56
Explosive, limits..............................................................32, 33, 124
Explosometer...............................................................................37
Epoxy (see Coatings)
Fans, gas freeing..........................................................................37
Fenders........................................................................147, 153, 157
Fire, alarms ............................................................................. 124
statistics.......................................................................194, 196
type/class.......................................................................... 196
Flammable ..........................................................................115, 117
Flash, point ...........................................................................32, 33
Flow Booms.................................................................162-164, 167
Foam, type................................................................................. 196
Fog, appliances.......................................................................... 196
hazards............................................................................... 197
Free surface ..................................................................................3
Gallons, definitions ...................................................................65
Gas Ejectors.................................................................................36
Gas Freeing, cargo..........................................................35, 40, 120
certificates..............................................................41
Gas freeing, equipment............................................................35, 36
systems............................................................................ 35
tanks....................................................................36, 37
Gauges, cargo............................................................................ 118
pump............................................................................ 144
ullage ...........................................................................20
Gesamp System ....................................................................... 110
Grades, oil ..........................................................17, 90, 91, 92, 98
H Multi Grade Cargo............................................................39,91,92
Page
Kerosene...................................................................................32, 98
Keel .......................................................................................... 159
Lagged ........................................................................106, 107, 121
Lamgar buoys/hooks................................................................ 164
Lay-day ................................................................................... 188
Lay-time..................................................................................... 188
Lavomatic tank cleaning machines.........................................53, 54
Legislation (see Regulations) .................................................42, 49
Lifeboat .............................................................................191, 194
List, check .............................................................................49, 50
documents .................................................................185-189
Lightering............................................................................................ 151
Litmus, paper...........................................................................31, 32
paste .........................................................................31,32
Loading arms, see Flow Booms
Leadline........................................................................................68
L.O.T.—Load on Top ..............................................44,47,51,63
Lubricating oil ...................................................................104, 105
L.N.G...........................................................................117, 120 123
L.P.G....................................................................................117-120
M
Manifest...............................................................................187, 189
Manifold, cargo .............................................................13,14, 145
drip trays................................................................... 145
valves................................................................10, 11, 12
Marks................................................................................................. 16, 67
MARPOL'73/'78 .............................54,55,57,89,91,109,129
Master, ship.................................................................149, 172, 177
valves ........................................................................... 16
Maximum loading rate......................................................68, 69, 82
Membrane ............................................................................... 122
Methane...............................................................................120-128
Millipour ...................................................................................34
Molasses..................................................................................... 105
Mooring—buoys ...............................................................164-168
lines....................................................................161, 162
single point................................................163, 167-170
M.O.U. (Memorandum of Understanding)'..........................60, 61
M.B.M.—Multi Buoy Mooring................................................ 164
Motor spirit ................................................................................95
Heating, cargo ......................................................23, 24, 107, 114
equipment ................................................................. 114
systems........................................................................ 112
Helium........................................................................................ 120
Hogging .............................................................................66, 83, 84
Hoses ...................................................................67, 148, 162-164
History............................................................................................1
Hydraulic, pumps.....................................................................20, 64
systems.......................................................................20
Hydrogen Sulphide.................................................................... 120
Hydrometer ...............................................................................32
N
Naptha......................................................................................52,91
Natural Gas .............................................................................. 120
Navigation (ship handling)........................................................ 173
Neoprene ................................................................................. 137
New oil tanker ........................................................................55, 56
Nitrogen..................................................................................... 120
Notice of Readiness................................................................... 187
Nozzle................................................................................38, 39, 53
I O
I.G.S. ......................................................................................56,59
I.M.0.......................................................................58, 61, 110, 111
Inflammability.....................................................................115,116
Interface........................................................................................46
Inlerscale ................................................................................. 185
I.S.G.O.T.T..................................................................................50
Isherwood.......................................................................................2
Jet fuel (Turbo).............................................................................98
Jetties...................................................................155, 156, 158, 161
OBO.........................................................................................87, 88
O.C.I.M.F............................................................................159, 160
Oil, companies ............................................................................87
contamination...........................................................90, 99, 104
ore carrier ......................................................................87, 88
pollution ........................................................................42-62
record books .......................................................................63
samples ............................................................................30, 31
spills................................................................42, 43, 48, 49, 50
type ..................................................................................4, 32
Oil/Water, interface detector......................................................46
separator .................................................................46
OPA 90.............................................................................5, 6, 58, 61
INDEX 20
1
 Page
OPEC..............................................................................................5
Overflow..................................................................................... 144
Oxygen.................................................................................120, 195
Petro Chemical (see Chemicals)
Pipelines, clearing.........................................................................45
liquid velocity................................................71, 143, 145
rates .................................................................69,71,74
repairs......................................................................63, 64
systems....................................................4, 10, 13, 14, 74
tests ...........................................................................69
Plans, discharge ..................................................74, 76, 78, 79, 82
loading..............................................................63-70, 81, 82
piping.............................................................................13-20
tanks ...........................................................................13-20
Plugs, ullage.............................................................................20, 21
Pollution, regulations........................................................43, 44, 51
sea .........................................................................42-62
statistics.................................................................62, 190
Pressure relief valve—P.R.V....................................................25-28
Priming, pumps ....................................................................... 142
Propane .............................................................................117, 120
Pump, type..........................................2,7,8,20,73, 112, 138, 139
performance ..................................................138, 142, 144
pumproom............................................................64, 74, 118
remote control...................................................................20
Q Strandings.................................................................................. 197
Quality, cargo...................................................................32-34, 187
Quantity, cargo................................................................32-34, 187
R pumps..............................................................18, 138-142
Rate, discharge.........................................................................73-77
loading .........................................................................69,70
Reciprocating pumps ..........................................................138, 139
Regulations, international ....................................................42-62
national...............................................................42-62
petroleum .........................................................42-62
pollution ...........................................................42-62
port .........................................64, 125, 134, 135, 147
Refinery ..........................................................................................2
R.V.P.—Reeds Vapour Pressure ..........................................33, 34
Residue, oil/sludge...................................................................37, 38
Rust .........................................................................................37,38
Ring Main .......................................................................12, 14, 15
Riser, piping................................................................................. 14
Rivets..............................................................................................3
Rollover ..................................................................................... 124
Room, control ........................................................................... 17
engine................................................................................ 16
pumproom .............................................................8, 13, 15
Rotary, pumps................................................................................8
Routine, drills.......................................................................192, 193
practice .........................................................64, 123, 125
regulations.............................................................115, 192
S
Segregation, ballast.........................................................90, 99, 102
cargo.............................................................90,94,99
Self-Priming, devices (see VAC strip)
pumps (see VAC strip)
Separators, oil/water...................................................................48
Settling tanks...............................................................................45
Slops, tanks ...................................................................47, 48,109
oil/water ........................................................................45
Sludge, see Residue
Sluice, valves .............................................................................77
Soundings.....................................................................................20
Smoking, hazards.........................................................................64
regulations .................................................................64
SOLAS.....................................................................................54, 89
Solvents...................................................................................... 112
Soundings.....................................................................................31
Specific Gravity ..........................................................................32
Spindle, valve...............................................................................11
Spirit, aviation ............................................................................34
motor.............................................................................32, 98
white ...............................................................................32
S.P.M...........................................................................167-169, 183
Stability ...............................................................................66, 111
Static electricity ........................................................................ 145
Stations, boat .....................................................................191, 192
emergency ...........................................................191, 192
Steam, heating ..............................................23, 24, 106, 107, 1!4
propulsion....................................................................7,15
pumps................................................................................ 138
smothering (tanks) .........................................................35
Strainer, box.................................................................................64
plates.............................................................................64
Stress ...............................................................................66, 81-86
Stripping, lines...................................................................13, 14, 18
pumps ......................................................13, 14, 18, 74
Strums ....................................................................................... 10
Suction, lines ............................................................18, 138 -142
Superstructure ......................................................................... 171
Swell........................................................................................... 160
Systems, alarm........................................................................... 193
cargo ............................................................................19
tank washing ...................................35-41, 45, 48, 51-54
T. 2—equivalent .............................................................16, 92, 185
Tables, capacity ...........................................................................92
petroleum........................................................................65
washing .....................................................................45, 46
Tank, cargo calculations.............................................65, 67, 68, 70
cleaning ........................................................................35, 45
equipment .................................................................63, 103
slop........................................................................48, 49, 109
summer................................................................................3
Tapes, gauging.........................................................................20-22
ullage............................................................................20-22
Telltails, valves............................................................................ 12
Time sheet ............................................................................... 187
Training ..................................................................................... 192
Transportation.........................................................................1, 109
Trim...................................................................................66, 92, 93
Tugs ........................................................................................... 176
S.A.L.M.—Single Anchor Let Mooring................................... 167
S.P.M.—Single Point Mooring/Buoy/Rigid ...........167-169, 183
Safety, code .............................................................................. 192
practice...............................................................64, 123-125
regulations .................................................................... 192
Sag .........................................................................,...........66,83,84
Samples, devices...........................................................................30, 31
equipment ................................................................30, 31
Scale........................................................................................37, 185
Screw, pumps..................................................................................8
Scuppers...................................................................................... 144
Sea Valves.....................................................................................69
Seepage..........................................................................................42
U
U.L.C.C.—Ulua Large Crude Carrier............4, 5, 18, 39, 83, 147
Ullage...............................................................................20, 21, 188
UNCLOS.....................................................................................59
U.S.C.G. (United States Coast Guard.)...................................5, 6
U-Tube Indicator.........................................................................21
Vac Strip......................................................................................95
Vacuum ................................................................................... 138
202 INDEX
Page
Valve types........................................................4, 10-12, 20, 25, 76
Vapour...................................................................................38,118
Vapour, pressure ....................................................28, 33, 34,118
VegetableOil ................................................................................1
Venting, danger ...............................................................24-267 28
system ....................................................24-34,103, 112
Viscosity.......................................................................................34
index.............................................................................34
V.L.C.C.—Very Large Crude Carrier .........................4, 17, 81-87
Volatile, cargo .......................................................................32-34
Vortex...........................................................................................46
V.R.P............................................................................................58
Page
W
Warps...................................................................................161,162
Washing Machines......................................................38, 39, 51, 53
Water, ballast..................................................46-48, 104, 106,112
Waves......................................................................................... 160
Wells, gas.................................................................................... 120
oil.........................................................................................1
Whale Oil.................................................................................... 106
Windloads .........................................................................158,159
Windsail........................................................................................36