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This document discusses the periodic table and periodic trends. It provides information on the structure of the periodic table including periods and groups. It describes periodic trends in properties like atomic radius, ionization energy, and electronegativity across periods and down groups. Various groups are described including their typical elements, properties, and common uses. Bonding types like ionic and covalent are also briefly introduced.
This document discusses the periodic table and periodic trends. It provides information on the structure of the periodic table including periods and groups. It describes periodic trends in properties like atomic radius, ionization energy, and electronegativity across periods and down groups. Various groups are described including their typical elements, properties, and common uses. Bonding types like ionic and covalent are also briefly introduced.
This document discusses the periodic table and periodic trends. It provides information on the structure of the periodic table including periods and groups. It describes periodic trends in properties like atomic radius, ionization energy, and electronegativity across periods and down groups. Various groups are described including their typical elements, properties, and common uses. Bonding types like ionic and covalent are also briefly introduced.
SECOND QUARTER - shell • all the electrons with the same value of n • n is the period in the periodic table GROUPS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE Group IA (1) - Alkali Metals - oxidation: +1 - most reactive (esp. to water) - strongest known base - found as part of compounds - H, Li, Na, K, Cs, Fr Group IIA (2) - Alkali Earth Metals THE PERIODIC TABLE - oxidation: +2 Periodic Table - most metallic (luster) - tabulated arrangement of the known elements - electric conductors - 118 elements - easily tarnishes in air - discovered by Dmitri in 1869 - reducing agents • 65 elements known - Mg: mineral for the heart • according to atomic number (Henry Mosely) - Ca: for the bones • based on chemical properties of an element - Sr: Ca absorption Periodic Law - Ba, Ra: for x-ray purposes - states that the properties of elements are Group IIIB - XIIB (3-12) - Transition Elements periodic functions of their atomic weights - largest group: 38 elements Modern Periodic Law - ductile and malleable - states that the properties of elements are - electrical and heat conductors - strengthening materials periodic functions of their atomic numbers - Valence Electrons: found in more than 1 shell Structure - Au, Ag: currency and jewelry - 18 groups/families (Vertical Arrangement) - Cu, Ti, Pt, Co, Cr: alloys - 7 Periods (Horizontal Arrangement) - Hg: liquid, quicksilver, most reactive to heat and Classification pressure - Metals: solid at room temperature Group IIIA (13) - Boron Family - Nonmetals - post transition metals (except Boron) - Metalloids - Al: most abundant Valence Electrons - metals with biological use - the number of outermost electrons in the Group IVA (14) - Carbon Family outermost energy level - two types of metal: transition & refractory - FOR GROUP A FAMILIES: group number is also the - used in alloys in metallurgy number of their valence electrons Group VA (15) - Nitrogen Family Periodic Patterns - most familiar - the chemical behavior of elements is determined - low boiling point and freezing point by its electron configuration - common partner of other elements in the periodic table - energy levels are quantized so roughly correspond to layers of electrons around the - colorless nucleus - most of them are gases - most toxic Group VIA (16) - Oxygen Family - defines atomic size of an element - two types of metal: transition & refractory - L → R : decreasing atomic radius - often used as alloys in Metallurgy - T → B : increasing atomic radius - metals with biological use Ionization Energy - O: respiration ( O2 → UV-B Reflection → O3) - metals lose electrons more easily than - S: pyrotechnics, cosmetics nonmetals - Se: body micromineral - metals: good reducing agents Group VIIA (17) - Halogens Family - nonmetals: lose electrons with difficulty - generally gaseous - when comparing anions/atoms/cations, they - very reactive should be isoelectronic - found in compound form - cation < atom < anion - F: toothpaste → (Ca & SrF) - OCTET RULE: state in which an atom cannot take anymore electrons - Cl: table salt → (NaCl) - I: antiseptic → (KI - Betadine) - L → R : increasing ionization - Br: micromineral → ( Ca & SrF) - T → B : decreasing ionization Electronegativity Group VIIIA (18) - Noble/Inert Gases - most stable - the atom’s ability to attract and bind electrons - almost non-reactive → valence shell is - the energy released when an atom accepts/gains electrons complete - dependent on electronegativity - found in compound form - L → R : increasing electronegativity because - only elements that exist as individual atoms in elements become non-metallic except noble nature gases - He: ballons - T → B : decreasing electronegativity because of - Ne: neon lights an increase in element metallicity - Ar: constitutes 0.93% or 0.94% of the atmosphere Electron Affinity Lanthanides & Actinides - the energy change when an electron is added - sometimes known as Inner Transition Metals - the energy released when an atom accepts/gains - only elements to reach 3f14 and 4f14 electrons - electronic configuration always end in 3s2 - dependent on electronegativity - L → R : increasing electron affinity (Lanthanides) and 4s2 (Actinides) - elements with the most complicated chemistry - T → B : decreasing electron affinity Metallic Character - doesn’t have periodic trends because of complex physical and chemical properties - the metallic property of an atom - artificially made - L → R : decreasing metallic character - T → B : increasing electron affinity ** all Group A Elements are called Representative EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULES Elements** ** Noble Gases: nonreactive ** ** all Group B Elements are called Transition ** Transition Metals: chemical properties don’t Elements** differ that much** ** Lanthanides & Actinides: complex physical anf Electronic Configuration chemical properties** - the distribution of electrons along the orbital of ADDITIONAL INFORMATION an atom ** SHIELDING ELECTRONS: shield the valence PERIODIC TRENDS electrons from the force of attraction exerted by Atomic Radius the nucleus (minimize nuclear charge)** ** Higher atomic number → Higher nuclear charge • good electric conductors when melted or dissolved in water → Smaller atom** • most are soluble but not in non-polar liquid ** More shielding electrons → More energy level → • high melting point: opposite charges attract, Bigger atom → Less the pull is the nucleus of the forming strong ionic bonds → a lot of energy valence electrons** is needed to separate the ions ** Anion → Size gets bigger** • highly soluble in H2O: polar substances ** Cation → Size gets smaller** - Electrostatic Energy: energy required to completely separate a solid ionic bond in one ** Transition Metals: chemical properties don’t differ that mole of gaseous molecule much** Covalent Bonding ** Lanthanides & Actinides: complex physical anf chemical properties** - electron sharing - atom combination lead to chemical bond CHEMICAL BONDING formation Why do atoms combine? - Nonmetal → Nonmetal - to be stable - atom combination lead to chemical bond - TYPES formation • Single-bond: one pair of e- is being shared by the bond - TWO KINDS OF ATOM COMBINATION: • Double-bond: two pairs of e- are shared • transferring of electrons • sharing of electrons to have eight valence • Triple-bond: three pair of e- are shared electrons each - Bond energy: energy required to break a Lewis Dot Structure particular bond in one mole of gaseous molecule - Gilbert Lewis: developed a representation of an • BOND ENERGIES: Single-Bond → Double-Bond atom to conveniently show the valence electrons → Triple-Bond - Lewis Symbol: consists of a chemical symbol to - Covalent Compounds represent the nucleus of an atom paired with • liquid, gas, solid at room temperature dots that represent the no. of valence electrons • low melting point - Lewis Structure: combination of Lewis symbols • non electrolytes that represents either the transfer or the sharing • low to insoluble in water of electrons in a chemical bond • most are soluble but not in non-polar liquid Chemical Bond - Types of Bond - forces that hold groups of atom together and • Polar Bond: electrons are not shared equally make them function as one between two atoms Ionic Bond • Non Polar Bond: when a bond of two atoms of the same degree of electronegativity happens - electron transfer - electrostatic attraction between ions - also known as electrovalent bonds Classification of Bonds - Metal → Nonmetal Difference in Bond Type - opposite charged ions attract each other Electronegativity 0 Polar - STRUCTURE: ≥2 Ionic • ions are packed together to maximize the 0 < EN < 2 Polar Covalent attraction between ions Electronegativity Bond Type • cations are always smaller than parent atom EN ≥ 1.7 Ionic • anions are always larger than the parent atom EN < 1.7 Polar Covalent - always electrically neutral 0 ≤ EN ≤ 0.5 Non Polar Covalent - Ionic Compounds • crystalline solids • nonconductors as solids Formal Charge (FC) Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory - no. of valence electrons in free atom — (minus) - “To minimize repulsions, each group of valence no. of lone pair electrons — (minus) 0.5 (no. of electrons around a central atoms is located as bond-pair electrons) far as possible from the others.” - should be as small as possible Electron Group Arrangement - neg. FC usually appear on the most - the closer together two groups of electrons are electronegative atoms - pos. FC usually appear on the least forced, the stronger the repulsion between them electronegative atoms - lone pair electrons spread out more than do bond - sum of the FC of the atoms must equate to 0 for a pair electrons neutral molecule and must equal the ionic charge - ORDER OF REPULSIVE FORCES for a polyatomic atom • lone pair-lone pair → lone pair → bond pair → Metallic Bond bond pair-bond pair - metal atoms bonded to several other atoms Classification of Bonds - attraction between electrons and metallic cations - sharing of valence electrons by neighboring metal atoms - electrons can move among atoms - explained by the Electron Sea Model • atoms in a metallic solid contribute their valence electrons to form a “sea” of electrons that surrounds metallic cations • delocalized electrons: not held by any specific atom and can move easily throughout the solid - PROPERTIES • malleable, lusty, and ductile • good conductors of heat and electricity • high melting and boiling pts. • insoluble • Group 1 and 2 metals - soft • Transition Metals - hard Molecular Polarity - depends on: Molecular Geometry • Dipole Moment: product of partial charge and Molecular shape distance; gives the extent of the charge displacement - three-dimensional arrangement of nuclei joined - the overall dipole moment of a molecule is by bonding groups the sum of its bond dipoles - TERMINOLOGIES - molecules have zero dipole moment because • Bond Lengths: the distance between the nuclei of bonded atoms they cancel one another
• Bond Angles: the angels between adjacent • Molecular shape
lines representing the bonds - Polar Molecules: dipole moments are • Electron Group Geometry: defined by the asymmetrical and don’t cancel out; therefore, bonding and nonbonding electron groups they have asymmetrical shape/atoms (lone pairs) • Molecular Geometry: defined by the relative - Non Polar Molecules: dipole moments are positions of the nuclei which are connected by symmetrical and cancel out the bonding groups