Boundary Layer One Linear PDF

ORIFICEMETER /ORIFICES
• Orifice is a small opening of any cross section either circular, triangular or

rectangular on the side at the bottom of the tank through which fluid is
flowing.
• Consider a tank fitted with a circular orifice in one of its sides. let ‘h’ be the
head of the liquid above the orifice
• The area of jet goes on decreasing due to force of inertia & region formed
where area reach is min. is known as vena contracta. It is formed at a
distance of half of the diameter of the orifice
• At the vena contracta, streamlines are straight & parallel to each other.
Beyond this section, streamline diverges.
v2 = √2𝑔ℎ
CV = coefficient of velocity
CV = Actual velocity = V
Theoretical velocity √2𝑔ℎ
Cv = 0.95 -0.99
Cv Depends upon
1). Head
2). Shape of orifice
3). Size of orifice
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Cc = Coefficient of contraction
Cc = Actual contracted area
Theoretical contracted area
Cc = 0.61 – 0.69
CD = Coefficient of discharge
CD = ccxcv
CD=0.61 – 0.65
Discharge through A Rectangular orifice
Q = CD x b x√2𝑔(H23/2-h13/2)
2
3
Mouthpiece

V1 = 0.855√2𝑔ℎ
CV =
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
= 0.855√2𝑔𝐻/√2𝑔𝐻 = 0.855
CD = CC x CV
CD = 1 x 0.855
CD = 0.855
CD Mouthpiece > CD orifice
Q Mouthpiece > Q orifice
Internal mouthpiece OR Rentrant mouthpiece OR Borda’s

Mouthpiece
It consist of a short cylindrical tube attached to an orifice in such a way that the
mouthpiece tube will project inward to a tank & is known as internal mouthpiece.
They are of 2 types.

1). When the length of the tube is equal to the diameter in that case → jet comes
out without touching the mouthpiece (mouthpiece is said to be running full) L=D
2). When length of the tube is equal to 3 times of the diameter, then the jet comes
out with the diameter of the mouthpiece (mouthpiece is set to be running full)
L = 3D

CD = 0.707
1). L=D
VC=√(2𝑔𝐻)
Put in eqn
ρgHA= ρAc x 2gH
Ac/A = ½ = 0.5
1). CC = ac/A = 0.5
2). CV=1
3). CD = CCx CV
= 0.5 X 1
= 0.5
Q = CD X A X √2𝑔𝐻
Boarda’s Mouthpiece
CD = 0.5
CD = 0.61 -0.65
Notches & Weirs

Notch

• A notch is defined as an opening provided on one side of the tank or
reservoir which is used to measure rate of flow through a small channel or
tank or river or canal
• Notch is basically made up of metallic. The V-shape cutting is called notch.
• The water flowing over crest or sill is known as nappe
Weir
• A weir may be defined as a structure constructed across a big river or canal
over the crest of the weir.
• weir is basically used to raise water on the upstream side.
• Top edge of the weir is called crest
• It is used to calculate discharge of large stream or canal
• weir is a larger structure than notch generally made up of masonary.
Discharge through a rectangular notch or weir
L = Length of notch
H = Head over the crest
Q= CDL √2𝑔(𝐻 3/2)2

2
3
Discharge Through a Triangular Notch or Weir

ϴo=Angle of the Notch
H = Height of water above crest
Discharge though strip,
If notch is Right Angled Δ ➔ ϴ=90o

CD = 0.6 (given in ques.)
Q➔ 1.417 H5/2
Discharge through A Trapezoidal notch or weir
QTrapeuaodal = rectangle + Traiangle ➔
Q= CD x L √2𝑔(H)3/2 + CD tanϴ/2√2𝑔(H)5/2
2 8
3 15
Cipolletti weir
Slope =
1
4

Tanϴ/2 = ¼
Discharge our a Broad – crested weir
h = Head of water in the middle of weir

L = Length of weir
1). 2L > H ➔ Broad – crested Weir
2). 2L < H ➔ Narrow – crested weir
Apple Bernoulli’s at upstream & middle of weir
V=√2𝑔(𝐻 − ℎ)
Q=CD x L x h x √2𝑔(𝐻 − ℎ)
Area of flow Velocity of flow
For max Discharge ➔ = 0

𝑑𝑄
𝑑ℎ
Q = 1.704 CD x Lx√𝐻 3
OGEE Weir
When crest of a weir reaches height of 0.115H.

the contraction of area for flow through a orifice in a tank depend on
a). Size of orifice
b). Shake of orifice
c). Head in the tank
Sutro weir
• The weir in which discharge is proportional to Head is known as proportional

weir.
• Sutro weir are basically used as a measuring device to measure discharge &
are basically used as an opening to the frit chamber. Grit chambers are long
narrow tanks that are used to designed to slow down the flow so that solid
such as sand will settle out of the water.
• Before 1897, it was developed by base width infinity which was water
modified by sutro to develop a linear proportional weir known as sutro weir.
A = C(h+ s)
2
3

Where, c = constant
Velocity of approach (Va)

It is defined as the velocity with which the water approach or reaches the weir or
notch before it flows over it.
Va= Q
Area pf channel
Q = CDx√2𝑔 xLx((H+h)3/2 – h3/2)
2
3
Submerged Flow weir

• When the downstream conditions are such that the discharge of water over
the weir is reduced, the weir is called submerge
• Weirs are basically designed & installed so that they are operated under free
flow condition.
• To correct for the reduction of flow over the weir, a correction of
submergence must be performed.
Rectangular Suppressed weir Rectangular contraction weir

Q ➔ Rehbock Formulas Q ➔ Francis Formulas
Boundary Layer

1. At y = O ➔ U = 0
2. At y = 𝛿 ➔ U = U∞
3. At y = 𝛿 ➔ du/dy = 0
4. At x = O ➔ 𝛿 = O
Boundary Layer formation
• Boundary layer theory was developed by prantel in the year 1904.

• When real fluid flows pass a solid solid, the velocity of the fluid on the
surface of the object will be same as that of the surface. If the surface is at
rest, the fluid will have zero velocity because of no slip condition at the
boundary.
• Away from the boundary the velocity increases gradually & reaches free
stream velocity at some vertical distance from the boundary, the region
closed to the boundary where velocity gradient exit is known as boundary
layer Region.
• The flow is viscous & Rotational is boundary layer Region (as Bernoulli’s eqn
is not applied in the boundary layer region.
• Outside the Boundary layer region the flow is considered to be non-viscous
& hence Bernoulli’s eqn can be applied outside boundary layer region.
Flow over flat plate

• When a real fluid flows over a flat plate, the velocity of the fluid on the
plate will be some as that of plate velocity.
• If the plate is at rest, the fluid will have zero velocity the boundary layer
thickness grooms’ as the distance from the leading edge increases.
• Upto a certain distance from the leading edge, the boundary layer is
considered to be laminar.
• As the laminar boundary layer grows, the flow changes from laminar to
turbulent in the boundary layer region.
• It is found that even in turbulent flow near the boundary, the region is
laminar.
• Laminar sub layer exist in turbulent boundary layer region.
• Conditions
Conditions
1. At y = O ➔ U = O
2. At y = 𝛿 ➔ U = U∞
3. At y = 𝛿 ➔ du/dy = O
4. At x = O ➔ 𝛿 = O
Boundary condition

1). Boundary Layer thickness(𝜹)
• It is vertical distance from the solid boundary where velocity of the

fluid is equal to 99% of the free stream velocity (At y = 𝛿, U =
0.99U∞)
• While solving mathematically, we’ll take y = 𝛿 , U = U∞.
2). Displacement Thickness(𝜹*)
It is defined as the distance by which a solid boundary must be displaced to

compensate for the loss of mass flow rate.
Total lass in M of B.L.R = o√ 𝛿dy (U∞ – u)
M = 𝛿(S* x 1) U∞)
Total loss in B.L.R.
𝛿* = (1- )dy
∞ 𝑢
o√
𝑈∞
Displacement Thickness
3). Momentum thickness ( **

) or (𝜽o)
𝜹** = (1- )dy

∞ 𝒖 𝒖
o√
𝑼∞ 𝑼∞
It is basically the distance by which the solid boundary must be shifted in case of
ideal fluids to compensate for the loss momentum due to boundary layer Region.
4). Energy Thickness ( E)
𝒖𝟐
𝜹E = (1- )dy
∞ 𝒖
o√
𝑼∞ 𝑼∞𝟐

It is basically the distance by which the solid boundary must be shifted in case
of ideal fluids to compensate for the loess in energy due to boundary layer
region.
>
Flow Over Flat Plate
1). Von – Karman Momentum Integral Equation
𝝉𝒐 𝒅𝒐
= Momentum thickness
𝜹𝑼𝟐∞ 𝒅𝒙
Distance from leading dg
Free steam velocity
Wall shear Stress
2). Reynolds’s No.

Re = ∞
𝝁
3). Coefficient of Drag (CD)
CD = FD
½ ∞
for the velocity profile given by:-

U 3Y Y3
=
-
U∞ 2
‫ﺡ‬ d ∞ d d
d
√𝒙
d √𝒙 ➔
d α √𝒙
Thus we can say that boundary layer thickness is directly proportional to √𝑥 if the
‘d’ increases, the distance from the leading edge increases.
Note :- ‫ﺡ‬o Shear force α CD

Area
‫ﺡ‬o α FD α 1/√𝑥
Boundary layer Separation

‫’ﺡ‬on the verge of separation = 0
If angle of divergence is more then the hill will become more steep

• when the fluid flows in the converged section the pressure decrease & the
velocity increase. Hence the fluid flows under –ve pressure gradient. this flow
is also known as accelerating flow & hence the boundary layer thickness
decrease. Therefore, -ve pressure gradient are known as favorable pressure
gradient
• When the fluid flows in the divergent section the velocity decreases & the
pressure increases. Therefore the fluid flows under +ve pressure gradient. if
the angle of divergence is large, the retardation of the fluid particle will be
more & at some point the momentum of the fluid particle may not support
the flow and the flow might separate from the boundary & reverse it
direction, this is known as Boundary layer separation
• Boundary layer separation will over due to +ve pressure gradient or adverse
pressure gradient.
Methods to avoid Boundary layer separation
1). By accelerating the fluid in boundary layer ragion
2). Streamlining the body
3). By implementation body
4). By keeping angle of divergence to a minimum.
Factors Affecting Boundary Layer thickness
Re = dU∞x
m
1. Density of the flow
2. Free stream velocity
3. Viscosity of the fluid
4. Distance from the leading edge
5. Blasius Equation
6. Blasius eqn will be used to find out the approximate results in the case
where the velocity profile is not given & you want to find the approximate
results, then you can apply the Blasius eqn
Laminar Turbulent
d = 5x d = 0.371x
X
√𝑅𝑒 (Rex) 1/5
CD = 0.664 CD = 0.075
L
√𝑅𝑒 (ReL)1/5

Fluid Machinery
Impact of Jets
Net force acting = net change in momentum per unit

On the body time in that given direction
Newton’s 2nd Law
F = ρQ (VF – VI)
Case – 1
Jet strikes in a stationary flat plate in a normal direction
FBlade = ρQ (VF – VI)
FBlade = -Fjet = ρQ (VI - VF)

Plate is smooth & frictionless
P1 = P2 = Patm
Z1 = Z2
V1 + V2 ➔ Plate is smooth & frictionless
Fnjet = Fx = mv1 – mv2

= mv1 – ( x 0 + x o)
𝑚 𝑚
2 2
Fx = mv1 =ρAV12
F T = FY = o
Fy = FT = Mv1 – Mv2
Fy = mxo –( x v2 + x (-V2)
𝑀 𝑚
2 2
In tangential direction
FT = F Y = 0
Note :- When jet strikes a flat plate then it will apply for only in normal direction to
the plate. there will be no force in the tangential direction.
Case – 2
force exerted by the jet on an Inclined plate
Qo = Oo ➔ mentry = mexit

Qo = 90o ➔ m =
𝑚
2
m = m1 + M2
dQ = dQ1 + dQ2
Q = Q 1 + Q2
Fn = mv1 =- mv2
=mvisingϴ - (m1 x o + m2 x o)
Fn = mv1sinϴ = dAV12sinϴ ➔
Fn = ρAV12sinϴ
Fn = Fx = Fn Cos (90-ϴ) V1 = V2
Fx = Fn sinϴ When ϴ = 90o just like previous
Fx = ρAV12 sin2ϴ Fx = Fn = ρAv12
Fx = FN = ρAV12
Fy = Fncosϴ
Fy = ρAV12sinϴcosϴ
Case -3
jet strikes at the centre of stationary curve or blade/ vanes
Φ- varies from 165o – 175o
1). FN = MV1 – MV2

FN = Mvi – (-v2cos∅) +
𝑚 𝑀
(-v2cos∅)
2 2
FN = MV1 + Mv2 cos∅
v1=v2 Plate smooth & frictioinless
FN = MV1 (1+Cos∅)
FN = ρav12 (1+cos∅)
FT = mv1 – mv2
FT = mxo – ( v2sin∅ = (-V2sin∅)

𝑚 𝑚
2 2
FT=O
Case – 4
jet strikes a Stationary curve blade unsymmetrical at the tip of the blade.
ϴ = Angle of blade at entry
∅o = angle made by blade at exit
1). Fn = mv1 – Mv2

= mV1 cosϴo – M(-v2 cos∅)
FN = m (V1cosϴ + v2 cos∅)
V 1 = V2 smooth frictionless
FN = MV1(cosϴ + cos∅)

FT = M(V1sinϴo - v2sin∅o)
V 1 = V2
FT = MV1 – (sinϴo-sin∅o)
Case – 5
when jet strikes flat moving plate
A = Area of jet
Fx = Fn = Mv1 – (M/2u + m/2 u)
Fx = Mv1 -Mu
= m(V1-u)
Fx = dA (v1 – U1) (v1 – u1)
Fx = dA (V1 – U1)2
Fy = FT = M x o – (𝑀/2 Vr2 + (-Vr2)

𝑀
2
Fy = Ft = 0
Work 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = Force x displacement

Time
Work done/sec = Force x velocity
Work Done/sec = dA(Vi-ui)2 x u1
Work done/ sec = dA ( v1-u1)2 x u1
➢ when jet strikes a flat moving plate, the plate moves with a constant
velocity(u)

➢ jet hits the plate normally & to avoid splashing a splitter is connected which
splits the mass in two equal halves.
➢ when the observer is sitting outside, he’ll observe jet comes with velocity v1
& the plate moves with the velocity u1
➢ when the observer is sitting on the plate, he’ll observe the jet comes with
velocity vr1 & Goes with velocity Vr2
Note :- if the plate is smooth & frictionless ➔ Vr1 = Vr2

1) P1 = P2 = Patm
2). Z1 = Z2
3). V2 << V1
4). (K.E)Exit << (K.E)Entry
Case – 6
jet strikes a flat moving plate ( inclined Plate)
FN ➔ Mvr1sinϴ - (m1x0 + M2x0)

 Mvr1sinϴ
 dAVr1 x Vr1sinϴ
FN ➔ da (v1 – u1)2 sinϴ
Fx = FnCos (90-ϴ) ➔ Fnsinϴ
Fx = Fncos (90-ϴ) ➔ Fnsinϴ
Fy = dA(V1-U1)2sin2 ϴ
Case – 7
Jet strikes at the tip of moving vane

αo = jet angle at inlet
ϴ0 = Blade angle at enter
βo = jet angle at outlet
∅o = blade angle at exit
1). FN = Fx = MVw1 – M(-Vw2)

Fx = M(Vw1 + Vw2)
Fx = dAVri(Vw1 + Vw2)
2). FT = FY = MVF1 – MVF2
Fy = M(VF1 – VF2)
Plate is smooth & frictionless ∴ VF1 = VF2
Fv = 0
3). Work done/Sec = Fx x u
WD = dAVr1 (Vw1 + Vw1 + Vw2) x u
Case 8:-
Jet strikes at the centre of moving vane

1) Fx = MVW1 –( (-VW2) + (-Vw2)
𝑚 𝑀
2 2
= mVw1 + mVwz
Fx = m(Vw1 + Vwz)
Fx = dA(V1-u1) (Vw1 + VW2)
Fx = dQ (VW1+VW2) (newton)
2). Fy = mxo – ( VF2 + (-VF2)

𝑚 𝑀
2 2
Fy = 0
3). Work done = dQ(Vw1 + Vw2)u

Efficiency
n = =
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑚(𝑉𝑤1 +𝑉𝑤2)𝑢
1
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑚𝑣12
2
Case 9).
Jet strikes on a series of flat plate mounted on a runner/wheel/ Tangential flow
runner)

(1) Fx = Mv1 – ( U2 + U2)
𝑚 𝑀
2 2
1 2
=Mv – mu
Fx = M(V1 – U2)
Fx = dAv1(V1-u1)
Work done = σAV1 (V1-u1)u
Efficiency ( n )
n = dAV1(V1-u1)u
MV12
1
2
n = 2(V1-u1)u
V12
n = F (V,U)
If v = Const
for max
= (V1u-u2)=0
𝐷𝑛 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑣2
V1 – 2u = 0
U =
𝑣1
2
Put in (1)
nmax = 2 v1 – v1 u1
2 2

n max = ½ X 100 = 50 %
Radial flow runner

Runners
Tangential Radial Axial Mixed

e.g. Pelton wheel (to shaft) (parallel to the axis (Radial + axial)
e.g. old Francis of shaft)
eg. 1) Propeller eg modern
2) Kaplan Francis
Inward Radial flow turbine
Torque = Angular momentum

moment of momentum
Linear momentum at entry = MVW1

Linear momentum at Exit = -MVw2
Moment of momentum at entry = mVw1r1
Moment of momentum at exit = - MVwzr2
T = mVw1r1 – (-MVwzr2)
= mVw1r1 + MVwzr2 ➔ m(Vw1r1 + Vwzr2)
Runner power = T.W
R.P = dQ (Vw1r1 + Vwzr2)w
R.P = dQ (Vw1r1w + Vwzr2w)
R.P = dQ (Vw1u1 + Vwzu2)

R.P = dQ (Vw1u1 + Vwzu2)
mg mg
Euler’s Head = (Vw1u1 + Vwzu2)

g

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ORIFICEMETER /ORIFICES

• Orifice is a small opening of any cross section either circular, triangular or

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Discharge through A Rectangular orifice

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CD Mouthpiece > CD orifice

Q Mouthpiece > Q orifice

Internal mouthpiece OR Rentrant mouthpiece OR Borda’s

They are of 2 types.

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1). CC = ac/A = 0.5

Notches & Weirs

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Discharge through a rectangular notch or weir

Q= CDL √2𝑔(𝐻 3/2)2

Discharge Through a Triangular Notch or Weir

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Discharge though strip,

If notch is Right Angled Δ ➔ ϴ=90o

Discharge through A Trapezoidal notch or weir

QTrapeuaodal = rectangle + Traiangle ➔

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Discharge our a Broad – crested weir

h = Head of water in the middle of weir

1). 2L > H ➔ Broad – crested Weir

2). 2L < H ➔ Narrow – crested weir

Apple Bernoulli’s at upstream & middle of weir

Area of flow Velocity of flow

For max Discharge ➔ = 0

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• The weir in which discharge is proportional to Head is known as proportional

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Velocity of approach (Va)

Submerged Flow weir

Rectangular Suppressed weir Rectangular contraction weir

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Boundary Layer formation

• Boundary layer theory was developed by prantel in the year 1904.

Flow over flat plate

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• It is vertical distance from the solid boundary where velocity of the

It is defined as the distance by which a solid boundary must be displaced to

Total lass in M of B.L.R = o√ 𝛿dy (U∞ – u)

Total loss in B.L.R.

3). Momentum thickness ( **

𝜹** = (1- )dy

4). Energy Thickness ( E)

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Flow Over Flat Plate

1). Von – Karman Momentum Integral Equation

Distance from leading dg

Free steam velocity

Wall shear Stress

2). Reynolds’s No.

3). Coefficient of Drag (CD)

for the velocity profile given by:-

Note :- ‫ﺡ‬o Shear force α CD

Boundary layer Separation

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Factors Affecting Boundary Layer thickness

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Net force acting = net change in momentum per unit