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A.M.D.G.
Cell Structure

Sizes and units

1/1000mm = 1µm
1/1000µm = 1nm
or 1mm = 1000µm
1µm = 1000nm

General Background
Cell Theory
Proposed by Schleiden and Schwann
 The cell is the basic unit of life
 Cells are made from other cells by division
 Cells contain hereditary information
 Metabolic reactions occur within cells

Most cells are 10 – 150 µm in diameter

Unicellular organisms include bacteria and some Protoctista
Prokaryotes are much smaller, 0.8 – 10.0 µm in diameter

Unicellular organisms have specialised regions within the cell. For example Amoeba
Multicellular organisms have specialised cells performing different structures
The simplest multicellular organisms are colonies of similar cells

The study of cells is called Cell Biology

The study of cell structures is called Cytology

Historical Events:
Anthony Van Leeuwenhoek: between 1650 and 1700 this Dutch microscopist saw
bacteria and nuclei
Robert Hooke in 1662 described cells from cork (cell walls and no content)
From 1828- 1945 advances in the light microscope meant it was possible to get a
resolution of 0.2µm (200nm)
Shleiden and Schwann proposed the cell theory in 1838
Louis Pasteur did work on microbes which previously were not recognised
The electron microscope, developed between 1930 and 1946, which allows a
resolution of 0.1nm and ultra-structure was revealed
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There are two types of electron microscopes:

Scanning electron microscope. This allows 3-dimensional views
Transmission electron microscope. This is used for viewing sections

An energy source needs to interact with the specimen in a microscope

The wave length of visible light is about 550 nm

The resolution of a microscope is the smallest distance apart

two points can be to be seen as distinct.
The resolution of a microscope is about half of the wave length,
So for a good light microscope it will be about 200nm

Electrons have a wavelength of about 0.5nm, this can be adjusted by changing the
voltage
Resolution is about 0.2nm
The electron beam is focused using electromagnets

Preparation of specimens to view in an electron microscope is difficult, and because

the electrons travel in a vacuum so the specimen must be dead and dehydrated
It is mounted in resin and stained using heavy metals that absorb electrons and make
the area darker

The image is viewed on a screen, it can be artificially coloured

The structure of cells as seen under the light microscope

Plant Cell Animal Cell

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Using an electron microscope more organelles can be seen:

Cell Membranes
Under the light microscope these are seen as a single layer, but the electron microscope shows two
layers, 7nm wide

Chemical Analysis shows the membrane is made of

Phospholipids and

Proteins (more than lipids by mass)

Phospholipids are made of a hydrophilic (polar) phosphate head

and two hydrophobic fatty acid tails

In water phospholipids form micelles with the hydrophilic heads shielding the
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hydrophobic tails

E.M shows there are 3 layers, or a trilaminar structure.

Davson and Danielli proposed a structure that had two protein layers separated by a
phospholipid bilayer

Freeze etching techniques showed the membrane is made of protein molecules

partially of fully embedded in the lipid bilayer
Tagging the proteins shows they move around
The membrane is only one phospholipid bilayer wide, as seen on TEM
In 1972 Singer and Nicolson proposed the Fluid Mosaic Model:

This described a mosaic of protein molecules floating in a fluid lipid bilayer

1 . The Phospholipid bilayer forms the basic structure

The non-polar hydrophobic fatty acid tails face away from the water based medium
on either side
Because they are non-polar they form a barrier to the passage of polar ions or
molecules
2 . Proteins may be fixed to organelles or freely moving in the bilayer
Some transverse the membrane and have hydrophilic channels through which
specific polar ions/molecules can cross the membrane. These are transport
molecules
Some proteins are enzymes
3. The cholesterol molecules have hydrophilic and hydrophobic portions which
allow them to sit in the bilayer
These regulate fluidity and give mechanical stability, preventing the cell from bursting
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The hydrophobic regions prevent the passage of polar molecules
4. Glycolipids and glycoproteins are formed when carbohydrate tail attaches to a
phosphate head or to a protein in the membrane
These may provide stability by projecting into the water medium and forming
Hydrogen bonds with water molecules
They also form recognition sites for other cells, hormones and other molecules

The Nucleus

These are found in all eukaryote cells except red

blood cells, phloem sieve tubes and xylem vessels
Some cells are multinucleate
The nucleus is about 10-20µm in diameter

It is surrounded by a double membrane or an

envelope
The outer layer of the membrane is continuous
with the endoplasmic reticulum
There are pores in the envelope, about 80-100nm in diameter, which allow exchange
of materials

The nucleoplasm is a gel-like matrix which contains chromosomes

Chromosomes are seen as diffuse chromatin unless the cell is dividing and they have
been stained
Chromatin is coils of DNA and histone proteins bound to the DNA
Heterochromatin is seen under EM as darker staining because it is more tightly coiled
Euchromatin is lighter staining and less tightly coiled

There is one or more nucleolus (plural = nucleoli) where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is
manufactured
It is seen as a dense, dark staining region
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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

This is a system of flattened sacs or cisternae
ER is found throughout the cytoplasm, continuous with the outer membrane of the
nucleus

Rough ER has ribosomes attached to the surface

These are involved in the synthesis, via the ribosomes, of proteins and transport of
protein around the cell

Smooth ER has no ribosomes and is involved in steroid and lipid production

ER is seen as parallel lines in the cytoplasm under the EM

Ribosomes
These are about 20nm in diameter
They are found free in the cytoplasm or bound to ER
Ribosomes are made of RNA and proteins
The RNA is ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
It is made in the nucleolus
They are the site of protein synthesis
They "read" the RNA code and attach amino-acids in the correct sequence to form a polypeptide
Free ribosomes make cell proteins
Ribosomes on the ER make proteins that may be secreted from the cell

Chloroplasts, mitochondria and Prokaryotes have 70S ribosomes

Eukaryotes have 80S (larger ) ribosomes

The ribosome is made of two sub-units:

A smaller and a lager subunit

A polysome is several ribosomes simultaneously reading the same strand of mRNA to increase the
efficiency of protein synthesis
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Golgi apparatus
These are found in all cells and are abundant in metabolically active secreting cells
They are a system of flattened sacs called cisternae only visible under EM

1 Proteins or lipids made in the ER are transported, in vesicles,

through the cytoplasm
2 These vesicles fuse with the outer forming face of the Golgi
apparatus
3 The proteins/lipids are modified through the Golgi apparatus,
often by having a carbohydrate attached
4 The modified product buds off in Golgi vesicles from the inner
maturing face
5 The vesicles move to the cell surface membrane and fuse with
it to release the contents outside (e.g. digestive enzymes)
6 If the product is not to be secreted the vesicle will transfer it to
where it is needed within the cell

Lysosomes
These are about 0.1 – 0.5µm in diameter and only seen under using EM
They are made by rough ER and Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes are spherical membrane bound structures containing digestive enzymes
These enzymes may be
used to digest other organelles or the entire cell (autolysis)
Released form the cell by exoxytosis (such as when sperm digest the
ovum barrier)
Digest foreign matter taken in to the cell by endocytosis. They fuse with
the food vacuole to form a secondary lysosome
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In plant cells the vacuole may act as
a lysosome
1 endocytosis
2 Food vacuole formed
3 lysosome fuses with food
vacuole forming secondary
vacuole
4 Hydrolytic enzymes digest
contents
5 nutrients absorbed then unwanted waste egested by exocytosis

Peroxisomes are single membrane bound organelles in Eukaryotes that contain the
enzyme Catalase. This removes toxic hydrogen peroxide
Peroxisomes are involved in other metabolic activity functions too

Mitochondria
These are 0.5 -1.5 µm x 3-10µm
They can be seen under a good light microscope
Mitochondria are found in all cells
There are high numbers in metabolically active cells

They are the site of pyruvate oxidation in respiration and ATP synthesis
ATP is used to build molecules, cause movement of microtubules to move cytoplasm
or contract muscles, in cell division, DNA synthesis

Mitochondria have a double membrane

The outer membrane is smooth and the inner is folded into cristae
These folds increase the surface area for the enzymes involved in ATP synthesis

The matrix contains enzymes used in the Krebs cycle

In the matrix are 70S ribosomes and circular strands of DNA
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Vacuoles
These are only found in plant cells
They are membrane bound and filled with cell sap
The membrane is called the tonoplast
Cell sap contains water, ions, waste, pigments, and hydrolytic enzymes
Younger cells have many smaller vacuoles
In older cells these fuse to form a large, permanent, central vacuole
Animal cells have small, temporary vesicles

Chloroplasts
These are 4-10 x 2-3µm
They are a type of Plastid, that is an organelle containing pigment
They are biconvex discs
They are the site of photosynthesis
There is a double membrane

The outer membrane is smooth

The inner membrane is branched to form thylakoids: flattened membrane bound sacs
Grana or Granum Thylakoids are stacks of thylakoids
Stroma thylakoids or inter-lamellae thylakoids run between grana, free in the stroma
Thylakoids are where the photosynthetic pigments are found and the site of the light
dependent stage of photosynthesis
This process makes ATP which is used on the light independent stage to fix carbon
The Stroma (matrix) contains
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70S ribosomes
oil droplets
DNA circular strands
Starch grains
The stroma also contains enzymes used in the light independent stage of
photosynthesis where carbon from carbon dioxide is fixed into carbohydrates

Microtubules
These are hollow cylinders made of protein
They are 24nm in diameter
They occur throughout the cytoplasm and bring about movement of cell contents,
such as lysosomes
Microtubules are also found in cilia ans flagella and centrioles
Misrotubules in the cytoplasm form the structure of the cell, they are said to from
the cytoskeleton

Microfilaments
These are single stranded proteins
They are involved in cytoplasmic movement

Centrioles
These are only found in animal cells
They consist of two hollow cylinders at right angles
They are about 0.3-0.5µm long and 0.2 µm wide
Centrioles contain microtubules in the same structure as seen in cilia and flagella
basal bodies
The Centrioles move to opposite poles during cell division

Cilia and Flagella

Cilia are many short cytoplasmic projections and flagella are one or a few much
longer cytoplasmic projections
In cross section under the EM they are seen to contain 9 peripheral pairs of
microtubules and 2 central microtubules (9+2)
These are connected to a different system of microtubules inside the cytoplasm, the
basal body
The microtubules slide over each other to bring about movement

Cell Wall
Found in plant cells only
Provide mechanical support and protection
Because the wall prevents the cell from bursting this allows turgor pressure to give
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the plant support
The wall is made from cellulose and other polysaccharides
Fungi and Prokaryotes have cell walls made of other substances

The cell wall is made in Golgi apparatus

Golgi vesicles move to the cell plate (at the equator of a dividing cell) at the end of
nuclear division
The vesicles fuse to form the middle lamella
This contains Calcium Pectate which holds the neighbouring cell walls together
The membranes from the vesicles fuse to form the cell surface membrane

The primary cell wall is made next

This is made of cellulose molecules that are bundled together to form microfibrils
The bundles are held by Hydrogen-bonds
These are in turn bundles to form cellulose fibres
Hemicellulose and pectins hold fibres together
Cellulose has a high tensile strength

The primary cell wall laid down in different directions

 areProkaryotes
There gaps in the wallinclude
calledthe
plasmodesmata
bacteria throughEukaryotes include Protoctista,
which cytoplasmic
connections are algae
and blue-green made between cells Fungi, Animalia and Plantae
The Secondary wall is only laid down once the cell has stopped growing
 They are larger, up to 40µm in diameter
The cellulose
They fibres
are veryare
small,
laidabout 0.5 – 5µm
in different in
directions which increases the strength
diameter
They may have lignin or suberin added
 They lack a true nucleus, the DNA is  They have true nucleus with linear DNA
Thecircular
cellulose cellfreely
and lies wall in
is the
freely permeable.
cytoplasm and is associated with histones to form chromosomes
Water and ions
not bound withmove through
histones to formthe spaces between the cellulose fibres. This is called
chromosomes
the apoplast
 They have membrane bound organelles,
 They do not have any membrane bound some with a double membrane
Prokaryotes
organelles and Eukaryote
 Functions such as respiration and
 Photosynthetic blue-green algae have photosynthesis occur within specialised
photosynthetic pigments on membrane strands organelles such as mitochondria and
in the cell chloroplasts

 Respiration takes place on folds of the

cell surface membrane called mesosomes
 They have 80S ribosomes
 Prokaryotes have 70S ribosomes
(smaller)  Flagella and cilia have a 9+2
arrangement of microtubules
 If flagella or pilli are present their
internal structures are different, with no
microtubules present
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The Endosymbiont Theory

Chloroplasts and Mitochondria are the same size as Prokaryotes (0.5 - 10µm)
They contain 70S ribosomes and circular DNA like prokaryotes
They have a double membrane

The endosymbiont theory suggests these organelles were once free living prokaryote
organisms that were engulfed by another cell and enclosed in a vacuole
Instead of digesting the contents of the vacuole a symbiotic relationship was
established
The mitochondria provided ATP and the chloroplasts provided glucose
In return the host cell provided raw materials for these processes
The vacuole membrane became the outer membrane of the organelles

A symbiotic relationship is when one organism lives in or on another and both benefit
from the relationship

Viruses
Viruses are very small non-cellular structures with a piece of genetic material [DNA or
RNA] surrounded by a protein coat
They can only copy their genetic material and make new protein coats in a host cell
so all viruses are pathogens
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