LASER TORCH BASED VOICE TRANSMITTER

AND RECEIVER
A MINI PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

CH.CHANDRAKANTH 16W91A0216

In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree

Of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

in

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Under the guidance of

Mrs.D.SWATHI M.Tech

Assistant professor

Malla Reddy Institute of Engineering and Technology

Maisammaguda, Dhulapally(post via Hakimpet), Sec-bad-500 014.
Affiliated to
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
Hyderabad, Telangana.
Accredited by NBA &NAAC
December 2019.
 Malla Reddy Institute of Engineering & Technology
(Sponsored by Malla Reddy Educational Society)
Affiliated to JNTU, Hyderabad, Accredited by NBA (New Delhi)
Maisammaguda, Dhulapally(post via Hakimpet), Sec-bad-500 014.
Phone: 040-65969674, Cell: 9348161223

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that the mini project entitled “LASER TORCH BASED VOICE TRANSMITTER
AND RECEIVER ”is the bonafide work done by

STUDENT NAME ROLL NUMBER

CH.CHANDRAKANTH 16W91A0216

Who carried out the Mini-project work under our supervision and guidance

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
Mrs.D.SWATHIM.Tech Dr.K.HANUMAJIPh.D
Assistant Professor Associate Professor
Internal guide Head of the Department
EEE Department EEE Department
M.R.I.E.T M.R.I.E.T

EXTERNAL EXAMINER
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my Principal Dr M. ASHOK PhD,

Malla Reddy Institute of Engineering and Technology.

I would also like to thank all the other staff members for extending their help whenever
needed. I am thankful to my Director P. PRAVEEN REDDY Sir, for his valuable guidance
and support to complete this mini project.

I mention my sincere gratitude to Associate Prof. Dr K. Hanumaji, HOD, Dept. of

EEE, Malla Reddy Institute of Engineering and Technology, who helped me a lot in all the
aspects.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my Project Co-Ordinator,

Mr. U. Lili Kumar, Asst. Prof., for helping me in carrying out the project work.

I express my deep sense of my sincere gratitude to Assistant.professor

Mrs.D.SWATHI who guided me in all the way to carry out this project.

STUDENT NAME ROLL NUMBER

CH.CHANDRAKANTH - 16W91A0216
 CONTENTS

DESCRIPTION PAGE NO
ABSTRACT i
TABLE OF FIGURES ii
CHAPTER 1 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM 2
1.21 MIC 2
1.2.2 TRANSMITTING SECTION 2
1.2.3 LASER TORCH 3
1.2.4 RECEVING SECTION 3
1.2.5 LOUD SPEAKER 3
CHAPTER 2 4-32
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
2.1 TRANSMITTER 4
2.2 RECEIVER 4
2.3WORKING OF CIRCUIT 5
DIAGRAM
2.3.1 TRANSMITTER 5
2.3.2 RECEVIER 5
2.4 COMPONENTS 6
2.5 COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION 7
2.5.1 OPERATIONAL AMPILFIER 7
2.5.2 BC-548 TRANSISTOR 10
2.5.3 BD-139 TRANSISTOR 11
2.5.4 VARIABLE RESISTOR POT 13
2.5.5 IC-LM386 14
2.5.6 BC-549 TRANSISTOR 16
2.5.7 LASER TORCH 18
2.5.8 CONDENSER MICROPHONE 21
2.5.9 RESISTORS 22
2.5.10 CAPACITORS 24
 2.5.11 PHOTO TRANSISTOR 26
2.5.12 POWER SUPPLY 30
2.5.13 BATTERY 9VOLT 31
2.5.14 SPEAKER 31
2.5.15 PCB 32
CHAPTER 3 33-37
3.1 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION 33
3.1.1 TRANSMITTER 34
3.1.2 RECEVIER 34
3.2 COMPONENT LAYOUT 35
3.2.1 TRANSMITTER 35
3.2.2 RECEVIER 35
3.3 SOLDERING 36
3.4 ADVANTAGES 37
3.5 APPLICATIONS 37
CHAPTER 4 38
RESULT & ANALYSIS 38
CHAPTER 5 39-40
CONCLUSION 39
FUTURS SCOPE 39
REFERENCE 40
 ABSTRACT
Using this circuit we can communicate with your neighbours wirelessly. Instead of RF
signals, light from a laser torch is used as the carrier in the circuit. The laser torch can transmit
light up to a distance of about 500 meters. The phototransistor of the receiver must be
accurately oriented towards the laser beam from the torch. If there is any obstruction in the path
of the laser beam, no sound will be heard from the receiver. The transmitter circuit comprises
condenser microphone transistor amplifier BC548 followed by an op-amp stage built around
µA741. The gain of the op-amp can be controlled with the help of 1-mega-ohm pot meter
VR1.The AF output from IC1 is coupled to the base of transistor BD139 (T2), which, in turn,
modulates the laser beam.

The transmitter uses 9V power supply. However, the 3-volt laser torch (after removal
of its battery) can be directly connected to the circuit—with the body of The torch connected
to the emitter of BD139 and the spring-loaded lead protruding from inside the torch to circuit
ground. The receiver circuit uses an NPN phototransistor as the light sensor that is followed by
a two-stage transistor preamplifier and LM386-based audio Power amplifier. The receiver does
not need any complicated alignment. Just keep the phototransistor oriented towards the remote
transmitter’s laser point and adjust the volume control for a clear sound. To avoid 50Hz hum
noise in the speaker, keep the phototransistor away from AC light sources such as bulbs. The
reflected sunlight, however, does not cause any problem. But the sensor should not directly
face the sun.

i
 LIST OF FIGURES
FIG NO NAME OF THE FIGURE PAGE NO
1.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM 2
2.1 TRANSMITTER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 4
2.2 RECEVIER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 4
2.3 OP-AMP BLOCK DIAGRAM 7
2.4 OP-AMP 8
2.5 INVERTING OP-AMP 9
2.6 IC-741 PIN DISCRIPTION 9
2.7 BC-548 10
2.8 BD-139 11
2.9 VARIABLE RESISTOR POT 13
2.10 VARIABLE POT CIRCUIT 13
2.11 IC-LM386 14
2.12 BC-549 16
2.13 LASER TORCH DESIGN 18
2.14 LASER CONSTRUCTION 19
2.15 ELECTRER CONDENSER MICROPHONE 22
2.16 RESISTOR 23
2.17 CERAMIC CAPACITOR 25
2.18 ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR 26
2.19 PHOTO TRANSISTOR 27
2.20 BLOCK DIAGRAM 28
2.21 PHOTO TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT 28
2.22 9VOLT BATTERY 31
2.23 SPEAKER 31
2.24 PCB 32
3.1 TRANSMITTER CIRCUIT LAYOUT 35
3.2 RECEVIER CIRCUIT LAYOUT 35
4.1 OUTPUT CIRCUIT OF 38
TRANSMITTER&RECEVIER

ii
 Page 1

CHAPTER -1
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Laser as a communication medium can provide a good substitute for the present day
communication systems as the problem of interference faced in case of electromagnetic
waves is not there and high deal of secrecy is available.

Use of laser in communication systems is the future because of the advantages of the
full channel speeds, no communication licenses required at present, compatibility with
copper, fiber interfaces and no bridge or router requirements. Besides this there are no
recurring line costs, portability, transparency to networks or protocols, although range
is limited to a few hundred meters. Also the laser transmission is very secure because
it has a narrow beam (any potential eves dropping will result in an interruption which
will alert the personnel. Also it cannot be detected with use of spectrum analyzers and
RF meters and hence can be used for diverse applications including financial, medical
and military. Lasers can also transmit through glass, however the physical properties of
the glass have to be considered. Laser transmitter and receiver units ensure easy,
straightforward systems alignment and long-term stable, service free operation,
especially in inaccessible environments, optical wireless systems offer ideal,
economical alternative to expensive leased lines for buildings. The laser can also be
commissioned in satellites for communication, as laser radar requires small aperture as
compared to microwave radar. Also there is high secrecy and no interference like in
EM waves. Further, potential bandwidth of radar using lasers can translate to very
precision range measurement. For these reasons, they can be used as an alternative to
present modes of communication. laser communication, which is both wide-band and
high- speed .

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1.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Transmitting Laser Receiving Loud

MIC
Section Torch section speaker

Fig1.1

BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION:

1.2.1. MIC:

It is also called a capacitor or electrostatic microphone. Condenser means

capacitor, which stores energy in the form of an electric field. Condenser microphones
require power from a battery or external source. Condenser also tends to be more
sensitive and responsive than dynamic.

The diaphragm vibrates when struck by sound waves, changing the distance
between the two plates and therefore changing the capacitance. Specifically when the
plates are closer together capacitance increases and a charge current occurs and this
current will be used to trigger the transmitting section.

1.2.2 TRANSMITTING SECTION:

The transmitter section comprises condenser microphone, transistor amplifier

BC548 followed by an op-amp stage built around IC1. The gain of the op- amp can be
controlled with the help of 1MΩ pot meter VR1 ,the AF output from IC1 is coupled to
the base of transistor BD139,which in turn, modulates the laser beam the transmitter
uses 9V power supply . however, the 3-volt laser torch (after the removal of its
battery)can be directly connected to the circuit-with the body of the torch connected to
the emitter of the BD-139 and the spring loaded lead producing from inside the torch
to circuit ground.

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1.2.3 LASER TORCH:

Here we use the light rays coming from laser torch as the medium for
transmission. Laser had potential for the transfer of data at extremely high rates, specific
advancements were needed in component performance and systems engineering,
particularly for space-qualified hardware. Free space laser communications systems are
wireless connections through the atmosphere. They work similar to fibre optic cable
systems except the beam is transmitted through open space. The laser systems operate
in the near infrared region of the spectrum. The laser light across the link is at a
wavelength of between 780 - 920 nm. Two parallel beams are used, one for
transmission and one for reception.

1.2.4 RECEVING SECTION:

The receiver circuit uses an NPN phototransistor as the light sensor that is
followed by a two stage transistor preamplifier and LM386-based audio power
amplifier. The receiver doesn't need any complicated alignment. Just keep the
phototransistor oriented towards the remote transmitter's laser point and adjust the
volume control for a clear sound.

1.2.5 LOUD SPEAKER:

A loudspeaker (or "speaker") is an electro acoustic transducer that converts an

electrical signal into sound. The speaker moves in accordance with the variations of an
electrical signal and causes sound waves to propagate through a medium such as air or
water

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CHAPTER - 2

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

2.1 TRANSMITTER:

Fig 2.1 transistor

2.2 RECEVIER:

Fig 2.2 recevier

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2.3 WORKING OF CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

2.3.1 TRANSMITTER:

The mic is the audio input. C1 is a coupling capacitor that connects the audio
from the mic to T1. T1 is a transistor that is used to amplify the audio a bit. C2 couples
the audio to IC1 which amplifies it some more. The audio from the IC is then routed to
T2 which modulates the power to the LED. This puts the audio onto the light beam.
VR1 is a variable resistor which adjusts the gain of the IC. C3, C4 and R7 are power
filters that remove noise from the power supply. The other resistors Just supply the right
voltage to the various parts.

2.3.2 RECEVIER:

T3 is a photo sensitive transistor which receives the laser from the LED
transmitter. The transistor puts out a signal that is proportional to the light from the
LED. This not only receives the signal it also demodulates it. C5 couples this audio to
T4 and T5 which amplify the signal. The signal is them coupled through C8 to VR2.
VR2 is a volume control for IC2. IC2 amplifies the signal more and drives the speaker,
LS1.

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2.4 COMPONENTS LIST

TRANSMITTER:

1. IC 741.

2. BC 548.

3. BD 139.

4. 3 Volts Laser Torch.

5.Condenser Mic.

6.Resistors- 8.2k,1.8m,15k,1MΩ,82Ω,10kΩ.

7.Capacitors-1μF/16v,0.1 μF,470μF/16v,1000μF/16v.

8.variable resistor(pot)- 1MΩ.

9. 9v Battery.

10. PCB.

RECEVIER:

1. Transistor -BC549.

2. IC LM386.

3. NPN Photo Transistor – 2N5777/L14F1.

4. 0.5w/80Ω Speaker.

5. Resistors -6.8kΩ,4.7kΩ 470kΩ 2.2kΩ,1kΩ,10Ω.

6.variable resistor(pot)- 1OKΩ.

7. Capacitors -0.1µf,100µf /16V Electrolytic,0.01µf,47pf,1µf,470µf/16.

8. 9v Battery.

9. PCB.

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2.5 COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION:

2.5.1 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER:

An op amp is a high-gain, direct-coupled differential linear amplifier whose

response characteristics are externally controlled by negative feedback from the output
to the input. OP amps, widely used in computers, can perform mathematical operations
such as summing, integration, and differentiation. OP amps are also used as video and
audio amplifiers, oscillators, etc. in the communication electronics. Because of their
versatility op amps are widely used in all branches of electronics both in digital and
linear circuits. OP amps lend themselves readily to IC manufacturing techniques.
Improved IC manufacturing techniques, the op amp's adaptability, and extensive use in
the design of new equipment have brought the price of IC ops amps from very high to
very reasonable levels. These facts ensure a very substantial role for the IC op amp in
electronics.

Fig shows the symbol for an op amp. Note that the operational amplifier has two inputs
marked (-) and (+). The minus input is the inverting input. A signal applied to the minus
terminal will be shifted in phase 180° at the output. The plus input is the non-inverting
input. A signal applied to the plus terminal will appear in the same phase at the output
as at the input. Because of the complexity of the internal circuitry of an op amp, the op
amp symbol is used exclusively in circuit diagrams.

Fig 2.3

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Fig 2.4 op-amp

An operational amplifier often referred to as op Amp, is a very high gain high

performance amplifier designed to amplify ac and dc signal voltages. Modern
integrated circuit technology and large-scale production techniques have brought down
the prices of such amplifiers within reach of all amateurs, experimenters and hobbyists.
The Op Amp is now used as a basic gain element, like an elegant transistor, in electronic
circuits.

The availability of two input terminals simplifies feedback circuitry and makes
the operational amplifier a highly versatile device. If a feedback is applied from the
output to the inverting input terminal, the result is a negative feedback, which gives a
stable amplifier with precisely controlled gain characteristics. On the other hand, if the
feedback is applied to the non-inverting input, the result is positive feedback, which
gives oscillators and multi vibrator. Special effects are obtained by combination of both
types of feedback.

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Fig 2.5

The above figure shows the basic circuit, including the negative feedback loop
of an op amp. The output is fed back to the inverting input terminal in order to provide
negative feedback for the amplifier. The input signal is applied to the inverting input.
As a result, the output will be inverted. It is possible to operate the op amp as a non-
inverting amplifier by applying the signal to the plus input. In this circuit the feedback
network is still connected to the inverting input

IC-741 PIN DISCRIPTION:

Fig 2.6 IC-741 pin discription

 Pin 1 is Offset null.

 Pin 2 is Inverting input terminal.
 Pin 3 is a non-inverting input terminal.
 Pin 4 is negative voltage supply (VCC)
 Pin 5 is offset null.
 Pin 6 is the output voltage.
 Pin 7 is positive voltage supply (+VCC)
 Pin 8 has no connection.

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2.5.2 BC-548 TRANSISTOR:

Fig 2.7 BC-548

BC548 is another general purpose widely used transistor that can be easily get from
reputable electronic components store, this transistor also have bunch of good features
on the basis of which one can use it in their electronic circuit, it can handle maximum
current of 500mA which is enough to drive many other components such as ICS, other
transistors, portion of a circuits, relays, LEDs etc. The max collector dissipation of the
device is 625 milli Watt which is another good feature to use it as a small amplifier.

The transistor comes in four different part numbers like BC548, BC548A, BC548B and
BC548C and the only difference between the four is their DC current gain value, like
BC548 current gain value is from 110 to 800, BC548A is from 110 to 220, BC548B is
from 200 to 450, BC548C is from 420 to 800.

USE OF BC-548:

BC548 transistor can be used in many general purpose applications; you can use it in
the replacement of other general purpose transistor 2N3904, BC547 etc. as described
above. A part from that it can be used as a switch to drive load under 500mA. The
500mA collector current is quite good feature for this size and type of transistor
therefore you can drive wide variety of loads at the same time in an electronic circuit.
Moreover this transistor also has a very good DC current gain and collector dissipation
characteristics which makes it ideal to use it in amplification and pre-amplification
stages of an electronic circuit.

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APPLICATIONS OF BC-548:

 Sensor Circuits
 Audio Preamplifiers
 Audio Amplifier Stages
 Switching Loads under 500mA
 Darlington Pairs

2.5.3 BD-139 TRANSISTOR:

Fig .2.8 BD-139

BD139 is a NPN transistor hence the collector and emitter will be left open
(Reverse biased) when the base pin is held at ground and will be closed (Forward
biased) when a signal is provided to base pin

BD139 has a gain value of 40 to 160, this value determines the amplification capacity
of the transistor. The maximum amount of current that could flow through the Collector
pin is 1.5A, hence we cannot connect loads that consume more than 1.5A using this
transistor. To bias a transistor we have to supply current to base pin, this current (IB)
should be limited to 1/10th of the collector current and voltage across the base emitter
pin should be 5V maximum.

When this transistor is fully biased then it can allow a maximum of 1.5A to flow across
the collector and emitter. This stage is called Saturation Region and the typical voltage
allowed across the Collector-Emitter (VCE) or Base-Emitter (VBE) could be 80V.
When base current is removed the transistor becomes fully off, this stage is called as
the Cut-off Region.

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The BD139 was originally manufactured by Phillips rated at 160MHz for

specific audio applications, later they were cloned by other manufacturers like
Samsung, ST etc.

FEATURES OF BD-139:

 Plastic casing NPN Transistor

 Continuous Collector current (IC) is 1.5A
 Collector-Emitter voltage (VCE) is 80 V
 Collector-Base voltage (VCB) is 80V
 Emitter Base Breakdown Voltage (VBE) is 5V
 DC current gain (hfe) is 40 to 160
 Available in To-225 package

USE OF BD-139:

Being a Medium Power NPN Transistor with a collector current of 1.5A this transistor
can be used to control (On/Off) bigger loads that consume less than 1.5A. It also has a
very less saturation voltage (Base Emitter Voltage VBE) of only 5V, this makes it easy
to use this IC in digital electronics which has an operating voltage of 5V.

Another peculiar fact about this transistor is that it comes in plastic package, while most
medium power transistor are available only in metal can package. This reduces the cost
of the Transistor and also since the package is not conductive it will not be affected by
other noise in the circuit. Due to this feature this transistor is widely used in amplifier
applications.

So if you are looking for a medium power NPN transistor in Plastic package then this
Transistor might be the right choice for you.

APPLICATIONS OF BD-139:

 RF Amplifiers
 Switching circuits
 Amplification circuits
 Audio amplifiers
 Load driver circuit

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2.5.4 VARIABLE RESISTOR POT:

Fig 2.9 variable pot

A potentiometer (also known as a pot or pot meter) is defined as a 3

terminal variable resistor in which the resistance is manually varied to control the
flow of electric current. A potentiometer acts as an adjustable voltage divider.

A potentiometer is a passive electronic component. Potentiometers work by varying

the position of a sliding contact across a uniform resistance. In a potentiometer, the
entire input voltage is applied across the whole length of the resistor, and the output
voltage is the voltage drop between the fixed and sliding contact as shown below.

Fig 2.10 circuit of variable pot

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A potentiometer has the two terminals of the input source fixed to the end of
the resistor. To adjust the output voltage the sliding contact gets moved along the
resistor on the output side.

2.5.5 IC- LM386

Low Voltage Audio Power Amplifier:

The LM386 is a power amplifier designed for use in low voltage consumer
applications. The gain is internally set to 20 to keep external part count low, but the
addition of an external resistor and capacitor between pins 1 and 8 will increase the gain
to any value up to 200. The inputs are ground referenced while the output is
automatically biased to one half the supply voltage. The quiescent power drain is only
24 milliwatts when operating from a 6 volt supply, making the LM386 ideal for battery
operation.

PIN DIAGRAM OF IC-LM386:

Fig 2.11 IC-LM386

PIN 1 and 8: These are the gain control PINs, internally the gain is set to 20 but it
can be increased up to 200 by using a capacitor between PIN 1 and 8. We have used
10uF capacitor C1 to get the highest gain i.e. 200. Gain can be adjusted to any value
between 20 to 200 by using proper capacitor.

Pin 2 and 3: These are the input PINs for sound signals. Pin 2 is the negative input
terminal, connected to the ground. Pin 3 is the positive input terminal, in which sound
signal is fed to be amplified. In our circuit it is connected to the positive terminal of the

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condenser mic with a 100k potentiometer RV1. Potentiometer acts as volume control
knob.

A capacitor C5 of 0.1uF has also been used along with potentiometer, to remove
the DC component of input signal and only allow audio (AC component) to be fed into
LM386.

Pin 4 and 6: These are the power supply Pins of IC, Pin 6 for is +Vcc and Pin 4 is
Ground. The circuit can be powered with voltage between 5-12v.

Pin 5: This is the output PIN, from which we get the amplified sound signal.The output
signal has both AC and DC component, and DC component is undesirable and can’t be
fed to Speaker. So to remove this DC component, a capacitor C2 of 220uF has been
used. This has the same function as Capacitor C5 (0.1uF) at input side.

Along with this capacitor, a filter circuit of Capacitor C3 (.05uF) and resistor R1 (10k)
has been used at the output PIN 5. This filter also called the “Zobel network”, this
electronic filter is used to remove the sudden High frequency oscillations or noise.

Pin 7: This is the bypass terminal. It can be left open or can be grounded using a
capacitor for stability.

APPLICATIONS

GAIN CONTROL:

To make the LM386 a more versatile amplifier, two pins (1 and 8) are provided
for gain control. With pins 1 and 8 open the 1.35 kΩ resistor sets the gain at 20 (26 dB).
If a capacitor is put from pin 1 to 8, bypassing the 1.35 kΩresistor, the gain will go up
to 200 (46 dB). If a resistor is placed in series with the capacitor, the gain can be set to
any value from 20 to 200. Gain control can also be done by capacitively coupling a
resistor (or FET) from pin 1 to ground. Additional external components can be placed
in parallel with the internal feedback resistors to tailor the gain and frequency response
for individual applications. For example, we can compensate poor speaker bass
response by frequency shaping the feedback path. This is done with a series RC from
pin 1 to 5 (paralleling the internal 15 kΩresistor). For 6 dB effective bass boost: R15Ω,
the lowest value for good stable operation is R = 10 kΩ if pin 8 is open. If pins 1 and 8

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are bypassed then R as low as 2 kΩcan be used. This restriction is because the amplifier
is only compensated for closed-loop gains greater than 9.

INPUT BIASING:

The schematic shows that both inputs are biased to ground with a 50 kΩresistor.
The base current of the input transistors is about 250nA, so the inputs are at about 12.5
mV when left open. If the dc source resistance driving the LM386 is higher than 250
kΩit will contribute very little additional offset (about 2.5 mV at the input, 50 mV at
the output). If the dc source resistance is less than 10 kΩ, then shorting the unused input
to ground will keep the offset low (about 2.5 mV at the input, 50 mV at the output). For
dc source resistances between these values we can eliminate excess offset by putting a
resistor from the unused input to ground, equal in value to the dc source resistance. Of
course all offset problems are eliminated if the input is capacitively coupled. When
using the LM386 with higher gains (bypassing the 1.35 kΩ resistor between pins 1 and
8 it is necessary to bypass the unused input, preventing degradation of gain and possible
instabilities. This is done with a 0.1μF capacitor or a short to ground depending on the
dc source resistance on the driven input.

2.5.6 BC-549 TRANSISTOR:

Fig 2.12 BC-549

BC549 is a NPN transistor hence the collector and emitter will be left open
(Reverse biased) when the base pin is held at ground and will be closed (Forward
biased) when a signal is provided to base pin. It is a low current transistor hence the
maximum amount of current that could flow through the Collector pin (IC) is 100mA,

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hence we cannot connect loads that consume more than 100mA and load voltage more
than 30V using this transistor. BC549 has a decent gain value hfe from 420 to 800; this
value determines the amplification capacity of the transistor.

When this transistor is fully biased then it can allow a maximum of 100mA to flow
across the collector and emitter. This stage is called Saturation Region. When base
current is removed the transistor becomes fully off, this stage is called as the Cut-off
Region.

FEATURES OF BC-549:

 General Purpose Low current and Low voltage NPN Transistor

 Current Gain (hfe), 420 to 800
 Continuous Collector current (IC) is 100mA
 Collector-Emitter voltage (VCEO) is 30 V
 Collector-Base voltage (VCB0) is 30V
 Emitter Base Voltage (VBE0) is 5V
 Transition Frequency 100MHz
 Available in To-92 and SOT54 Package

USE OF BC-549 TRANSISTOR:

The BC549 has very low Continuous current of 100mA hence it cannot be used
to switch heavy loads. But since it has a base trigger voltage of only 5V it can be easily
controlled through 5V GPIO pins of Microcontrollers and Microprocessors. So it can
be used in places where the load current is less than 100mA.

Apart from that the transistor can be used as an amplifier since it has a gain value rom
420 to 800 and a transition frequency of 10MHz

APPLICATIONS OF BC-549:

 Switching small loads

 Small signal amplifiers
 Darlington pair
 LED array sequence controller
 Audio Noise filters

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2.5.7 LASER TORCH:

DESIGN OF LASER TORCH:.

Fig 2.13 laser torch design

1.Gain medium

2.Laser pumping unit

3.High reflector

4.Output coupler

5. Laser beam

LASER CONSTRUCTION:

A laser consists of a gain medium inside a highly reflective optical cavity, as

well as a means to supply energy to the gain medium. The gain medium is a material
with properties that allow it to amplify light by stimulated emission. In its simplest
form, a cavity consists of two mirrors arranged such that light bounces back and forth,
each time passing through the gain medium0. Typically one of the two mirrors, the
output coupler, is partially transparent. The output laser beam is emitted through this
mirror.

Light of a specific wavelength that passes through the gain medium is amplified
(increases in power); the surrounding mirrors ensure that most of the light makes many
passes through the gain medium, being amplified repeatedly. Part of the light that is
between the mirrors (that is, within the cavity) passes through the partially transparent
mirror and escapes as a beam of light.

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The process of supplying the energy required for the amplification is called
pumping. The energy is typically supplied as an electrical current or as light at a
different wavelength. Such light may be provided by a flash lamp or perhaps another
laser. Most practical lasers contain additional elements that affect properties such as the
wavelength of the emitted light and the shape of the beam.

Fig 2.14 laser construction

For this project we have removed the laser assembly from a small laser pointer.
The power supply circuit is the green board attached to the brass laser head. We carry
similar laser pointers in our catalog that are easily disassembled for this project. The
power supply circuit came conveniently marked with a plus and a minus next to two
holes in the board. We solder the black negative lead from the battery clip to the hole
marked minus. We solder one of the coil leads to the hole marked plus. We solder the
red positive lead of the battery clip to the other lead from the coil.

LASER WORKING:

“LASER” is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission

of radiation. A laser is created when the electrons in atoms in special glasses, crystals,
or gases absorb energy from an electrical current or another laser and become “excited.”
The excited electrons move from a lower-ener0gy orbit to a higher-energy orbit around
the atom’s nucleus. When they return to their normal or “ground” state, the electrons
emit photons (particles of light).

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These photons are all at the same wavelength and are “coherent,” meaning the
crests and troughs of the light waves are all in lockstep. In contrast, ordinary visible
light comprises multiple wavelengths and is not coherent.

Laser light is different from normal light in other ways as well. First, its light
contains only one wavelength (one specific colour). The particular wavelength of light
is determined by the amount of energy released when the excited electron drops to a
lower orbit. Second, laser light is directional. Whereas a laser generates a very tight
beam, a flashlight produces light that is diffuse. Because laser light is coherent, it stays
focused for vast distances, even to the moon and back.

TYPES OF LASERS:

1. Gas lasers

2. Chemical lasers

3. Excimer lasers

4. Fiber-hosted lasers

5. Photonic crystal lasers

6. Semiconductor lasers

7. Dye lasers

8. Free electron lasers

LASER APPLICATIONS:

There is an enormously wide range of applications for a great variety of different

laser devices. They are largely based on various special properties of laser light, many
of which cannot be achieved with any other kind of light sources.

On the other hand, many potential laser applications cannot be practically realized so
far because lasers are relatively expensive to make – or more precisely, because they
are so far mostly made with relatively expensive methods. Most lasers are fabricated in
relatively small volumes and with a limited degree of automation. Another aspect is
that lasers are relatively sensitive in various respects, for example concerning the
precise alignment of optical components, mechanical vibrations and dust particles.

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Therefore, there is ongoing research and development for finding more cost-effective
and robust solutions.

For business success, it is often vital not just to develop lasers with high
performance and low cost, but also to identify the best suited applications, or develop
lasers which are best suited for particular applications. Also, the knowledge of the
application details can be very important. For example, in laser material processing it
is vital to know the exact requirements in terms of laser wave length, beam
quality, pulse energy, pulse duration etc. for optimum processing results.

Lasers range in size from microscopic diode lasers (top) with numerous applications,
to football field sized neodymiumglass lasers (bottom) used for inertial confinement
fusion, nuclear weapons research and other high energy density physics experiments.

2.5.8 CONDENSER MICROPHONE:

Condenser means capacitor, an electronic component which stores energy in the

form of an electrostatic field. The term condenser is actually obsolete but has stuck as
the name for this type of microphone, which uses a capacitor to convert acoustical
energy into electrical energy.

Condenser microphones require power from a battery or external source. The

resulting audio signal is stronger signal than that from a dynamic. Condensers also tend
to be more sensitive and responsive than dynamics, making them well-suited to
capturing subtle nuances in a sound. They are not ideal for high-volume work, as their
sensitivity makes them prone to distort.

WORKING OF CONDESER MICROPHONE:

A capacitor has two plates with a voltage between them. In the condenser mic,
one of these plates is made of very light material and acts as the diaphragm. The
diaphragm vibrates when struck by sound waves, changing the distance between the
two plates and therefore changing the capacitance. Specifically, when the plates are
closer together, capacitance increases and a charge current occurs. When the plates are
further apart, capacitance decreases and a discharge current occurs.

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A voltage is required across the capacitor for this to work. This voltage is supplied
either by a battery in the mic or by external phantom power.

The Electret Condenser Microphone: The electret condenser mic uses a

special type of capacitor.which has a permanent voltage built in during manufacture.
This is somewhat like a permanent magnet, in that it doesn't require any external power
for operation. However good electret condensor mics usually include a pre-amplifier
which does still require power. Other than this difference, you can think of an electret
condenser microphone as being the same as a normal condenser.

Fig 2.15 electret condenser microphone

2.5.9 RESISTORS:
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage
across its terminals that is proportional to the electric current passing through it in
accordance with Ohm's law:

V = IR

Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various
compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy,
such as nickel/chrome).

The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance,

maximum working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include
temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance,
the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted current flow,

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and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance is determined by the
design, materials and dimensions of the resistor. Resistors can be integrated into hybrid
and printed circuits, as well as integrated circuits.

Size, and position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to equipment designers;
resistors must be physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating their power.

Resistors produce a voltage drop across themselves when an electrical current

flows through them because they obey Ohm's Law, and different values of resistance
produces different values of current or voltage. This can be very useful in Electronic
circuits by controlling or reducing either the current flow or voltage produced across
them. There are many different resistor types and they are produced in a variety of
forms because their particular characteristics and accuracy suit certain areas of
application, such as High Stability, High Voltage, High Current etc, or are used as
general purpose resistors where their characteristics are less of a problem. Some of the
common characteristics associated with the humble resistor are; Temperature
Coefficient, Voltage Coefficient, Noise, Frequency Response, Power as well as
Temperature Rating, Physical Size and Reliability.

Fig 2.16 resistor

Resistors can be classified into four broad groups:

1. Carbon Composition Resistor - Made of carbon dust or graphite paste, low

wattage values

2. Film or Cermet Resistor - Made from conductive metal oxide paste, very low
wattage values

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3. Wire-Wound Resistors. - Metallic bodies for heatsink mounting, very high

wattage ratings

4. Semiconductor Resistors - High frequency/precision surface mount thin film

technology

2.5.10 CAPACITORS:

A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is passive electric component

consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a
potential difference (voltage) across the conductors a static electric field develops in
the dielectric that stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the
conductors. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance,
measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the
potential difference between them.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of
power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for
many other purposes.

The effect is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early
means of construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small
amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a
breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an equivalent series
resistance.

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TYPES OF CAPACITORS:

CERAMIC CAPACITORS:

Fig 2.17 ceramic capacitor

Ceramic Capacitors or Disc Capacitors as they are generally called, are made
by coating two sides of a small porcelain or ceramic disc with silver and are then stacked
together to make a capacitor. For very low capacitance values a single ceramic disc of
about 3-6mm is used. Ceramic capacitors have a high dielectric constant (High-K) and
are available so that relatively high capacitance’s can be obtained in a small physical
size.

They exhibit large non-linear changes in capacitance against temperature and as

a result are used as de-coupling or by-pass capacitors as they are also non-polarized
devices. Ceramic capacitors have values ranging from a few picofarads to one or two
microfarads, (μF) but their voltage ratings are generally quite low.

Ceramic types of capacitors generally have a 3-digit code printed onto their
body to identify their capacitance value in pico-farads. Generally the first two digits
indicate the capacitors value and the third digit indicates the number of zero’s to be
added. For example, a ceramic disc capacitor with the markings 103 would indicate 10
and 3 zero’s in pico-farads which is equivalent to 10,000 pF or 10nF.

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ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS:

Fig 2.18 electrolytic capacitor

Electrolytic Capacitors are generally used in DC power supply circuits due to

their large capacitance’s and small size to help reduce the ripple voltage or for
coupling and decoupling applications. One main disadvantage of electrolytic
capacitors is their relatively low voltage rating and due to the polarisation of
electrolytic capacitors, it follows then that they must not be used on AC supplies.
Electrolytic’s generally come in two basic forms; Aluminium Electrolytic
Capacitors and Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitors.

2.5.11 PHOTO TRANSISTOR (2N5777/L14F1):

A Phototransistor is an electronic switching and current amplification component

which relies on exposure to light to operate. When light falls on the junction, reverse
current flows which are proportional to the luminance. Phototransistors are used
extensively to detect light pulses and convert them into digital electrical signals.
These are operated by light rather than electric current. Providing a large amount of
gain, low cost and these phototransistors might be used in numerous applications

It is capable of converting light energy into electric energy. Phototransistors work in

a similar way to photoresistors commonly known as LDR (light dependent resistor) but
are able to produce both current and voltage while photoresistors are only capable of
producing current due to change in resistance. Phototransistors are transistors with the
base terminal exposed. Instead of sending current into the base, the photons from
striking light activate the transistor. This is because a phototransistor is made of a
bipolar semiconductor and focuses the energy that is passed through it. These are

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activated by light particles and are used in virtually all electronic devices that depend
on light in some way. All silicon photosensors (phototransistors) respond to the entire
visible radiation range as well as to infrared. In fact, all diodes, transistors, Darlington’s,
triacs, etc. have the same basic radiation frequency response.

Fig 2.19 photo transistor

A phototransistor is nothing but an ordinary bi-polar transistor in which the base

region is exposed to the illumination. It is available in both the P-N-P and N-P-N types
having different configurations like common emitter, common collector and common
base. Common emitter configuration is generally used. It can also work while the base
is made open. Compared to the conventional transistor it has more base and collector
areas. Ancient phototransistors used single semiconductor materials like silicon and
germanium but now a day’s modern components use materials like gallium and
arsenide for high-efficiency levels. The base is the lead responsible for activating the
transistor. It is the gate controller device for the larger electrical supply. The collector
is the positive lead and the larger electrical supply. The emitter is the negative lead and
the outlet for the larger electrical supply.

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Fig 2.20

With no light falling on the device there will be a small current flow due to
thermally generated hole-electron pairs and the output voltage from the circuit will be
slightly less than the supply value due to the voltage drop across the load resistor R.
With light falling on the collector-base junction the current flow increases. With the
base connection open circuit, the collector-base current must flow in the base-emitter
circuit and hence the current flowing is amplified by normal transistor action. The
collector-base junction is very sensitive to light. Its working condition depends upon
the intensity of light. The base current from the incident photons is amplified by the
gain of the transistor, resulting in current gains that range from hundreds to several
thousand. A phototransistor is 50 to 100 times more sensitive than a photodiode with a
lower level of noise.

PHOTOTRANSISTOR CIRCUIT:

Fig 2.21 phototransistor circuit

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A phototransistor works just like a normal transistor, where the base current is
multiplied to give the collector current, except that in a phototransistor, the base current
is controlled by the amount of visible or infrared light where the device only needs 2
pins.

In the simple circuit, assuming that nothing is connected to Vout, the base
current controlled by the amount of light will determine the collector current, which is
the current going through the resistor. Therefore, the voltage at Vout will move high
and low based on the amount of light. We can connect this to an op-amp to boost the
signal or directly to an input of a microcontroller. The output of a phototransistor is
dependent upon the wavelength of the incident light. These devices respond to light
over a broad range of wavelengths from the near UV, through the visible and into the
near IR part of the spectrum. For a given light source illumination level, the output of
a phototransistor is defined by the area of the exposed collector-base junction and the
dc current gain of the transistor

Phototransistors available different configurations like optoisolator, optical

switch, retro sensor. Optoisolator is similar to a transformer in that the output is
electrically isolated from the input. An object is detected when it enters the gap of the
optical switch and blocks the light path between the emitter and detector. The retro
sensor detects the presence of an object by generating light and then looking for its
reflectance off of the object to be sensed.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTOTRANSISTOR:

 Low-cost visible and near-IR photodetection.

 Available with gains from 100 to over 1500.
 Moderately fast response times.
 Available in a wide range of packages including epoxy-coated, transfer-molded and
surface mounting technology.
 Electrical characteristics were similar to that of signal transistors.

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ADVANTAGES OF PHOTOTRANSISTOR:

Phototransistors have several important advantages that separate them from another
optical sensor some of them are

mentioned below

 Phototransistors produce higher current than photodiodes.

 Phototransistors are relatively inexpensive, simple, and small enough to fit several
of them onto a single integrated computer chip.
 Phototransistors are very fast and are capable of providing nearly instantaneous
output.
 Phototransistors produce a voltage, that photo-resistors cannot do so.

APPLICATIONS OF PHOTOTRANSISTOR:
The Areas of application for the Phototransistor include:

 Punch-card readers.
 Security systems
 Encoders – measure speed and direction
 IR detectors photo
 electric controls
 Computer logic circuitry.
 Relays
 Lighting control (highways etc)
 Level indication
 Counting systems

2.5.12 POWER SUPPLY:

Power supply is a supply of electrical power. A device or system that supplies

electrical or other types of energy to an output load or group of loads is called a power
supply unit or PSU. The term is most commonly applied to electrical energy supplies,
less often to mechanical ones, and rarely to others.

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2.5.13 BATTERY 9VOLT:

If you look at any battery, you'll notice that it has two terminals. One terminal
is marked (+), or positive, while the other is marked (-), or negative. In an normal
flashlight batteries, the ends of the battery are the terminals. In a large car battery, there
are two heavy lead posts that act as the terminals. Electrons collect on the negative
terminal of the battery. If you connect a wire between the negative and positive
terminals, the electrons will flow from the negative to the positive terminal as fast as
they can (and wear out the battery very quickly -- this also tends to be dangerous,
especially with large batteries, so it is not something you want to be doing). Normally,
you connect some type of load to the battery using the wire.

Fig 2.22 9v battery

2.5.14 SPEAKERS:

These convert electrical signals to acoustic vibrations. It comprises a permanent

magnet and a moving coil (through which electrical signal is passed). This moving coil
is fixed to the diaphram which vibrates to produce sound.

Fig 2.23 speaker

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2.5.15 PCB:

Fig 2.24 PCB

PCB stands for printed circuit board which are used for wiring up of the
components of a circuit. PCBs are made of paper phenolic FR2 grade (low cost, for low
frequency and low power circuit assembly) and glass epoxy FR4 grade (for high
frequency, high power circuits) copper clad laminates (available in 1.6mm, 2.4mm and
3.6mm thickness). Single sided PCBs have copper foil only on one side while double-
sided PCBs have copper foil on both side of the laminate. Thickness of copper foil is
35 micro meter minimum on cheaper PCBs and 70 micro meter on slightly costlier
PCBs. Tracks (conductive paths) are made by masking (covering) the track part of
copper with etch-resist enamel paint (you can even use nail polish) and later dipping
the laminate in ferric chloride solutions to dissolve all copper except under the masked
part. Holes in PCBs are drilled after etching is over. The tracks on two sides of a PCB
are joined using printed through hole (PTH) technique, which is equivalent to using
slotted copper rivets for joining tracks on both sides. On cheaper PCBs, PTH are not
provided, only Pads (i.e. circular copper land with centre hole) are provided and you
have to join the tracks on both sides by soldering a copper wire to the pads with a copper
wire. In single sided PCB components are mounted on the side which has no track
(called component side). In a double-sided PCB the component side is defined (marked
before hand) or it will show component outline (also called silk screen) Green masking
is the process of applying a layer of green colour insulation varnish on all parts of tracks
except near the holes, to protect the tracks from exposure to atmosphere and thus
prolong its life and reliability.

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CHAPTER -3
3.1 CIRCUIT DESCRPITION:

There are two sections: the transmitter board and the receiver board, both powered
by a separate 9V battery or a fixed voltage power supply, depending on your needs.
The transmitter board has an electret microphone module at one end, and the laser diode
at the other end. The electronics modulates the intensity of the laser beam according to
the output of the microphone. The laser diode has an inbuilt collimating lens, and is
simply a module that connects to the transmitter board. The receiver uses a photodiode
as the receiving element, and the onboard amplifier powers a small 4-36 ohm speaker.
This board is therefore a high gain amplifier with a basic audio output stage.

But what about results - are they better? Sure. Because this design uses a higher
power (and visible) laser beam, the range is improved, and alignment is easier and not
all that critical, especially over a few hundred meters. The quality of sound transmitted
by the link is quite surprising. Clearly, this project is ideal for setting up a speech
channel between two areas, say adjacent houses or offices on opposite sides of the
street. Or you could use it as a link between the work shop and the house. For duplex
(two way) communication, you'll obviously need two laser 'channels’. An important
feature of transmission by laser beam is privacy. Because a laser beam is intentionally
narrow, it's virtually impossible for someone to tap into the link without you knowing.
If someone intercepts the beam, the link is broken, signaling the interception. Fibre-
optic cables also have high security, as it's very difficult to splice into the cable without
breaking the link. However it's theoretically possible; so for the highest security, you
probably can't beat a line-of-sight laser beam.

Where the transmission distance is no more than meter of so, a LED (or two for
increased power) can be substituted for the laser diode. For instance, where the link is
being used for educational purposes, such as demonstrating fibre-optic coupling, or the
concept of communication over a light beam. Obviously the security of the transmission
is much lower as LEDs transmit light in all directions. While this laser link can be

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adapted for use as a perimeter protector. Now to a description of how it all works, it's
really very simple. We'll start with the transmitter.

3.1.1 TRANSMITTER:

A laser diode needs a certain value of current, called the threshold current, before
it emits laser light. A further increase in this current produces a greater light output.
The relationship between output power and current in a laser diode is very linear, once
the current is above the threshold, giving a low distortion when the beam is amplitude
modulated. For example, the 65Onm 5mW laser diode used in this project has a typical
threshold current of 3OmA and produces its full output when the current is raised by
approximately 1OmA above the threshold to 4OmA.

Further increasing the current will greatly reduce the life of the laser diode, and
exceeding the absolute maximum of 8OmA will destroy it instantly. Laser diodes are
very fragile and will not survive electrostatic discharges and momentary surges!
However, if used within specifications, the typical life of one of these lasers is around
20,000 hours. In the transmitter circuit (Fig.1) the laser diode is supplied via an
adjustable constant-current source. Note that the metal housing for the laser diode and
the lens also acts as a heat sink. The laser diode should not be powered without the
metal housing in place. The increasing the voltage at VR1 reduces the laser current.
The setting of VR1 determines the quiescent brightness of the laser beam, and therefore
the overall sensitivity of the system. The electric microphone is powered through R1
and is coupled to the non inverting input of 1C1 a via capacitor. This input is held at a
fixed DC voltage to give a DC output to bias.

3.1.2 RECEVIER:

The transmitted signal is picked up by the photo detector diode in the receiver
(shown in Fig.2). The output voltage of this diode is amplified by the common emitter
amplifier around T4. This amplifier has a gain of 20 or so, and connects via VR2 to
IC2, an LM386 basic power amplifier IC with a gain internally set to 20.This IC can
drive a speaker with a resistance as low as four ohms, and 35OmW when the circuit is
powered from a 9V supply. Increasing the supply voltage will increase the output
power marginally. Incidentally, the photodiode used for this project has a special clear
package, so it responds to visible light, and not just infrared .

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3.2 COMPONENT LAYOUT:

3.2.1 TRANSMITTER:

Fig 3.1 transmitter circuit layout

3.2.2 RECEIVER:

Fig 3.2 receiver circuit layout

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3.3 SOLDERING:

Soldering is the process of joining of two metals using an alloy solder consisting
of Tin and Lead (Sn-Pb). Tin determines the melting whereas the Lead is used to reduce
the cost. After the PCB fabrication is done, the various components are arranged at
proper locations on the PCB and then the soldering is done. All liquids consist of
particles which attract each other. The surface is always trying to shrink and this is
because of surface tension. The principle behind soldering is that when liquid particles
are brought in contact with the walls of the solid surface, it may happen that the solid
attracts the liquid surface. This property is called adhesive property.

Care must be taken that the melting point of solder is below that of the metal so
that its surface is melted without melting without the metal.

NEED FOR FLUX:

During the soldering process the flu for improving the degree of melting. The
basic functions of flux are mentioned x acts as a medium below:

1. Removes oxide from the surface.

2. Assists the transfer of heat from the source to the joining and provides

a liquid cover including air gap

3. Removal of residue after the completion of the soldering operation.

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3.4 ADVANTAGES:
1. Less costly.

2. circuit can be easily constructed.

3. High data rate.

4. No communication licenser required.

5. The laser transmission is very secure because it has a narrow beam.

6. There are no recurring line costs.

7. compatibility with copper or fiber interfaces and no bridge or router requriments.

8. lasers can transmit through glass, however the physical properties of the glass have
to be considered.

9. Narrow beam divergence.

10. laser transmitter and receiver units ensure easy, straight forward systems alignment
and long-term stable, service free operation especially in inaccessible environments,
optical wireless systems offer ideal, economical alternative to expensive leased lines
for buildings

3.5 APPLICATIONS :

1. Using this circuit we can communicate with our neighbours wirelessly

2. It can be used in inaccessible areas.
3. In future it can be commissioned in satellites for communication.
4. It can be used in conference halls.

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CHAPTER - 4

RESULT & ANALYSIS:

The performance characteristics and the practical results are verified with real time
applications

Fig 4.1 circuit of transmitter and recevier

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CHAPTER - 5
CONCLUSION:

After the successful working of the project, it can be concluded that this project
is suitable for easily communication. There can be further up gradations in the project
which could lead to a much better system for communication. Some of the possible
ways are as follows

Instead of the short range laser, high range lasers can be used which range a few
hundred meters. Provisions have to be made for cases when there is no heavy traffic

FUTURE SCOPE:

The overall advantages of our laser based voice transmitter and receiver is to provide
speed and accuracy with high data rates, minimal interruptions and highly flexible. The
future scope for the laser based commutation is to achieve the two way laser
communication in spatial communications

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REFERENCES:

www.electronicsforyou.com

www.wikipedia.org

www.all.datasheet.com

Electronics for You Magazine

Linear Integrated circuits

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