Introduction to Telephony-

How does a Telephone works?

At calling end, Tx converts sound waves into electrical signals.

At called end, Rx converts back electrical signals into sound

BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF SPEECH TRANSMISSION

1. Speech level at Rx should be about -30db ( a thousandth part) of the Tx level.

2. Telephone system should introduce Minimum amplitude distortion & reasonable amt.
of phase & Freq. distortions.

3. Acoustical impedance should match at each point of energy conversion.

Apparatus and Transmission media should be capable to transmit freq. spectrum of 300 –
3400 Hz.

Transmitter and receiver are based on the principle of electromagnetic induction.

Transmitter---

• Consists a Diaphragm, front electrode, back electrode and carbon granules

between two electrodes.

• Compression moves Diaphragm +front electrode inwards. Increased

mechanical pressure packs carbon granules decrease the contact resistance of
carbon granules.

Receiver---

• Consists electromagnet coils wound on pole pieces attached to a permanent magnet, a

flexible diaphragm.

Coils connected in series & produces opp. Polarities at pole tips

1. The use of signaling is to to give an audible indication of an I/C call.

2. To originate O/G calls from the Instruments.

In earlier days there used to be different telephone exchange components-

1. Switching Equipment – Common Equipment which effects interconnection of telephones.

2. Telephone Exchange – switching centre which houses the terminating & switching
equipment.

3. Manual Exchanges – manually operated by operators to effect interconnection of subs.

4. Automatic Exchanges – Having automatic switching equipments.

5. Switchboard – Switching Equipment of a Manual Exchange

One of them can be described as-

MAGNETO SWITCH BOARDS

OPERATION –

1. Calling Subs cranks generator. His line indicator shutter falls.

2. Operator plugs answering plug of free cord connects into callers line jack &
operates Speak/Ring key to speak person.

3. Restores shutter manually & ascertain callers requirement.

4. Inserts calling plug into called subs line jack. Cranks generator holding Ring key in
Ring person.

5. When Called sub answers, operator. Restores Speak/Ring key to Normal.

6. at end of call, one of the subs cranks to give clearing indication.

7. Operators operates Speak/Ring key to confirm end of call & removes calling and
answering plugs to free cord connect.

8. Restores clearing drop indicator manually.

Telephony basic operation was based on TDM, i.e is a method of putting multiple data
streams in a single signal by separating the signal into many segments, each having a very
short duration. Each individual data stream is reassembled at the receiving end based on
the timing.

The circuit that combines signals at the source (transmitting) end of a communications
link is known as a multiplexer.

It accepts the input from each individual end user, breaks each signal into segments, and
assigns the segments to the composite signal in a rotating, repeating sequence. The
composite signal thus contains data from multiple senders.

At the other end of the long-distance cable, the individual signals are separated out by
means of a circuit called a demultiplexer, and routed to the proper end users.

A two-way communications circuit requires a multiplexer/demultiplexer at each end of

the long-distance, high-bandwidth cable.
 Transmission Cables
In communications and electronic engineering, a transmission line is a specialized cable or other
structure designed to conduct alternating current of radio frequency, that is, currents with
a frequency high enough that their wave nature must be taken into account. Transmission lines are
used for purposes such as connecting radio transmitters and receivers with their antennas (they are
then called feed lines or feeders), distributing cable television signals, trunk lines routing calls
between telephone switching centres, computer network connections and high speed computer  data
buses.
.
There are two type of transmission modes-
1. Guided medium- are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include twisted-
pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. Guided Transmission media uses a "cabling"
system that guides the data signals along a specific path. The data signals are bound by the
"cabling" system.
2. Unguided medium-relates to data transmission through the air and is commonly referred to as
wireless. The transmission and reception of data is carried out using antenna. There are two
main ways that antenna work: Directional (in a beam).
 In this section we study about guided mediums in details, we will read about unguided mediums
and OFC in later sections.

GUIDED MEDIUMS
Coaxial cable is a type of electrical cable that has an inner conductor surrounded by a tubular
insulating layer, surrounded by a tubular conducting shield. Many coaxial cables also have an
insulating outer sheath or jacket. The term coaxial comes from the inner conductor and the outer
shield sharing a geometric axis. Coaxial cable was invented by English engineer and
mathematician Oliver Heaviside, who patented the design in 1880. Coaxial cable differs from
other shielded cables because the dimensions of the cable are controlled to give a precise, constant
conductor spacing, which is needed for it to function efficiently as a transmission line.

Bandwidth of coaxial cable is different-different according to use. It is depend on signal. For

example, the bandwidth allocation of a telephone voice grade channel, which is classified as
narrowband, is normally about 4,000 Hz, but the voice channel actually uses frequencies from 300 to
3,400 Hz.

Coaxial cable is used as a transmission line for radio frequency signals. Its applications include
feedlines connecting radio transmitters and receivers with their antennas, computer network (Internet)
connections, digital audio (S/PDIF), and distributing cable television signals.
Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two conductors of a single circuit are twisted
together for the purposes of improving electromagnetic compatibility. Compared to a single
conductor or an untwisted balanced pair, a twisted pair reduces electromagnetic
radiation, crosstalk between neighbouring pairs and improves rejection of external electromagnetic
interference.

Are of two types-

Unshielded twisted pair- (UTP) cables are found in many ETHERNET networks and telephone systems. For
indoor telephone applications, UTP is often grouped into sets of 25 pairs according to a standard 25-pair color
code originally developed by AT&T Corporation. A typical subset of these colors (white/blue, blue/white,
white/orange, orange/white) shows up in most UTP cables. The cables are typically made with copper wires
measured at 22 or 24 American Wire Gauge (AWG), with the colored insulation typically made from an
insulator such as polyethylene or FEP and the total package covered in a polyethylene jacket.
Shielded twisted type-Twisted pair cables are often shielded in an attempt to prevent electromagnetic
interference. Shielding provides an electrically conductive barrier to attenuate electromagnetic waves external to
the shield, and provides a conduction path by which induced currents can be circulated and returned to the
source, via ground reference connection.

This shielding can be applied to individual pairs or quads, or to the collection of pairs. Individual pairs are
foiled, while overall cable may use braided screen, foil, or braiding with foil.
When shielding is applied to the collection of pairs, this is usually referred to as screening, but different vendors
and authors use "screening", "shielding", and "STP" (shielded twisted pair), inconsistently, in attempting to
denote various shielded cable types.

Common shield construction types used include:

Individual shield (U/FTP)
Individual shielding with aluminum foil for each twisted pair or quad. Common names: pair in metal
foil, shielded twisted pair, screened twisted pair. This type of shielding protects cable from external
EMI entering or exiting the cable and also protects neighboring pairs from crosstalk.
Overall shield (F/UTP, S/UTP, and SF/UTP)
Overall foil, braided shield or braiding with foil across all of the pairs within the 100 ohm twisted pair
cable. Common names: foiled twisted pair, shielded twisted pair, screened twisted pair. This type of
shielding helps prevent EMI from entering or exiting the cable.
Individual and overall shield (F/FTP, S/FTP, and SF/FTP)
Individual shielding using foil between the twisted pair sets, and also an outer foil or braided shielding.
Common names: fully shielded twisted pair, screened foiled twisted pair, shielded foiled twisted pair,
 screened shielded twisted pair, shielded screened twisted pair. This type of shielding helps prevent EMI
from entering or exiting the cable and also protects neighbouring pairs from crosstalk.
An early example of shielded twisted-pair is IBM STP-A, which was a two-pair 150 ohm S/FTP
cable defined in 1985 by the IBM Cabling System specifications, and used with token
ring or FDDI networks.

Common types

Name Typical construction Bandwidth

Cat 3 UTP 16 MHz
Cat 4 UTP 20 MHz
Cat 5 UTP 100 MHz
Cat 5e UTP 100 MHz

OPTICAL FIBER CABLE- An optical fiber or optical fibre is a flexible, transparent fiber made

by drawing glass (silica) or plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair. Optical
fibers are used most often as a means to transmit light between the two ends of the fiber and find wide
usage in fiber-optic communications, where they permit transmission over longer distances and at
higher bandwidths (data rates) than wire cables. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals
travel along them with less loss; in addition, fibers are immune to electromagnetic interference, a
problem from which metal wires suffer excessively. Fibers are also used for illumination and imaging,
and are often wrapped in bundles so that they may be used to carry light into, or images out of
confined spaces, as in the case of a fiberscope. Specially designed fibers are also used for a variety of
other applications, some of them being fiber optic sensors and fiber lasers.
Optical fibers typically include a core surrounded by a transparent cladding material with a
lower index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by the phenomenon of total internal
reflection which causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers that support many propagation paths
or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibers, while those that support a single mode are
called single-mode fibers (SMF). Multi-mode fibers generally have a wider core diameter and are
used for short-distance communication links and for applications where high power must be
transmitted. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 1,000 meters
(3,300 ft)
Being able to join optical fibers with low loss is important in fiber optic communication This is more
complex than joining electrical wire or cable and involves careful cleaving of the fibres, precise
alignment of the fiber cores, and the coupling of these aligned cores. For applications that demand a
permanent connection a fusion splice is common. In this technique, an electric arc is used to melt the
ends of the fibers together. Another common technique is a mechanical splice, where the ends of the
fibers are held in contact by mechanical force. Temporary or semi-permanent connections are made
by means of specialized optical fiber connectors.
OFC will be discussed in later sections.
SWITCHING

Switch:
Control consisting of a mechanical or electrical or electronic device for making or breaking or
changing the connections in a circuit.
And the process is called SWITCHING.
As the number of subscribers increased beyond a certain limit, the need for a so-called switching
system or switching office or switching exchange was realized. In this new system, the
subscribers are directly connected to the exchange and not to one another as in the case of point-
to-point communication

What is an exchange
• The prime purpose of an exchange is to provide a temporary path for simultaneous, bidirectional transmission
of speech between
– Subscriber lines connected to same exchange(Local Switching)
– Subscriber lines and trunks to other exchanges(Outgoing trunk call)
– Subscriber lines and trunks from other exchanges (Incoming trunk call) and
– Pairs of trunks towards different exchanges(transit switching)
• These are switching functions of an exchange & are implemented through the equipment called the Switching
Network.

• Strowger Exchange, the first automatic exchange having direct control feature, appeared in 1892 in Le Porte
(Indiana).
• As a result of further research & development, cross-bar exchanges having an indirect control system
appeared in 1928 in Sweden.
• However much more improvement was expected and the revolutionary change in field of electronics provided
it.
• A large number of moving parts in Registors, Markers, Translators were replaced by a single computer.
 A crossbar switch is an assembly of individual switches between a set of inputs and a set
of outputs. The switches are arranged in a matrix. ... Non-blocking means that other
concurrent connections do not prevent connecting other inputs to other outputs.

Electromechanical Exchanges Electronic Exchanges

Translation, speech path Sub’s

Category, Analysis, Routing,
Facilities, etc., managed by MAP
translation, etc. done by relays.
and other DATA.

Any changes in facilities require Changes can be carried out by

addition of hardware and/or large simple commands. A few changes
amount of wiring change. Flexibility can be made by Subs himself.
limited. Hence, highly flexible.

Testing is done manually externally Testing carried out periodically

and is time consuming. No logic automatically and analysis
analysis carried out. printed out.

Full availability, hence no

Partial full-availability, hence
blocking. A large number of
blocking. Limited facilities to the
different types of services possible
subscribers.
very easily.

Slow in speed. Dialling speed is max. Very fast. Dialling speed up to 11

11 Ips and switching speed is in l digits /sec possible. Switching is
milliseconds. achieved in a few microseconds.

Switched network

• A switched network consists of a series of inter-linked nodes, called switches.

• Switches are hardware and/or software devices capable of creating temporary connections
between two or more devices linked to the switch but not to each other.

• Methods of switching

– Circuit switching, packet switching, and message switching

 1.Circuit-Switching

• Circuit switching creates a direct physical connection between two devices such as phones or
computers.

• We can use switches to reduce the number and length of links.

2. Message switching was the precursor of packet switching, where messages were routed in their
entirety, one hop at a time. It was first introduced in 1961. Nowadays, message switching systems are
mostly implemented over packet-switched or circuit-switched data networks. E-mail is example of a
message switching system.

3. Packet switching is a communications paradigm in which packets (discrete blocks of data) are
routed between nodes over data links shared with other traffic. The term "packets" refers to the fact
that the data stream from your computer is broken up into packets of about 200 bytes (on average),
which are then sent out onto the network. Each packet contains a "header" with information necessary
for routing the packet from source to destination. Each packet in a data stream is independent.
The main advantage of packet-switching is that it permits "statistical multiplexing" on the
communications lines. The packets from many different sources can share a line, allowing for very
efficient use of the fixed capacity. With current technology, packets are generally accepted onto the
network on a first-come, first-served basis. If the network becomes overloaded, packets are delayed or
discarded ("dropped").
 Switching System- The switching centers receives the control signals, messages or conversations
and forwards to the required destination, after necessary modification (link amplifications) if
necessary. A switching system is a collection of switching elements arranged and controlled in
such a way as to setup a communication path between any two distant points.

A switching center of a telephone network comprising a switching network and its control and
support equipment is called a central office.

Electronic Switching

1. Space Division Switching

A space switch directs traffic from input links to output links. An input may set up one
connection (1, 3, 6 and 7), multiple connections (4) or no connection (2, 5 and 8)
2. Time Division Switching

Time division switching is done through a device called time-slot interchanger, which buffers m

incoming time-slots, e.g. 30 time-slots of an E1 frame, arranges new transmit order and transmits n
time-slots. Time-slots are stored in buffer memory usually in the order they arrive or in the order they
leave the switch - additional control logic is needed to decide respective output order or the memory
slot where an input slot is stored.
The comparison of space and time switches is given below:

The space and time switches may be used individually or in combination. The commonly used
configurations in modern switches are:

1. E10B - T-S-T
2. EWSD - T-S-S-S-T
3. 3. AXE10 - T-S-T
4. 5ESS - T-S-T
5. OCB283 - T

Signaling Systems- A signaling system in a data communication networks exchanges signaling

information effectively between subscribers. The signaling systems are essential building blocks
in providing the ultimate objective of a worldwide automatic telephone services standardized.
Signaling provides the interface between different national systems. The introduction of signaling
system was the big step in improving the PSTN.

The consultative committee on international telegraphy and telephony (CCITT) based in Geneva,
recommended seven formats related to signaling. The first five formats related to Inband signaling
and the last two in the category of common channel signaling. In In-band signaling, voice
information and signaling information travel on common paths, where as in common channel
signaling, they travel on separate paths.
BROADBAND TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
The term BROADBAND refers to a high speed internet access. It is non-specific
term. In fact there is no specific international definition for broadband.
As the Internet market continues to grow, demand for greater BW and faster
connection speeds have led to broadband access to all consumer.
The rapid growth of distributed business application-commerce and BW
intensive application (such as multimedia, video conferencing and video on
demand) generates the demand for BW and access network.

In India DoT has issued a broadband policy in 2004, keeping in mind,

Broadband connectivity and is defined as-
“A data connection which has capability of minimum downloads speed of 256
kbps is said to be broadband”
In 2012 new NTP was announced and broadband speed was revised to 2 mbps
in place of 256 kbps.
Practically obtained speed is 56 kbps.

TYPES OF BROADBAND SERVICES

DSL 2G/3G/4G
Cable Modem WI-Fi
OFC Wi-max
PLC FSO

DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE (DSL)-

DSL is a family of technology that provides high speed Internet access by
transmitting digits over the wires of a local telephone network.
DSL service is delivered simultaneously wired telephone service on the same
telephone line.
DSL uses higher frequency band for data transmission.
The bit rate of consumer DSL service typically ranges from 256 kbps to 40
mbps in downstream direction depending on DSL technology used, line
condition and service level implementation.

WHY USE DSL

Traditional modem can provide data rate up to 56 kbps to achieve high speed
internet access another techniques named DSL was used.
Sampling rate of telephone company=8000samples/sec. Each sample is
represented by 8 bits. One bit is used for control purpose. Hence each sample
is effectively represented by 7 bits.
Data rate =8000*7=56000 bits/sec i.e.56kbps.

WHERE DSL IS USED?

DSL service is used on a local telephone line. As telephone line is twisted pair
cable capable of handling B.W up to 1.1 MHz but voice utilizes only 4 kHz B.W.So to
enhance the efficiency of cable pair, a portion of large B.W. is utilized for data
communication.
TYPES OF DSL SERVICES
1. SDSL: Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line.
2. ADSL: Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line.
3. HDSL: High Rate Digital Subscriber Line.
4. VDSL: Very High Bit Rate Digital Subscriber Line.

Symmetric DSL (SDSL)

UPLOAD SPEED = DOWNLOAD SPEED = 768 kbps
Ex. Suitable for residential subscriber who need equal speed in both directions.
Asymmetric DSL (ADSL)
1. ADSL is an asymmetric communication technology .
2. Downstream data rate is greater than upstream data rate.
3. Downstream = 15-8 kbps
4. Upstream = 16-640 kbps

HDSL AND VDSL

HDSL: - Downstream = 1.544-2 mbps Upstream = 1.544-2 mbps
VDSL:- Downstream = 22-55 mbps Upstream = 3.2 mbps
BRAS: The BRAS is the piece of equipment that sits between the DSLAM at the telephone
exchange and the ISP that connects to the Internet. It may be in local exchange or it may be
elsewhere in service provider's network.  Single BBRAS will probably handle connections
 .
from several DSLAMs A BRAS is a multi-service access node able to manage IP service
access for a large number of subscribers. In order to access a specific service managed by the
BRAS, the subscriber must login towards the BRAS.

A DSLAM delivers exceptionally high-speed data transmission over existing copper

telephone lines. A DSLAM separates the voice-frequency signals from the high-speed data
traffic and controls and routes digital subscriber line (xDSL) traffic between the subscriber's
end-user equipment (CPE) and Broadband Access Server or BBRAS.
DSLAMs of following make are installed in MTNL:
• ERICSSON (Ethernet DSL Access)
• HUAWEI (SMARTAX MA 5600)
• ALCATEL (7302 ISAM
 ECN-320

Huawei DSLAM

Alcatel DSLAM
 FTTH

WHAT ARE OPTICAL FIBERS ?

Optical Fibers are thins long (km) strands of ultra pure glass (silica) or plastic that can to
transmit light from one end to another without much attenuation or loss.
The glass used to make Optical Fibers is so pure that if the Pacific Ocean was filled with this
glass then we would be able to see the ocean bottom form the surface….!!!!
Working of Optical fibers?
The light source (LAZER) at the transmitting (Tx) end is modulated by the electrical signal
and this modulated light energy is fed into the Optical Fiber.
At the receiving end (Rx) this light energy is made incident on photo-sensors which convert
this light signal back to electrical signal.
Optical fibre is used to guide light waves with a minimum attenuation. They are composed of fine
threads of glass in layers. The fine threads are of silica glass mix with some dopant material.

Two main layers are known as core (central, of 8 to 50µm) & cladding(outer,50to125µm)

Core is having 1 % more R.I. than Cladding

It transmits the Optical waves (Light) through it at the speed of 2/3 of speed of light in vacuum
observing the total internal reflection principle.

Light is either reflected or refracted depending upon the angle of incident at which it strikes the layer
of separation.

It refracts away when it goes from denser to a rearer medium

It reflects when it crosses the critical angle,which is known as phenomenon of TOTAL INTERNAL
REFLECTION
Fiber To The Home Can be accomplished by
• Active Ethernet
• PON
PON (Passive Optical Network)
• Point to Multipoint Technology
• No Active component in the ODN
• One fiber from the CO
TYPES OF PON
• APON (155 Mbps /155 Mbps)
• BPON ( 622 Mbps / 155 Mbps)
• GE PON (1.25 G /1.25 G)
• GPON (2.5 G/1.25 G)

Comparison between DSL and GPON Technology

DSL GPON

Twisted Copper Pair Cable Fiber Optic Cable

Uses electricity Uses light
Opaque Transparent
Electrically conductive Dielectric material-
material nonconductive EMI
Susceptible to EMI Low thermal expansion
High thermal expansion Brittle, rigid material
Ductile material Chemically stable
Subject to corrosion and Low Attenuation
galvanic reactions Max BW 2.5Gbps
Fortunately, its recyclable Distance - 20 ~60 Km
High Attenuation Overcomes Last mile issue
Max BW 24Mbps (ADSL2+)
Distance 5-6km
ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBERS
 High information carrying capacity:

A valid comparison would be on the basis of cost per meter per telephone channel, rather than
just cost per meter.

 Resource plentiful:

The basic materials are either silicon dioxide for glass fibers or transparent plastic which are
plentiful

 Less attenuation:

A typical fibre attenuation is 0.3 dB/km. Whereas a coaxial cable (RG-19/U) will attenuate a
100-Mz signal by 22.6 dB/km.

 Greater safety:

Optic fibers glass/plastic, are insulators. No electric current flows through them. GREATER
SAFETY AND IMMUNE TO EMI & RFI, MOISTURE & COROSSION

 Immunity to Radio Frequency Interference:

Fibers have excellent rejection of radio-frequency interference (RFI) caused by radio and
television stations, radar, and other electronics equipment.

 Immunity to Electromagnetic Interference:

Fibers have excellent rejection of electromagnetic interference (EMI caused by natural

phenomena such as lighting, sparking, etc).

 No cross-talk:

The optic wave within the fiber is trapped and does not leaks out during transmission to
interfere with signals in other fibers.

 Higher Security:
 fibers offer higher degree of security and privacy

APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBERS…

Telecommunications:

Long-Distance Telecommunications.

Inter-exchange junction.

Fibre in the loop (FITL).

Video Transmission:

Television broadcast, cable television (CATV), remote monitoring, etc.

Broadband Services:

provisioning of broadband services, such as video request service, home study courses,
medical facilities, train timetables, etc.

High EMI areas:

Can be laid along railway track, through power substations and can be suspended directly
from power line towers, or poles.

COMPARISION WITH OTHER MEDIA / TECHNOLOGIES

WIRELESS MEDIA
1.GSM

2.3G

3.LTE

Evolution of wireless media

1G only Mobile Voice Services
 2G GSM · CSD

2.5G HSCSD · GPRS

2.75G EDGE/EGPRS

3G UMTS

3.5G HSDPA ·

3.75G HSUPA ·

3.9G HSPA+ · LTE (E-UTRA) also EV-DO

4G LTE Advanced

• GSM

– formerly: Groupe Spéciale Mobile (founded 1982)

– now: Global System for Mobile Communication

– Pan-European standard (ETSI, European Telecommunications Standardization

Institute)

In simultaneous introduction of essential services in three phases (1991, 1994,

1996) by the European telecommunication administrations (Germany: D1 and
D2) seamless roaming within Europe possible.Today many providers all over
the world use GSM (more than 184 countries in Asia, Africa, Europe,
Australia, America)and more than 70% of all digital mobile phones use
GSM.Over 10 billion SMS per month in Germany, > 360 billion/year
worldwide.

Features of GSM are-Communication ,mobile, wireless communication;

support for voice and data services,international access, Worldwide
connectivity, High capacity ,better frequency efficiency, smaller cells, more
customers per cell, High transmission quality, high audio quality and
reliability for wireless, uninterrupted phone calls at higher speeds (e.g., from
cars, trains),Security functions ,access control, authentication

GENERATION OF GSM

• 1st generation:- Analog mobile technologies :- AMPS , TACS & NMT.

• 2nd generation:- digital mobile technologies :- GSM , CDMA

• 2.5generation:- Enhancement of GSM:- GPRS

• 3rd generation:- Technologies coursed by ITU-IMT

The BSS consists of three major hardware components:

1) The Base Transceiver Station – BTS

The BTS contains the RF components that provide the air interface for a particular

cell .This is the part of the GSM network which communicates with the MS. The

antenna is included as part of the BTS.

2) The Base Station Controller – BSC

The BSC as its name implies provides the control for the BSS. The BSC

communicates directly with the MSC. The BSC may control single or multiple

BTSs.
 3) The Transcoder – XCDR

The Transcoder (XCDR) is required to convert the speech or data output from the MSC

(64 kbit/s PCM), into the form specified by GSM specifications for transmission over the

air interface, that is, between the BSS and MS (64 kbit/s to 16 kbit/s and vice versa)

BSS includes the network elements taking care of the radio cellular resources within the GSM
network

On one side, it is directly linked to the MSs through the radio interface (Air interface)

On the other side it is interconnected with the switches of the NSS

– its role consists in connecting MS and NSS and hence in connecting the caller to the
other users

It is controlled by the NMS (or OSS)

Mobile services switching center (MSC) performs the switching functions for all mobile stations
located in the geographical area covered by its assigned BSSs.

Functions of the MSC include :-

• Management of MSC-BSS signaling Protocol.

• Handling location registration and ensuring internetworking between mobile station and VLR.

• Call handling that copes with mobile nature of subscribers.

Exchange of signaling information with other system entities

The Home Location Register (HLR) contains the identities of mobile subscribers, their service
parameters, and their location information.

Function of the HLR include:-

• Identity of mobile subscriber

• Location information for call routing.

ISDN directory number of mobile station

 The Visitor Location Register (VLR) contains the subscriber parameters and location information
for all mobile subscribers currently located in the geographical area controlled by that VLR.

Functions of the VLR include :-

• Identity of mobile subscriber.

• Any temporary mobile subscriber identity (TMSI) allocation.

• Location area where the mobile station is registered

Copy of the subscriber data from the HLR.

The Authentication center (AUC) :

• Contains subscriber authentication data called authentication key (Ki)

• Generates security related parameters needed to authorize service using Ki.

• Generates unique data pattern called a cipher key (Kc) needed for encrypting user speech and
data.

The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) is accessed during the equipment validation procedure
when a mobile station accesses the system .It contains the identity of mobile station equipment
which may be valid, suspect, or known to be fraudulent.

This contains :

• White or Valid list – list of valid MS equipment identities.

• Grey or Monitored list – list of suspected mobiles under observation.

• Black or prohibited list – list of mobiles for which service is barred

The Operation and maintenance Center (OMC) is the centralized maintenance and diagnostic heart
of the base station system (BSS). It allows the network provider to operate, administer , and monitor
the functioning of the BSS.
 3G

3-G is next generation of mobile service capabilities in terms of Bandwidth and Network
Functions

3G provides data speeds of:

 2Mbps in fixed or in building environments,

 384Kbps in pedestrian or urban environments

2500
 144Kbps in wide area mobile
2000 environments
1500
Kbps

1000

500

0
2G GPRS EDGE 3G

3G is considerably faster than 2G and 2.5G technology

ARCHITECTURE of 3G-
 Base Station
Network Subsystem
Mobile Station Subsystem Other Networks

MSC/ GMSC
BSC VLR PSTN
BTS
ME
SIM

EIR HLR AUC PLMN

RNS
GGSN
SGSN
Node RNC Internet
ME B
USIM

UTRAN
+
SD

Note: Interfaces have been omitted for clarity purposes.

Node B-

 Known as 3G-BTS.

 Responsible for the transmission /reception radio from/to MS in one or more cells .

 NODE-B supports FDD,TDD or dual mode.

 Connected to RNC via ATM interface links.

RNC-

 RNC in 3g is Radio Network Controller.

 Does all Radio Resource Control.

 Controls several Node-b.

 RNC is connected to core –switch part and also to core-packet part in 3g.

HLR-

 Permanent database of customer.

 HLR manages mobile subscribers.

 PLMN area contains one or more HLR’S.

HLR stores location data that allow to appraisal and direction of call and sms to the MSC/SGSN
where MS is registered

VLR-

 VLR controls roaming of the MS in MSC area.

 VLR have to organize one or several MSC’S.

 Contains Temporary directory of subscriber data.

 VLR changes as subscriber changes the location i.e it is location dependent.

AUC-

 AUTHENTICATION CENTRE.

 Does check customer identity.

 It gives security on air interface.

 Uses HLR,VLR MSC,SGSN for authentication.

 In 3G , not only customer is authenticated but also the network too authenticated i.e two way
authentication.

SGSN-

 It is in core-packet of 3g.

 SGSN has security and access control in 3g.

 SGSN establishes PDP context for routing packet data with GGSN.

 It stores subscription information and location data of customer.

It is connected to BSC and RNC .

GGSN-

 GATEWAY GPRS SUPPORT NODE.

 Communicating with external packet networks via Gi interface.

 One GGSN is connected to several SGSN.

 Localization registry in GGSN stores routing data and subscription information.

TDD-
  TDD is the multiple access method in 3g.

 TDD provides synchronous and asynchronous mode of data transfer.

 Best utilizes spectrum.

 10 MHZ spectrum for TDD .

 It is unpaired spectrum in 3g.

LTE

In telecommunication, Long-Term Evolution (LTE) is a standard for high-

speed wireless communication for mobile devices and data terminals, based on
the GSM/EDGE and UMTS/HSPA technologies. It increases the capacity and speed using a
different radio interface together with core network improvements. The standard is developed
by the 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership Project) and is specified in its Release 8 document
series, with minor enhancements described in Release 9. LTE is the upgrade path for carriers
with both GSM/UMTS networks and CDMA2000 networks. The different LTE frequencies
and bands used in different countries mean that only multi-band phones are able to use LTE
in all countries where it is supported.
LTE is commonly marketed as 4G LTE, but it does not meet the technical criteria of a 4G
wireless service, as specified in the 3GPP Release 8 and 9 document series for LTE
Advanced. The requirements were originally set forth by the ITU-R organization in the IMT
Advanced specification. However, due to marketing pressures and the significant
advancements that WiMAX, Evolved High Speed Packet Access and LTE bring to the
original 3G technologies, ITU later decided that LTE together with the aforementioned
technologies can be called 4G technologies The LTE Advanced standard formally satisfies
the ITU-R requirements to be considered IMT-Advanced. To differentiate LTE Advanced
and WiMAX-Advanced from current 4G technologies, ITU has defined them as "True 4G”.
CONCLUSION- It all started from 1950s since then there has been a massive bloom
in the field of communication.