REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

INTRODUCTION

REFRIGRATOR SYSTEM SAVING HEAT ENERGY:-

Refrigerator system is a new technology used in this project. Refrigerator

system is mostly used for cooling system 1st time saving in heat for
refrigerator . High pressure & high temperature gas flow in the output of
compressor 1/8 ton kan compressor used in this project . Than used this high
temperature & pressure in HOT chamber.
The hot chamber output transfer the gas next stage we are connected
Condenser. Condenser condensate the heat for gas circulation. Than next
stages we are connected Filter. Filter filtered the dust & particles in gas
circulations Than comes in next stages we are connected Capillary tubes.
Capillary tubes main part of refrigeration. Capillary tube can changes the
high temperature & pressure in low temperature. Then these types of flow we
are saved in our last stages cooling chamber. This circulation are connected
in input side Than our cold chamber used for provided cooling the food , milk
all our food materials.
HOT CHAMBER:- Hot chamber used for heating all types of food , Burgers ,
paitegs & braid pakoda & all hot eating foods etc
COLD CHAMBER:- Cold chamber used for cooling all types of foods , IC
CREAM, Milk, chocolate , Sweets etc

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REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-
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PARTS LIST & DISCRIPTION

In this project we used some basically Refrigerators material .There detailed
description is given below

LIST OF PARTS OF PROJECT

S.NO. COMPONENTS
1 Compressor
2 Condenser
3 Capillary Tube
8 Filter
9 Relay
10 Connecting Wires
11 Wooden Stand
12 2 chambers
230 v AC Power supply
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PARTS EXPLAIN & DETAIL

INTERNAL WORKING OF COMPRESSOR

COMPRESSOR:-
 REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

The X range performs high reliability and efficiency, goes from 16.00 to
23.00 cc and, it is designed to work under heavy duty operation conditions
for applications such as Large Freezers, Display Cabinets and Display Islands
in most refrigerants R134a, R404A, R290, R407C, R507, R22

REFRIGRATOR COMPRESSOR in the vapor compression refrigeration

system, the upgrading of refrigerant from low pressure, and to continue to
circulate refrigerant, so that the system continues to be higher than the system
of internal temperature of the heat released into the environment.
Refrigeration compressor is the heart of the refrigeration system, refrigeration
system through the compressor input power, which will discharge heat from
low temperature to high temperature environments.

Determine the energy efficiency of refrigeration compressors refrigeration

system energy efficiency. As the ambient temperature is constantly changing,
so the compressor part load most of the time out of state, so the compressor
has the power to regulate. Screw compressor is not required for the cylinder
piston compressor, piston, piston rings, cylinder liners and other vulnerable
parts of the compact structure, small size, light weight, there is no clearance
volume, when a small amount of liquid into the machine without liquid attack
risk.

Valves can be used for 10% to 100% of the non-level energy regulation,
applicable to a wide range of smooth and reliable operation, maintenance
cycle to be long, trouble-free running time of up to (2 ~ 5) × 104h. As the use
of the machine’s cooling lubricants and sealing performance is improved
using the exhaust temperature is reduced, even lower evaporation
temperature (-40 ℃) and high compression (25 or so), still single-stage
 REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

operation, that is within a certain range can replace the two-stage

compression cycle. However, the screw refrigeration compressor requires
high precision machining and assembly, suitable for operation in varying
conditions, a larger noise, in general, need to plant silencers and sound
insulation, in the refrigeration compression, you need to spray Add oil,
requiring pumps, oil coolers and oil recovery, etc.

more auxiliary equipment. China Unicom in the compressor housing outside

a closed Helmholtz resonator Helmholtz resonator that is, from the chamber
through the hole in the neck and connected to the compressor housing into
the internal cavity to reduce the compressor cavity excited acoustic mode
amplitude. Resonant frequency of the resonator cavity modulation of the
compressor to the actual maximum forced vibration mode, it will
significantly reduce the resonance peak and lead to significant changes in
response to the spectrum. But it will affect the compressor in the refrigerator
in the appearance and layout, its findings have not yet applied to products.

Trans-critical carbon dioxide as an air compressor system efficiency and

reliability of most components, should be fully integrated with the specific
characteristics of supercritical carbon dioxide cycle redesign. CO2 and
ammonia, as the higher value of the adiabatic index K, of 1.30, which may
cause the compressor discharge temperature high, but because of CO2
compressor pressure ratio required is small, so no cooling of the compressor
itself. Because of the adiabatic index, pressure ratio is small, the compressor
can reduce the clearance volume re-expansion losses, high volumetric
efficiency of the compressor.

Through experimental and theoretical research, Jurgen SUB and Horst Kruse
found that of reciprocating compressors have a good sliding seal film, a CO2
system of choice. BOCK compressor its carbon dioxide exhaust valve has
been improved, modified the exhaust of carbon dioxide compressor
efficiency by 7%. The amount of remaining oil and motor-side winding
models will lead to the same batch difference between the compressor sound
level (deviation from the average sound level).

External support by changing the shell to increase the torsional stiffness, and
reduce the vibration surface; noise of the complexity of the requirements of
researchers with a strong theoretical quality, the enterprise has a good
technological base, and the need for greater investment and longer time. This
is the one weak link in the compressor business, basically in the qualitative
phase of the experimental study, along with much randomness and chance.

Environmental requirements on the application of the new refrigerants

refrigeration compressor industry is a hot issue, with products for the
 REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

refrigerator replacement refrigerant R22 end of the work, the new refrigerant
compressor mainly focused on air-conditioning industry. In addition to the
more mature R410A, R407C of research, the largest of the hot issues of
carbon dioxide compressor. As the system pressure of carbon dioxide
pressure is much larger than the traditional critical circulatory system, the
compressor shaft seal design is much higher than the existing compressor, the
compressor shaft seal leakage will continue for some time the main reason
for impeding the practical use of chiller.

A look at how different compressors work

Most cooling systems, from residential air conditioners to large commercial and industrial
chillers, employ the refrigeration process known as the vapour compression cycle. At the
heart of the vapour compression cycle is the mechanical compressor. A compressor has
two main functions: 1) to pump refrigerant through the cooling system and 2) to compress
gaseous refrigerant in the system so that it can be condensed to liquid and absorb heat
from the air or water that is being cooled or chilled (See the "How it Works" section of the
article "Gas Engine Chillers" for an explanation of the vapour compression cycle).
There are many ways to compress a gas. As such, many different types of compressors
have been invented over the years. Each type utilizes a specific and sometimes downright
ingenious method to pressurize refrigerant vapour. The five types of compressors used in
vapour compression systems are Reciprocating, Rotary, Centrifugal, Screw and Scroll.

Reciprocating
Compressors
A reciprocating
compressor uses the
reciprocating action of a
piston inside a cylinder
to compress refrigerant.
As the piston moves
downward, a vacuum is
created inside the
cylinder. Because the
pressure above the
intake valve is greater
than the pressure below
it, the intake valve is
forced open and
refrigerant is sucked
 REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

into the cylinder. After

the piston reaches its
bottom position it
begins to move upward.
The intake valve closes,
trapping the refrigerant
inside the cylinder. As
the piston continues to
move upward it
compresses the
refrigerant, increasing
its pressure. At a certain
point the pressure
exerted by the
refrigerant forces the
exhaust valve to open
and the compressed
refrigerant flows out of
the cylinder. Once the
piston reaches it top-
most position, it starts
moving downward
again and the cycle is
repeated.
Rotary Compressors
In a rotary compressor
the refrigerant is
compressed by the
rotating action of a
roller inside a cylinder.
The roller rotates
eccentrically (off-
centre) around a shaft
so that part of the roller
is always in contact
with the inside wall of
the cylinder. A spring-
mounted blade is
always rubbing against
the roller. The two
points of contact create
two sealed areas of
continuously variable
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volume inside the

cylinder. At a certain
point in the rotation of
the roller, the intake
port is exposed and a
quantity of refrigerant is
sucked into the
cylinder, filling one of
the sealed areas. As the
roller continues to rotate
the volume of the area
the refrigerant occupies
is reduced and the
refrigerant is
compressed. When the
exhaust valve is
exposed, the high-
pressure refrigerant
forces the exhaust valve
to open and the
refrigerant is released.
Rotary compressors are
very efficient because
the actions of taking in
refrigerant and
compressing refrigerant
occur simultaneously.
Screw Compressors
Screw compressors use
a pair of helical
rotorsAs the rotors
rotate they intermesh,
alternately exposing and
closing off interlobe
spaces at the ends of the
rotors. When an
interlobe space at the
intake end opens up,
refrigerant is sucked
into it. As the rotors
continue to rotate the
refrigerant becomes
trapped inside the
 REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

interlobe space and is

forced along the length
of the rotors. The
volume of the interlobe
space decreases and the
refrigerant is
compressed. The
compressed refrigerant
exists when the
interlobe space reaches
the other end. (male and
female) inside a sealed
chamber.
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
Centrifugal compressors use the rotating action of an
impeller wheel to exert centrifugal force on
refrigerant inside a round chamber (volute).
Refrigerant is sucked into the impeller wheel through
a large circular intake and flows between the
impellers. The impellers force the refrigerant
outward, exerting centrifugal force on the refrigerant.
The refrigerant is pressurized as it is forced against
the sides of the volute. Centrifugal compressors are
well suited to compressing large volumes of
refrigerant to relatively low pressures. The
compressive force generated by an impeller wheel is
small, so chillers that use centrifugal compressors
usually employ more than one impeller wheel,
arranged in series. Centrifugal compressors are
desirable for their simple design and few moving
parts.
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CONDENSOR:-

For home units, the compressor is the outside, large box shaped unit that is usually
on the side, or the house.It takes the freon gas from inside the home compresses it into
a liquid, where it will be pumped behind back
inside to the condensor. Compressing gas creates heat, so a fan draws air through
the cooling coils on the sideof the unit, and blows it out the top. It is important that these
coils are kept clear of debris, and should beperiodically sprayed off with a hose to knock off dust th
have accumulated.
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Now that the freon gas is compressed, it gets pumped inside the house to the condensor,
where the pressure falls, allowing the freon to return to a gas. This creates an endothermic
reaction, drawing heat from the air.
The condensor unit has a series of coils with fins that get very cold. The warm air in the
house is blown overthese coils, cooling it, and then through the ductwork of the house, and
out through the registers

MOSTLY PROBLEM OF CONDENSATION IN REFRIGRATOR

Most fridges are designed to deal with the normal amount of condensation through a small drain

at the bottom that should drain it all off and keep your fridge frost-free, controlling the moisture

created naturally by the chilling process.

There are a couple of simple things to look for if you're winding up with unwanted water

inside your fridge.

Drainage problems:

Most all fridges have a drain. Look inside your fridge for a "V" shaped channel with a small hole.

This hole leads to a tube and a small pan which sits on top of your refrigerator's compressor.

The defrost cycle causes water to run into the channel, down the tube, and then it generally

evaporates with the heat of the hot condenser.

However, if that tube is clogged with food crumbs, you will have to clear it to get back to a normal

mode of operation. A toothpick, straw or a cotton bud can often do the trick.
 REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

Eventually, the drip pan might rust and need to be replaced so should be checked occasionally if

the problem persists. And as long as you will have the fridge pulled out, make sure to vacuum

dust off the coils as well just for good measure!

Even a frost free freezer will still ice up at times in the areas away from the heated defrost area

and the drain pipes can freeze. This icing causes the pipe work to the compressor to ice over or

sweat and cause a puddle. Or if the drainage has frozen over, it will need to be de-iced.

Give the freezer a good overnight defrost until it's totally clear of ice in addition to making sure

the drain is clear to the pan at the back and then restart the freezer.

Condensation Problems:

Warm air can get into your fridge causing water droplets to form on the back wall or ceiling.

Ask some of the following questions to determine the cause:

1. Was food warm when you put it into the fridge? Make sure it's at room temperature after
2. cooking before putting it in the fridge.
3. How level is your fridge? Often, notching the front screws up one turn will keep
4. condensation moving to the back drain.
5. Does the door shut securely and is the rubber gasket forming a complete seal? Check by

closing the door on a fiver. If you can pull it out without a problem, the seal is probably letting w
in and should be replaced.

6. What temperature is your fridge set on? Cold air is generally dryer. However having the

temperature set too high can cause an imbalance.

7. Always close the fridge door as quickly as possible after opening it. Leaving the door

open allows warm air to enter and increases the possibility of condensation.

Making sure that your fridge is clean inside and out, seals properly on the door and is set at a
 REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

temperature between 0 - 5 degrees Centigrade (according to the Food Standards Agency) is

essential to preventing the growth of potentially harmful bacteria in your chilled foodstuffs.

In any case, soggy packages, drippy shelves and mopping up to cope with the moisture should not

be something you have to just cope with!

CAPILARY TUBE:
Capillary tube is one of the most commonly used throttling devices in the refrigeration and the
air conditioning systems. The capillary tube is a copper tube of very small internal diameter.
It is of very long length and it is coiled to several turns so that it would occupy less space.
The internal diameter of the capillary tube used for the refrigeration and air conditioning
Applications varies from 0.5 to 2.28 mm (0.020 to 0.09 inches). Capillary tube used as
the throttling device in the domestic refrigerators, deep freezers, water coolers and
air conditioners

WORKING CAPILARY TUBE:

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When the refrigerant leaves the condenser and enters the capillary tube its pressure drops
down suddenly due to very small diameter of the capillary. In capillary the fall in pressure

of the refrigerant takes place not due to the orifice but due to the small opening of the

capillary.

The decrease in pressure of the refrigerant through the capillary depends on the diameter of the

capillary and the length of the capillary. Smaller is the diameter and more is the length of the

capillary more is the drop in pressure of the refrigerant as it passes through it.

In the normal working conditions of the refrigeration plant there is drop in pressure of

the refrigerant

across the capillary but when the plant stops the refrigerant pressure across the two sides of the

capillary equalize. Due to this reason when the compressor restarts there won’t be much

load on it.

Also, due to this reason one cannot over-charge the refrigeration system with the refrigerant

and no receiver is used.

The capillary tube is non-adjustable device that means one cannot control the flow of

the refrigerant through it as one can do in the automatic throttling valve. Due to this

the flow of the refrigerant through the capillary changes as the surrounding conditions

changes. For instance as the condenser pressure increases due to high atmospheric pressure

and the evaporator pressure reduces due to lesser refrigeration load the flow of the refrigerant

through the capillary changes. Thus the capillary tube is designed for certain ambient

conditions. However, if it is selected properly, it can work reasonably well over a wide range of

conditions.The length of the capillary of particular diameter required for the refrigeration
 REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

applications cannot be found by fixed formula rather it is calculated by the empirical calculations.

Some approximate length required for certain application is found out and it is then corrected

by the experiments.

When the refrigerant leaves the condenser and enters the capillary tube its pressure drops

down suddenly due to very small diameter of the capillary. In capillary the fall in pressure of

the refrigerant takes place not due to the orifice but due to the small opening of the capillary.

The decrease in pressure of the refrigerant through the capillary depends on the diameter of

the capillary and the length of the capillary. Smaller is the diameter and more is the length of

the capillary more is the drop in pressure of the refrigerant as it passes through it.

Advantages of the Capillary Tube

Here are some of the advantages of using capillary tube as the throttling device in the

refrigeration and the air conditioning systems:

1) The capillary tube is a very simple device that can be manufactured easily and it is not

very costly.

2) The capillary tube limits the maximum amount of the refrigerant that can be charged in the

refrigeration system due to which the receiver is not required in these systems.

2) When the refrigeration plant stops the pressure across the capillary tube becomes same and

Also along the whole refrigeration cycle the pressure is constant. This means that when the pl

stopped the pressure at the suction and discharge side of the compressor are same.

Thus when the compressor is restarted there is not much load on it since it does not have to

overcome very high pressures. Due to this the compressor motor of smaller torque can be

selected for driving the compressor, thus reducing the cost of the compressor. This along with

the above two advantages helps reducing the overall cost of the refrigeration and the air conditioning
systems.
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Important Points to Remember when Installing Refrigeration Plants with Capillary Tube

Since the pressure on the two sides of the capillary equalizes when the refrigeration plant is

stopped,one should not overcharge the system with the refrigerant. Due to this reason the

receiver is also not installed in the refrigeration system with the capillary. If the system is

overcharged the discharge pressure from the compressor will be high and the compressor

would get overloaded. Thus the refrigerant charge in the refrigeration and air conditioning

systems with the capillary tube is critical.

The technician should be very careful while brazing the capillary to the condenser and the

evaporator coil. Since the diameter of the capillary is very small the capillary may get blocked

if the brazing is done deep inside. Brazing the capillary requires lots of expertise and patience.

In most of the cases, when the fresh refrigerant is charged into the refrigerator or the deep

freezers, the capillary of the system should also be changed. This is because when the machine

is stopped some oil particles may clog the capillary as the refrigerant leaks to the atmosphere.

Accumulator Used in the Refrigeration Systems with Capillary Tube

Accumulator is a small hollow cylindrical shape vessel made of copper. It is fitted between the

evaporator and the compressor of the refrigeration system towards the suction side of the

compressor. Sometimes the refrigerant leaving the evaporator carries liquid particles.

These particles get separated in the accumulator. The liquid refrigerant collected in the

accumulator slowly gets vaporized and is then sucked by the compressor. The accumulator

also prevents the flooding of the liquid refrigerant to thecompressor when the load on the

evaporator drops down drastically

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USEABLE GAS

Refrigerant gas is a chemical product used in refrigerators, freezers, air conditioners and heating,
ventilating and air conditioning units (HVAC). These gases, which have very low evaporation
points, are condensed under pressure to chill the air. Through a process of repeatedly evaporating
and condensing the gasses, heat is pulled out of the air and the temperature inside the room or unit
is reduced. Different types of refrigerant gases include chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), hydro
chlorofluorocarbon (HCFC), hydro fluorocarbon (HFC), perfluorocarbon (PFC), and blends made
from ammonia and carbon dioxide.

The first refrigerators built from the 1800’s until the 1920’s primarily used toxic gases such as
ammonia (NH3), methyl chloride (CH3Cl), and sulfur dioxide (SO2). Unfortunately, the units
occasionally leaked and caused several deaths, which prompted the refrigeration industry to put
forth a concerted effort to find a safer refrigerant gas. The result was the discovery of
chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) gas, which was a mixture of chlorine, fluorine and carbons. Freon®
became the trademark name for a CFC gas that was primarily used as a refrigerant. This gas was
colorless, odorless, nonflammable and non-toxic, and soon became the predominant refrigerant
gas.
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GAS RECOVERY CYLINDER:

Features:
Y-valve for liquid/vapor.
Raised collar design for ease of handling and protection.
Conforms to PED and ADR specifications and regulations.
Used for storage and transport of recovered refrigerant gases.
CE and TUV approved.

Model - Mastercool 62010-EUGRN.

Connection - Two connections 1/4 flare male (7/16-20), one for liquid, one for vapour.

Size (W x H) - 228mm x 516mm.

Tare Weight - 8kg.

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Standard Specification - ADR/RID2009 EN13322-1N D TUV 1.

Nominal Water Capacity - 12.5 Litres. Service Pressure - 32 Bar.

Tank Test Pressure - 48 Bar.

Air Tightness Test Pressure - 32 Bar.

Bursting Pressure - In excess of 108 Bar.

Body Material - HP295,Colour - Green.

GAS WELDING & CUTTING IN COPPER PIPES:-

Transporting, Moving, and Storing Compressed Gas Cylinders

 Valve protection caps shall be in place and secured.

 When cylinders are hoisted, they shall be secured on a cradle,

slingboard, or pallet. They shall not be hoisted or transported by means
of magnets or choker slings.
 Cylinders shall be moved by tilting and rolling them on their bottom
edges. They shall not be intentionally dropped, struck, or permitted to
strike each other violently.
 When cylinders are transported by powered vehicles, they shall be
secured in a vertical position.
 Valve protection caps shall not be used for lifting
cylinders from one vertical position to another. Bars shall
not be used under valves or valve protection caps to pry
cylinders loose when frozen. Warm, not boiling, water
shall be used to thaw cylinders loose.
 Unless cylinders are firmly secured on a special carrier
intended for this purpose, regulators shall be removed and
valve protection caps put in place before cylinders are
moved.
 A suitable cylinder truck, chain, or other steadying device
shall be used to keep cylinders from being knocked over
while in use.
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 When work is finished, when cylinders are empty, or when cylinders

are moved at any time, the cylinder valve shall be closed.
 Compressed gas cylinders shall be secured in an upright position at all
times, if necessary, for short periods of time while cylinders are
actually being hoisted or carried.
 Oxygen cylinders in storage shall be separated from fuel-gas cylinders
or combustible materials (especially oil or grease), a minimum distance
of 20 feet (6.1 m) or by a noncombustible barrier at least 5 feet (1.5 m)
high having a fire-resistance rating of at least one-half hour.
 Inside of buildings, cylinders shall be stored in a well-protected, well-
ventilated, dry location, at least 20 feet (6.1 m) from highly
combustible materials such as oil or excelsior. cylinders should be
stored in definitely assigned places away from elevators, stairs, or
gangways. Assigned storage places shall be located where cylinders
will not be knocked over or damaged by passing or falling objects, or
subject to tampering.
 The in-plant handling, storage, and utilization of all compressed gases
in cylinders, portable tanks, rail tank cars, or motor vehicle cargo tanks
shall be in accordance with Compressed Gas Association Pamphlet P-
1-1965.

Placing Cylinders

 Cylinders shall be kept far enough away from the actual welding or
cutting operation so that sparks, hot slag, or flame will not reach them.
When this is impractical, fire resistant shields shall be provided.

 Cylinders shall be placed where they cannot become part of an

electrical circuit. Electrodes shall not be struck against a cylinder to
strike an arc.
 Fuel gas cylinders shall be placed with valve end up whenever they
are in use. They shall not be placed in a location where they would not
be subject to open flame, hot metal, or other sources of artificial heat.
 Cylinders containing oxygen or acetylene or other fuel gas shall not be
taken into confined spaces.

Treatment of Cylinders

 Cylinders, whether full or empty, shall not be used as rollers or

supports.

 No person other than the gas supplier shall attempt to mix gases in a
cylinder. No one except the owner of the cylinder or person authorized
by him, shall refill a cylinder. No one shall use a cylinder's contents for
purposes than those intended by the supplier. All cylinders used shall
 REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

meet the Department of Transportation requirements published in 49

CFR Part 178, Subpart C, Specification for Cylinders.
 No damaged or defective cylinder shall be used.

USE OF FUEL GAS

The employer shall thoroughly instruct employees in the safe use of fuel gas,
as follows:

 Fuel gas shall not be used from

cylinders through torches or other
devices which are equipped with
shutoff valves without reducing
the pressure through a suitable
regulator attached to the cylinder
valve or manifold.

 Before a regulator to a cylinder

valve is connected, the valve shall
be opened slightly and closed
immediately. (This action is generally termed "cracking" and is
intended to clear the valve of dust or dirt that might otherwise enter the
regulator.) The person cracking the valve shall stand to one side of the
outlet, not in front of it. The valve of a fuel gas cylinder shall not be
cracked where the gas would reach welding work, sparks, flame, or
other possible sources of ignition.
 The cylinder valve shall always be opened slowly to prevent damage to
the regulator. for quick closing, valves of fuel gas cylinders shall not
be opened more than 1= turns. When a special wrench is required, it
shall be left in position on the stem of the valve while the cylinder is in
use so that the fuel gas flow can be shut off quickly in case of an
emergency. In the case of manifolded or coupled cylinders, at least one
such wrench
shall always be available for immediate use. Nothing shall be placed
on top of a fuel gas cylinder, when in
use, which may damage the safety device or interfere with the quick
closing of the valve.
 Before a regulator is removed
from a cylinder valve, the
cylinder valve shall always be
closed and the gas released from
the regulator.
 If, when the valve on a fuel gas
cylinder is opened, there is found
 REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

to be a leak around the valve stem, the valve shall be closed and the
gland nut tightened. If this action does not stop the leak, the use of the
cylinder shall be discontinued, and it shall be properly tagged and
removed from the work area. In the event that fuel gas should leak
from the cylinder valve, rather than from the valve stem, and the gas
cannot be shut off, the cylinder shall be properly tagged and removed
from the work area. If a regulator attached to a cylinder valve will
effectively stop a leak through the valve seat, the cylinder need not be
removed from the work area.
 If a leak should develop at a fuse plug or other safety device, the
cylinder shall be removed from the work area.

Fuel Gas and Oxygen Manifolds

Fuel gas and oxygen manifolds shall bear the name of the substance they
contain in letters at least 1-inch high which shall be either painted on the
manifold or on a sign permanently attached to it. These manifolds shall be
placed in safe, well ventilated, and accessible locations and not be located
within enclosed spaces.

Manifold hose connections, including both ends of the supply hose that lead
to the manifold, shall be such that the hose cannot be interchanged between
fuel gas and oxygen manifolds and supply header connections. Adapters shall
not be use to permit the interchange of hose. Hose connections shall be kept
free of grease and oil.

When not in use, manifold and header hose connections shall be capped.

Nothing shall be placed on top of a manifold, when in use, which will

damage the manifold or interfere with the quick closing of the valves.

Hose

Fuel gas and oxygen hose shall be easily

distinguishable from each other. The
contrast may be made by different
colors or by surface characteristics
readily distinguishable by the sense of
touch. Oxygen and fuel gas hoses shall
not be interchangeable. (See
accompanying figure for example.) A
single hose having more than one gas passage shall not be used.

When parallel sections of oxygen and fuel gas hose are taped together, not
 REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

more than 4 inches out of 12 inches shall be covered by tape.

All hose in use, carrying acetylene, oxygen, natural or manufactured fuel gas,
or any gas or substance which may ignite or enter into combustion, or be in
any way harmful to employees, shall be inspected at the beginning of each
working shift. Defective hose shall be removed from service.

Hose which has been subject to flashback, or which shows evidence of severe
wear or damage, shall be tested to twice the normal pressure to which it is
subject, but in no case less than 300 p.s.i. Defective hose, or hose in doubtful
condition, shall not be used.

Hose couplings shall be of the type that cannot be unlocked or disconnected

by means of a straight pull without rotary motion.

Boxes used for the storage of gas hose shall be ventilated.

Hoses, cables, and other equipment shall be kept clear of passageways,

ladders, and stairs
 REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

TUBING CUTTER
The tubing cutter is an essential plumbing tool if you are going to be doing
any work with copper pipe. With copper pipe it is important to have smoothly
cut and squarely cut ends and well fitted joints.

When using a tubing cutter, hold the copper tubing and clamp the cutter
around the pipe where you want it cut. Then spin the cutter around the pipe,
tightening the knob slightly on each revolution to increase the cutting wheel
pressure on the pipe. After making the cut you may find some burrs in the
pipe's cut edge. Remove these with a small file or de-burring tool for this
purpose.

AC WORK PIECE
 REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

Air conditioner / heat pump control circuit board (typically a "control

board" shown in our photo at left) and a contactor relay (shown in our photo
below) are used in the compressor/condenser to turn it off and on in response
to the indoor thermostat's call for cooling. 

While diagnosing a circuit or component problem within an air conditioner or

heat pump control board is beyond the skill of most homeowners, a simple
visual inspection might show you that the control board has been visibly
burned, broken, or damaged. Of course the board may look OK and still be
damaged.

/C heat pump Contactor Relay: A/C and heat pump systems use
a contactor relay (circled at left) because the little 12-24V wall thermostat
circuit and switches are not capable of handling the higher voltage used by
the compressor/condenser motors.

The contactor relay is basically a low-voltage-operated switch [typically 12-

14 volts] controlled by the low-voltage room thermostat) that switches a
heavier-duty electrical relay to give 120V or 240V electrical power to the
compressor/condenser unit. 

Most A/C and heat pump contactor relays use an electromagnetic 24-volt
two-pole contactor relay that is rated for 30 amps. The "two poles" simply
means that the relay switches two electrical wires simultaneously - which is
what you'd expect if your heat pump motor is running on 240 Volts.
 REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

Watch out: Some of our readers report successfully replacing minor

electrical components such as switches, relays, and contactors. But unless
you are qualified to do so we do not recommend trying to do work on
electrical systems and components in your home as there are potentially fatal
electrical shock hazards. Because air conditioner compressor/condenser units
include start/run capacitors (see CAPACITORS for HARD STARTING
MOTORS), even when you have turned off power you can get a nasty shock
if you're not careful. 

How to diagnose and fix an air conditioning

system that is not working
If your air conditioning system won't work, follow these easy A/C-heat pump diagnostic
guides

 At LOST COOLING CAPACITY, our focus is on the case in which

the air conditioning system seems to be "running" but not enough cool
air, or no cool air at all is being delivered to the occupied space. Sketch
from Carson Dunlop Associates.
 REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

At OPERATING DEFECTS we take you through the major air

conditioning problem symptoms and how to get the air conditioning
system working again. 

 At A/C - HEAT PUMP CONTROLS & SWITCHES we explain the

many electrical switches and controls that control an air conditioner or
heat pump system. You'll need to check these if your air conditioner
won't start.

HISTORY

First refrigeration systems

The first known method of artificial refrigeration was demonstrated by

William Cullen at the University of Glasgow in Scotland in 1756. Cullen
used a pump to create a partial vacuum over a container of diethyl ether,
which then boiled, absorbing heat from the surrounding air.[4] The experiment
even created a small amount of ice, but had no practical application at that
time.

In 1758, Benjamin Franklin and John Hadley, professor of chemistry at

Cambridge University, conducted an experiment to explore the principle of
evaporation as a means to rapidly cool an object. Franklin and Hadley
confirmed evaporation of highly volatile liquids, such as alcohol and ether,
could be used to drive down the temperature of an object past the freezing
point of water. They conducted their experiment with the bulb of a mercury
thermometer as their object and with a bellows used to "quicken" the
evaporation; they lowered the temperature of the thermometer bulb down to 7
°F (−14 °C), while the ambient temperature was 65 °F (18 °C). Franklin
noted that soon after they passed the freezing point of water (32 °F), a thin
film of ice formed on the surface of the thermometer's bulb and that the ice
mass was about a quarter inch thick when they stopped the experiment upon
reaching 7 °F (−14 °C). Franklin concluded, "From this experiment, one may
see the possibility of freezing a man to death on a warm summer's day".[5]

In 1805, American inventor Oliver Evans designed, but never built, a

refrigeration system based on the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle
rather than chemical solutions or volatile liquids such as ethyl ether.

In 1820, the British scientist Michael Faraday liquefied ammonia and other
gases by using high pressures and low temperatures.

An American living in Great Britain, Jacob Perkins, obtained the first patent
for a vapor-compression refrigeration system in 1834. Perkins built a
 REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

prototype system and it actually worked, although it did not succeed

commercially.

In 1842, an American physician, John Gorrie, designed the first system to

refrigerate water to produce ice. He also conceived the idea of using his
refrigeration system to cool the air for comfort in homes and hospitals (i.e.,
air conditioning). His system compressed air, then partly cooled the hot
compressed air with water before allowing it to expand while doing part of
the work needed to drive the air compressor. That isentropic expansion
cooled the air to a temperature low enough to freeze water and produce ice,
or to flow "through a pipe for effecting refrigeration otherwise" as stated in
his patent granted by the U.S. Patent Office in 1851.[7] Gorrie built a working
prototype, but his system was a commercial failure.

Alexander Twining began experimenting with vapor-compression

refrigeration in 1848, and obtained patents in 1850 and 1853. He is credited
with having initiated commercial refrigeration in the United States by 1856.

Dunedin, the first commercially successful refrigerated ship

Meanwhile in Australia, James Harrison began operation of a mechanical ice-

making machine in 1851 on the banks of the Barwon River at Rocky Point in
Geelong, Victoria. His first commercial ice-making machine followed in
1854, and his patent for an ether liquid-vapour compression refrigeration
system was granted in 1855. Harrison introduced commercial vapour-
compression refrigeration to breweries and meat packing houses, and by
1861, a dozen of his systems were in operation.

Australian, Argentine, and American concerns experimented with

refrigerated shipping in the mid 1870s; the first commercial success came
when William Soltau Davidson fitted a compression refrigeration unit to the
New Zealand vessel Dunedin in 1882, leading to a meat and dairy boom in
Australasia and South America. J & E Hall of Dartford, England outfitted the
'SS Selembria' with a vapor compression system to bring 30,000 carcasses of
mutton from the Falkland Islands in 1886.[8]
 REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

Carl Paul Gottfried Linde, ennobled in 1897 as Ritter von Linde, was a
German engineer who developed refrigeration and gas separation
technologies. In 1890, he became a lecturer at the Technische Hochschule in
Munich. A few years later, he became a full professor and set up a laboratory
where he worked on developing new refrigeration cycles. In 1892, an order
from the Guinness Brewery in Dublin for a carbon dioxide liquefaction plant
drove Linde's research into the area of low temperature refrigeration, and in
1894 he started work on a process for the liquefaction of air. In 1895, Linde
first achieved success, and filed for patent protection of his process (not
approved in the United States until 1903). In 1901, Linde began work on a
technique to obtain pure oxygen and nitrogen based on the fractional
distillation of liquefied air. By 1910, coworkers (including Linde's son
Friedrich) had developed the Linde double-column process, variants of which
are still in common use today.

The first gas absorption refrigeration system using gaseous ammonia

dissolved in water (referred to as "aqua ammonia") was developed by
Ferdinand Carré of France in 1859 and patented in 1860. The Servel
company built gas powered, absorption refrigerators in Evansville,IN from
1927 through 1956. In the United States, the consumer public at that time still
used the ice box with ice brought in from commercial suppliers, many of
whom were still harvesting ice and storing it in an icehouse.

Thaddeus Lowe, an American balloonist from the Civil War, had

experimented over the years with the properties of gases. One of his mainstay
enterprises was the high-volume production of hydrogen gas. He also held
several patents on ice-making machines. His "Compression Ice Machine"
would revolutionize the cold storage industry. In 1869, other investors and he
purchased an old steamship onto which they loaded one of Lowe’s
refrigeration units, and began shipping fresh fruit from New York to the Gulf
Coast area, and fresh meat from Galveston, Texas back to New York.
Because of Lowe’s lack of knowledge about shipping, the business was a
costly failure, and it was difficult for the public to get used to the idea of
being able to consume meat that had been so long out of the packing house.

Widespread commercial use

 REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

Loading blocks of factory-made ice from a truck to an "ice depot" boat in the
fishing harbor of Zhuhai, China

By the 1870s, breweries had become the largest users of commercial

refrigeration units, though some still relied on harvested ice. Though the ice-
harvesting industry had grown immensely by the turn of the 20th century,
pollution and sewage had begun to creep into natural ice, making it a problem
in the metropolitan suburbs. Eventually, breweries began to complain of
tainted ice. This raised the demand for more modern and consumer-ready
refrigeration and ice-making machines.

Refrigerated railroad cars were introduced in the US in the 1840s for short-
run transport of dairy products. In 1867, J.B. Sutherland of Detroit, Michigan,
patented the refrigerator car designed with ice tanks at either end of the car
and ventilator flaps near the floor which would create a gravity draft of cold
air through the car. That same year in San Antonio, Texas, a French
immigrant named Andrew Muhl built an ice-making machine to help service
the expanding beef industry before moving it to Waco in 1871.[10] In 1873,
the patent for this machine was contracted by the Columbus Iron Works,[11] a
company acquired by the W. C. Bradley Co., which went on to produce the
world's first commercial ice-makers.[12]

Carl von Linde, an engineering professor at the Technological University

Munich in Germany, patented an improved method of liquefying gases in
1876. His new process made possible using gases such as ammonia, sulfur
dioxide (SO2) and methyl chloride (CH3Cl) as refrigerants and they were
widely used for that purpose until the late 1920s.

By 1900, the meat packing houses of Chicago had adopted ammonia-cycle

commercial refrigeration. By 1914, almost every location used artificial
refrigeration. The big meat packers, Armour, Swift, and Wilson, had
purchased the most expensive units which they installed on train cars and in
branch houses and storage facilities in the more remote distribution areas.

By the middle of the 20th century, refrigeration units were designed for
installation on trucks or lorries. Refrigerated vehicles are used to transport
 REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

perishable goods, such as frozen foods, fruit and vegetables, and temperature-
sensitive chemicals. Most modern refrigerators keep the temperature between
-40 and 20 °C, and have a maximum payload of around 24,000 kg gross
weight (in Europe).

Home and consumer use

With the invention of synthetic refrigerants based mostly on a

chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) chemical, safer refrigerators were possible for
home and consumer use. Freon is a trademark of the Dupont Corporation and
refers to these CFCs, and later hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) and
hydrofluorocarbon (HFC), refrigerants developed in the late 1920s. These
refrigerants were considered at the time to be less harmful than the
commonly-used refrigerants of the time, including methyl formate, ammonia,
methyl chloride, and sulfur dioxide. The intent was to provide refrigeration
equipment for home use without danger. These CFC refrigerants answered
that need. In the 1970s, though, the compounds were found to be reacting
with atmospheric ozone, an important protection against solar ultraviolet
radiation, and their use as a refrigerant worldwide was curtailed in the
Montreal Protocol of 1987.

Current applications of refrigeration

Probably the most widely used current applications of refrigeration are for air
conditioning of private homes and public buildings, and refrigerating
foodstuffs in homes, restaurants and large storage warehouses. The use of
refrigerators in kitchens for storing fruits and vegetables has allowed adding
fresh salads to the modern diet year round, and storing fish and meats safely
for long periods.

In commerce and manufacturing, there are many uses for refrigeration.

Refrigeration is used to liquify gases - oxygen, nitrogen, propane and
methane, for example. In compressed air purification, it is used to condense
water vapor from compressed air to reduce its moisture content. In oil
refineries, chemical plants, and petrochemical plants, refrigeration is used to
maintain certain processes at their needed low temperatures (for example, in
alkylation of butenes and butane to produce a high octane gasoline
component). Metal workers use refrigeration to temper steel and cutlery. In
transporting temperature-sensitive foodstuffs and other materials by trucks,
 REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

trains, airplanes and sea-going vessels, refrigeration is a necessity.

Dairy products are constantly in need of refrigeration, and it was only

discovered in the past few decades that eggs needed to be refrigerated during
shipment rather than waiting to be refrigerated after arrival at the grocery
store. Meats, poultry and fish all must be kept in climate-controlled
environments before being sold. Refrigeration also helps keep fruits and
vegetables edible longer.

One of the most influential uses of refrigeration was in the development of

the sushi/sashimi industry in Japan. Before the discovery of refrigeration,
many sushi connoisseurs were at risk of contracting diseases. The dangers of
unrefrigerated sashimi were not brought to light for decades due to the lack of
research and healthcare distribution across rural Japan. Around mid-century,
the Zojirushi corporation, based in Kyoto, made breakthroughs in refrigerator
designs, making refrigerators cheaper and more accessible for restaurant
proprietors and the general public.

Methods of refrigeration

Methods of refrigeration can be classified as non-cyclic, cyclic,

thermoelectric and magnetic.

Non-cyclic refrigeration

In non-cyclic refrigeration, cooling is accomplished by melting ice or by

subliming dry ice (frozen carbon dioxide). These methods are used for small-
scale refrigeration such as in laboratories and workshops, or in portable
coolers.

Ice owes its effectiveness as a cooling agent to its melting point of 0 °C (32
°F) at sea level. To melt, ice must absorb 333.55 kJ/kg (about 144 Btu/lb) of
heat. Foodstuffs maintained near this temperature have an increased storage
life.

Solid carbon dioxide has no liquid phase at normal atmospheric pressure, and
sublimes directly from the solid to vapor phase at a temperature of -78.5 °C (-
109.3 °F), and is effective for maintaining products at low temperatures
during sublimation. Systems such as this where the refrigerant evaporates and
is vented to the atmosphere are known as "total loss refrigeration".

CYCLIC REFRIGERATION

Heat pump and refrigeration cycle

 REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

This consists of a refrigeration cycle, where heat is removed from a low-

temperature space or source and rejected to a high-temperature sink with the
help of external work, and its inverse, the thermodynamic power cycle. In the
power cycle, heat is supplied from a high-temperature source to the engine,
part of the heat being used to produce work and the rest being rejected to a
low-temperature sink. This satisfies the second law of thermodynamics.

A refrigeration cycle describes the changes that take place in the refrigerant
as it alternately absorbs and rejects heat as it circulates through a refrigerator.
It is also applied to HVACR work, when describing the "process" of
refrigerant flow through an HVACR unit, whether it is a packaged or split
system.

Heat naturally flows from hot to cold. Work is applied to cool a living space
or storage volume by pumping heat from a lower temperature heat source
into a higher temperature heat sink. Insulation is used to reduce the work and
energy needed to achieve and maintain a lower temperature in the cooled
space. The operating principle of the refrigeration cycle was described
mathematically by Sadi Carnot in 1824 as a heat engine.

The most common types of refrigeration systems use the reverse-Rankine

vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, although absorption heat pumps are
used in a minority of applications.

Cyclic refrigeration can be classified as:

1. Vapor cycle, and

2. Gas cycle

Vapor cycle refrigeration can further be classified as:

1. Vapor-compression refrigeration
2. Vapor-absorption refrigeration

Vapor-compression cycle

The vapor-compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators as well

as in many large commercial and industrial refrigeration systems. Figure 1
provides a schematic diagram of the components of a typical vapor-
compression refrigeration system.
 REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

Figure 1: Vapor compression refrigeration

The thermodynamics of the cycle can be analyzed on a diagram[13][14] as

shown in Figure 2. In this cycle, a circulating refrigerant such as Freon enters
the compressor as a vapor. From point 1 to point 2, the vapor is compressed
at constant entropy and exits the compressor as a vapor at a higher
temperature, but still below the vapor pressure at that temperature. From
point 2 to point 3 and on to point 4, the vapor travels through the condenser
which cools the vapor until it starts condensing, and then condenses the vapor
into a liquid by removing additional heat at constant pressure and
temperature. Between points 4 and 5, the liquid refrigerant goes through the
expansion valve (also called a throttle valve) where its pressure abruptly
decreases, causing flash evaporation and auto-refrigeration of, typically, less
than half of the liquid.

Figure 2: Temperature–Entropy diagram

 REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

That results in a mixture of liquid and vapor at a lower temperature and

pressure as shown at point 5. The cold liquid-vapor mixture then travels
through the evaporator coil or tubes and is completely vaporized by cooling
the warm air (from the space being refrigerated) being blown by a fan across
the evaporator coil or tubes. The resulting refrigerant vapor returns to the
compressor inlet at point 1 to complete the thermodynamic cycle.

The above discussion is based on the ideal vapor-compression refrigeration

cycle, and does not take into account real-world effects like frictional
pressure drop in the system, slight thermodynamic irreversibility during the
compression of the refrigerant vapor, or non-ideal gas behavior (if any).

More information about the design and performance of vapor-compression

refrigeration systems is available in the classic Perry's Chemical Engineers'
Handbook.[15]

VAPOR ABSORPTION CYCLE

Main article: Absorption refrigerator

In the early years of the twentieth century, the vapor absorption cycle using
water-ammonia systems was popular and widely used. After the development
of the vapor compression cycle, the vapor absorption cycle lost much of its
importance because of its low coefficient of performance (about one fifth of
that of the vapor compression cycle). Today, the vapor absorption cycle is
used mainly where fuel for heating is available but electricity is not, such as
in recreational vehicles that carry LP gas. It is also used in industrial
environments where plentiful waste heat overcomes its inefficiency.

The absorption cycle is similar to the compression cycle, except for the
method of raising the pressure of the refrigerant vapor. In the absorption
system, the compressor is replaced by an absorber which dissolves the
refrigerant in a suitable liquid, a liquid pump which raises the pressure and a
generator which, on heat addition, drives off the refrigerant vapor from the
high-pressure liquid. Some work is needed by the liquid pump but, for a
given quantity of refrigerant, it is much smaller than needed by the
compressor in the vapor compression cycle. In an absorption refrigerator, a
suitable combination of refrigerant and absorbent is used. The most common
combinations are ammonia (refrigerant) with water (absorbent), and water
(refrigerant) with lithium bromide (absorbent).

Gas cycle

When the working fluid is a gas that is compressed and expanded but doesn't
change phase, the refrigeration cycle is called a gas cycle. Air is most often
 REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

this working fluid. As there is no condensation and evaporation intended in a

gas cycle, components corresponding to the condenser and evaporator in a
vapor compression cycle are the hot and cold gas-to-gas heat exchangers in
gas cycles.

The gas cycle is less efficient than the vapor compression cycle because the
gas cycle works on the reverse Brayton cycle instead of the reverse Rankine
cycle. As such the working fluid does not receive and reject heat at constant
temperature. In the gas cycle, the refrigeration effect is equal to the product
of the specific heat of the gas and the rise in temperature of the gas in the low
temperature side. Therefore, for the same cooling load, a gas refrigeration
cycle needs a large mass flow rate and is bulky.

Because of their lower efficiency and larger bulk, air cycle coolers are not
often used nowadays in terrestrial cooling devices. However, the air cycle
machine is very common on gas turbine-powered jet aircraft as cooling and
ventilation units, because compressed air is readily available from the
engines' compressor sections. Such units also serve the purpose of
pressurizing the aircraft.

Thermoelectric refrigeration

Thermoelectric cooling uses the Peltier effect to create a heat flux between
the junction of two different types of materials. This effect is commonly used
in camping and portable coolers and for cooling electronic components and
small instruments.

Magnetic refrigeration
Main article: Magnetic refrigeration

Magnetic refrigeration, or adiabatic demagnetization, is a cooling technology

based on the magnetocaloric effect, an intrinsic property of magnetic solids.
The refrigerant is often a paramagnetic salt, such as cerium magnesium
nitrate. The active magnetic dipoles in this case are those of the electron
shells of the paramagnetic atoms.

A strong magnetic field is applied to the refrigerant, forcing its various

magnetic dipoles to align and putting these degrees of freedom of the
refrigerant into a state of lowered entropy. A heat sink then absorbs the heat
released by the refrigerant due to its loss of entropy. Thermal contact with the
heat sink is then broken so that the system is insulated, and the magnetic field
is switched off. This increases the heat capacity of the refrigerant, thus
decreasing its temperature below the temperature of the heat sink.
 REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

Because few materials exhibit the needed properties at room temperature,

applications have so far been limited to cryogenics and research.

Other methods

Other methods of refrigeration include the air cycle machine used in aircraft;
the vortex tube used for spot cooling, when compressed air is available; and
thermoacoustic refrigeration using sound waves in a pressurized gas to drive
heat transfer and heat exchange; steam jet cooling popular in the early 1930s
for air conditioning large buildings; thermoelastic cooling using a smart
metal alloy stretching and relaxing. Many Stirling cycle heat engines can be
run backwards to act as a refrigerator, and therefore these engines have a
niche use in cryogenics. In addition there are other types of cryocoolers such
as Gifford-McMahon coolers, Joule-Thomson coolers, pulse-tube
refrigerators and, for temperatures between 2 mK and 500 mK, dilution
refrigerators.

UNIT OF REFRIGERATION

The measured capacity of refrigeration is always dimensioned in units of

power. Domestic and commercial refrigerators may be rated in kJ/s, or Btu/h
of cooling. For commercial and industrial refrigeration systems, most of the
world uses the kilowatt (kW) as the basic unit of refrigeration. Typically,
commercial and industrial refrigeration systems in North America are rated in
tons of refrigeration (TR). Historically, one TR was defined as the energy
removal rate that will freeze one short ton of water at 0 °C (32 °F) in one day.
This was very important because many early refrigeration systems were in ice
houses. The simple unit allowed owners of these early refrigeration systems
to measure a day's output of ice against energy consumption, and to compare
their plant to one down the street. While ice houses make up a much smaller
part of the refrigeration industry than they once did, the unit TR has remained
in North America. The unit's value as historically defined was approximately
11,958 Btu/hr (3.505 kW), and has now been conventionally redefined as
exactly 12,000 Btu/hr (3.517 kW).

While not truly a unit of capacity, a refrigeration system's coefficient of

performance (CoP) is very important in determining a system's overall
efficiency. It is defined as refrigeration capacity in kW divided by the energy
input in kW. While CoP is a very simple measure of performance, it is
typically not used for industrial refrigeration in North America. Owners and
 REFRIGRATION SAVING HEAT ENERGY

manufacturers of these systems typically use performance factor (PF). A

system's PF is defined as a system's energy input in horsepower divided by its
refrigeration capacity in TR. Both CoP and PF can be applied to either the
entire system or to system components. For example, an individual
compressor can be rated by comparing the energy needed to run the
compressor versus the expected refrigeration capacity based on inlet volume
flow rate. It is important to note that both CoP and PF for a refrigeration
system are only defined at specific operating conditions, including
temperatures and thermal loads. Moving away from the specified operating
conditions can dramatically change a system's performance