Thomas Jefferson (April 13, 1743 – July 4, 1826)[2] was

the third President of the United States (1801–1809), the principal author of the Declaration of
Independence (1776), and one of the most influential Founding Fathers for his promotion of the
ideals of republicanism in the United States. Jefferson envisioned America as the force behind a
great "Empire of Liberty"[3] that would promote republicanism and counter the imperialism of the
British Empire.
Major events during his presidency include the Louisiana Purchase (1803) and the Lewis and
Clark Expedition (1804–1806), as well as escalating tensions with both Britain and France that
led to war with Britain in 1812, after he left office.
As a political philosopher, Jefferson was a man of the Enlightenment and knew many intellectual
leaders in Britain and France. He idealized the independent yeoman farmer as exemplar of
republican virtues, distrusted cities and financiers, and favored states' rights and a strictly limited
federal government. Jefferson supported the separation of church and state[4] and was the author
of the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom (1779, 1786). He was the eponym of Jeffersonian
democracy and the cofounder and leader of the Democratic-Republican Party, which dominated
American politics for 25 years. Jefferson served as the wartime Governor of Virginia (1779–
1781), first United States Secretary of State (1789–1793), and second Vice President (1797–
1801).
A polymath, Jefferson achieved distinction as, among other things, a horticulturist, political
leader, architect, archaeologist, paleontologist, inventor, and founder of the University of
Virginia. When President John F. Kennedy welcomed 49 Nobel Prize winners to the White
House in 1962 he said, "I think this is the most extraordinary collection of talent and of human
knowledge that has ever been gathered together at the White House – with the possible exception
of when Thomas Jefferson dined alone."[5] To date, Jefferson is the only president to serve two
full terms in office without vetoing a single bill of Congress. Jefferson has been consistently
ranked by scholars as one of the greatest of U.S. presidents.

Contents
[hide]
• 1 Early life and education
○ 1.1 Childhood
○ 1.2 Education
○ 1.3 After college
• 2 Monticello
• 3 Marriage and family
○ 3.1 Children by his slave Sally Hemings
 3.1.1 Background
• 4 Political career from 1774 to 1800
○ 4.1 Towards revolution
○ 4.2 Drafting a declaration
○ 4.3 State legislator
 ○ 4.4 Governor of Virginia
○ 4.5 Member of Congress
○ 4.6 Minister to France
○ 4.7 Secretary of State
○ 4.8 Break from office
○ 4.9 Election of 1796 and Vice Presidency
○ 4.10 Election of 1800
• 5 Presidency 1801–1809
○ 5.1 Administration, Cabinet and Supreme Court appointments 1801-
1809
• 6 Father of a university
• 7 Death
• 8 Appearance and temperament
• 9 Interests and activities
• 10 Political philosophy and views
○ 10.1 Carrying of arms
○ 10.2 Corporations
○ 10.3 Judiciary
○ 10.4 Rebellion to restrain government and retain individual rights
○ 10.5 Self-esteem
○ 10.6 Women in politics
• 11 Religion
• 12 Native American policy
○ 12.1 Acculturation and assimilation
○ 12.2 Forced removal and extermination
• 13 On slavery
• 14 Monuments and memorials
• 15 Writings
• 16 See also
• 17 Notes
• 18 References
○ 18.1 Primary sources
○ 18.2 Biographies
○ 18.3 Academic studies
 18.3.1 Religion
 • 19 External links and sources

Early life and education

Childhood
Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13, 1743[2] into a family closely related to some of the most
prominent individuals in Virginia, the third of eight children. His mother was Jane Randolph,
daughter of Isham Randolph, a ship's captain and sometime planter, first cousin to Peyton
Randolph, and granddaughter of wealthy English gentry. Jefferson's father was Peter Jefferson, a
planter and surveyor in Albemarle County (Shadwell, then Edge Hill, Virginia.) He was of
Welsh descent. When Colonel William Randolph, an old friend of Peter Jefferson, died in 1745,
Peter assumed executorship and personal charge of William Randolph's estate in Tuckahoe as
well as his infant son, Thomas Mann Randolph, Jr. That year the Jeffersons relocated to
Tuckahoe where they would remain for the next seven years before returning to their home in
Albemarle. Peter Jefferson was then appointed to the Colonelcy of the county, an important
position at the time.[6]
Education
In 1752, Jefferson began attending a local school run by William Douglas, a Scottish minister. At
the age of nine, Jefferson began studying Latin, Greek, and French. In 1757, when he was 14
years old, his father died. Jefferson inherited about 5,000 acres (20 km²) of land and dozens of
slaves. He built his home there, which eventually became known as Monticello.
After his father's death, he was taught at the school of the learned minister James Maury from
1758 to 1760. The school was in Fredericksville Parish near Gordonsville, Virginia, twelve miles
(19 km) from Shadwell, and Jefferson boarded with Maury's family. There he received a
classical education and studied history and science.
In 1760 Jefferson entered the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg at the age of 16; he
studied there for two years, graduating with highest honors in 1762. At William & Mary, he
enrolled in the philosophy school and studied mathematics, metaphysics, and philosophy under
Professor William Small, who introduced the enthusiastic Jefferson to the writings of the British
Empiricists, including John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton (Jefferson called them the
"three greatest men the world had ever produced").[7] He also perfected his French, carried his
Greek grammar book wherever he went, practiced the violin, and read Tacitus and Homer. A
keen and diligent student, Jefferson displayed an avid curiosity in all fields and, according to the
family tradition, frequently studied fifteen hours a day. His closest college friend, John Page of
Rosewell, reported that Jefferson "could tear himself away from his dearest friends to fly to his
studies."
While in college, Jefferson was a member of a secret organization called the F.H.C. Society. He
lodged and boarded at the College in the building known today as the Sir Christopher Wren
Building, attending communal meals in the Great Hall, and morning and evening prayers in the
Wren Chapel. Jefferson often attended the lavish parties of royal governor Francis Fauquier,
where he played his violin and developed an early love for wines.[8] After graduating in 1762
with highest honors, he read law with George Wythe and was admitted to the Virginia bar in
1767.
After college
On October 1, 1765, Jefferson's oldest sister Jane died at the age of 25.[9] Jefferson fell into a
period of deep mourning, as he was already saddened by the absence of his sisters Mary, who
had been married several years to Thomas Bolling, and Martha, who had wed earlier in July to
Dabney Carr.[9] Both had moved to their husbands' residences, leaving younger siblings
Elizabeth, Lucy, and the two toddlers as his companions. Jefferson was not comforted by the
presence of Elizabeth or Lucy as they did not provide him with the same intellectual stimulation
as his older siblings had.[9]
Jefferson would go on to handle many cases as a lawyer in colonial Virginia, managing more
than a hundred cases each year between 1768 and 1773 in General Court alone, while acting as
counsel in hundreds of cases.[10] Jefferson's client list included members of the Virginia's elite
families, including members of his mother's family, the Randolphs.[10]

Monticello

Monticello

In 1768 Thomas Jefferson started the construction of Monticello, a neoclassical mansion.

Starting in childhood, Jefferson had always wanted to build a beautiful mountaintop home within
site of Shadwell.[11][12] Jefferson went greatly in debt on Monticello by spending lavishly on his
Monticello Estate to create a neoclassical environment, based on his study of the brilliant
architect Andrea Palladio and The Orders. [13]
Monticello was also Thomas Jefferson's slave plantation. Throughout a period lasting seventy
years, Thomas Jefferson owned over 600 slaves. Many of the slaves at the Monticello plantation
intermarried amongst each other and produced children. Jefferson only paid a few of his trusted
slaves in important positions for work done or for performing difficult tasks like cleaning
chimneys or privies. Although there are no direct workday references, Jefferson’s slaves
probably worked from dawn to dusk, with shorter or longer days according to the season.
Fragmentary records indicate a rich spiritual life at Monticello slave quarters, incorporating both
Christian and African traditions. Although there is no record that Jefferson instructed slaves in
grammar education, several enslaved men at Monticello could read and write.[14]

Marriage and family

See also: Jefferson DNA data

In 1772, at age 29 Jefferson married the 23-year-old widow Martha Wayles Skelton. They had
six children: Martha Jefferson Randolph (1772–1836), Jane Randolph (1774–1775), a stillborn
or unnamed son (1777), Mary Jefferson Eppes (1778–1804), Lucy Elizabeth (1780–1781), and
another Lucy Elizabeth (1782–1785). Martha died on September 6, 1782, after the birth of her
last child. Jefferson never remarried.
Children by his slave Sally Hemings

Presidential Dollar of Thomas Jefferson

Jefferson is alleged to have had a long-term, intimate relationship with one of his slaves, Sally
Hemings, a quadroon, who was believed to have been a half-sister to Jefferson's late wife.[15]
During the administration of President Jefferson, journalists and others alleged that he had
fathered several children with Hemings after his wife's death. Late twentieth century DNA
testing (see Jefferson DNA data) indicated that a male in Jefferson's line, possibly Thomas
Jefferson himself, was the father of at least one of Sally Hemings's children.
A 1998 DNA study concluded that there was a DNA link between Sally's son Eston Hemings
and the male Jefferson line. The Carr nephews, proposed by some Jefferson's descendants as the
father(s) of Hemings' children, were conclusively proved not to be the father(s) of Eston. At the
same time, the study showed there was no link between the Jefferson male line and Thomas
Woodson's descendants. However, the study could not conclusively prove that Thomas Jefferson
himself was the ancestor, as Jefferson has no direct male heirs (from his legitimate line) to test
for a comparison.[16] He belonged to the Haplogroup 'T' DNA group.[17]
In 2000 and 2001, following the publication of the DNA evidence, three studies were released. In
2000, the Thomas Jefferson Foundation, which runs Monticello, appointed a multidisciplinary,
nine-member in-house research committee of Ph.D.s and an M.D. to study the matter of the
paternity of Hemings' children. The committee concluded "it is very unlikely that any Jefferson
other than Thomas Jefferson was the father of [Hemings' six] children."[18]
In 2001, the Thomas Jefferson Heritage Society (TJHS)[19] commissioned a study by an
independent 13-member Scholars Commission. The commission concluded that the Jefferson
paternity thesis was not persuasive. On April 12, 2001, they issued a report. The conclusion of
most of the Scholars Commission was that "the Jefferson-Hemings allegation is by no means
proven." The majority suggested the most likely alternative was that Randolph Jefferson,
Thomas' younger brother, was the father of Eston, Heming's youngest son. (Note: It was not until
the late twentieth century that Randolph Jefferson was ever proposed as a candidate for paternity
of Hemings' children.)
Later in 2001, the National Genealogical Society Quarterly published articles reviewing the
evidence from a genealogical perspective. The authors concluded that the link between Thomas
Jefferson and Sally Hemings was credible and consistent with the weight of evidence. They
criticized the TJHS report for weaknesses in approach, bias toward data, and ignoring the weight
of evidence.[20]
Background
Four of these children with Hemings survived: Beverley, Harriet, Madison, and Eston. Jefferson
freed two of them when they reached the age of approximately 21. His daughter gave Sally
Hemings "her time" after Jefferson's death, a relatively common practice at the time which
allowed elderly slaves to spend their time generally as they wished, but without manumitting
(freeing) her. She died still legally a slave.[21]
Speculation began in the early nineteenth century that Jefferson had fathered children with
Hemings. Jefferson was only 39 when his wife died, and he had promised her to never marry
again. It was fairly common practice for white slave owners to have sexual relations with female
slaves.[22] For example, his father-in-law John Wayles had a long-term relationship with
Elizabeth (Betty) Hemings when he was a widower, and had six children with her, the youngest
of whom was Sally.[23] Some elite white men denied or hid such relationships, but their mixed-
race children attested to the facts, as notable Southern slave owners' wives Mary Chesnut and
Fanny Kemble reported in their published journals, Mary Chesnut's Diary and Journal of a
Residence on a Georgia Plantation, respectively.
The allegation that Jefferson fathered children with Hemings had been a topic of local gossip for
years before, when controversial journalist James T. Callender published in the September 1,
1802, issue of the Richmond Recorder, a Virginia newspaper, ... "[Jefferson] keeps and for many
years has kept, as his concubine, one of his slaves. Her name is Sally." After Jefferson was
elected president in 1800, Callender threatened Jefferson he would publish the article if
Callender were denied the position of postmaster of Virginia. Newspapers carried other accounts,
and the topic was the subject of political cartoons. Jefferson never responded publicly about this
issue, but was said to have denied having a carnal relationship with Hemings in his private
correspondence.[24][25]
Regarding marriage between blacks and whites, Jefferson wrote in 1814 that "[t]he
amalgamation of whites with blacks produces a degradation to which no lover of his country, no
lover of excellence in the human character, can innocently consent." Some historians contended
Jefferson would not conduct himself in a manner contradictory to his writings.[26] A major
twentieth century biographer of Jefferson, Dumas Malone, claims that Jefferson fathering
Hemings' children is implausible, arguing that it would have been out of keeping with Jefferson's
stated principles; however, the evidence and prevailing historical opinion are at odds with
Malone's assessment.
Hemings' children were born after she returned with Jefferson from France. The timeline of
Jefferson's activities by historian Dumas Malone, developed for other purposes, demonstrates
that Jefferson was in residence at Monticello when each of the children was conceived, although
for years he was away for extended periods of time when in political office. The Hemings
children were afforded some special opportunities. They were seven-eighths white by ancestry.
Jefferson's grandson Thomas Jefferson Randolph said that all the children resembled Jefferson
and that one of the boys "looked almost exactly like him."[27]
Sally Hemings' children were:
 • Harriet Hemings (I) (October 5, 1795 - December 7, 1797)
• Beverley Hemings (possibly named William Beverley Hemings) (April 1, 1798
- after 1873)
• Unnamed daughter (possibly named Thenia after Hemings' sister Thenia)
(born in 1799 and died in infancy)
• Harriet Hemings (II) (May 22, 1801 - after 1863)
• Madison Hemings (possibly named James Madison Hemings) (January 19,
1805 - 1877)
• Eston Hemings (possibly named Thomas Eston Hemings) (May 21, 1808 -
1856)
"All of Sally Hemings' children but one were given the names of people in the Jefferson-
Randolph family tree who can be connected to Thomas Jefferson." The only one not named for a
Randolph was named for James Madison, one of Jefferson's closest friends.[28] Madison and
Eston were trained as carpenters, apprenticed to their highly skilled uncle John Hemings. All
three brothers learned to play the violin and fiddle. Beverley was good enough to be asked to
play at dances at Monticello. As an adult, Eston was skilled enough to earn a living as a
musician.[28] Jefferson was fond of the violin. Harriet was taught to weave, but did not start at her
work until 14, an age later than most slave children.
In 1822, Beverly and Harriet each "ran away" as adults from Monticello. Jefferson never sent
anyone after them or tried to find them; his overseer provided money for Harriet's trip. Harriet
Hemings was the only female slave Jefferson ever freed legally.[29] The Hemings were the only
slave family to leave Monticello and live as free persons, legally or de facto.[30]
Jefferson freed Madison and Eston Hemings in his will, also petitioning the legislature to allow
them to stay in the state. After being given her time, Hemings was allowed to leave Monticello.
She lived with her sons Madison and Eston for several years in Charlottesville until her death,
but, as with two of her children by Jefferson, her legal status as a slave remained unchanged. By
law, Jefferson could free only slaves who could be self-supporting.[31][32][33] In the 1830 census,
the census taker classified the three Hemings as white.[34]
Beverley and Harriet were said by their brother Madison to have married white spouses of
"good" families and to have passed into white society. He recounted this, as well as other details,
in his memoir published in 1873, through an interview by S.F. Wetmore in the Pike County
Republican. Madison Hemings stated that he and his siblings were children of Thomas Jefferson,
and that Jefferson had made an agreement with their mother Sally Hemings to free them when
they came of age. While detractors of the Hemings memoir have pointed to inaccuracies, they
"have acknowledged that the vast majority of Hemings' remarks can be verified by outside
sources."[35]
Eston and Madison Hemings both married black women of mixed race. After their mother's
death, they moved with their families from Virginia to Chillicothe, Ohio. It had a large
community of free blacks and strong abolitionist sentiment among many whites as well. Years
before the Wetmore article was published, there was talk locally about the brothers' relationship
to Thomas Jefferson, as noted in a 1902 article.[36]
After some years, Eston moved with his family to Wisconsin in 1852, where he changed their
last name to Jefferson. At the same time, he and his family passed into white society. His oldest
son John Wayles Jefferson served in the American Civil War as a white officer and was
promoted to the rank of colonel.
By contrast, Madison Hemings and most of his descendants self-identified as African Americans.
One of Madison's sons served in the United States Colored Troops during the American Civil
War and died at Andersonville prison camp.[33] In the twentieth century, one of Madison's
grandsons, Frederick Madison Roberts, became the first African American elected to the
California legislature and the first black elected to public office in one of the west coast states.

Political career from 1774 to 1800

Rudolph Evans' statue of Jefferson with excerpts from the Declaration of

Independence to the right

Towards revolution
Besides practicing law, Jefferson represented Albemarle County in the Virginia House of
Burgesses beginning in 1769. Following the passage of the Coercive Acts by the British
Parliament in 1774, he wrote a set of resolutions against the acts, which were expanded into A
Summary View of the Rights of British America, his first published work. Previous criticism of
the Coercive Acts had focused on legal and constitutional issues, but Jefferson offered the radical
notion that the colonists had the natural right to govern themselves.[37] Jefferson also argued that
Parliament was the legislature of Great Britain only, and had no legislative authority in the
colonies.[37] The paper was intended to serve as instructions for the Virginia delegation of the
First Continental Congress, but Jefferson's ideas proved to be too radical for that body.[37]
Nevertheless, the pamphlet helped provide the theoretical framework for American
independence, and marked Jefferson as one of the most thoughtful patriot spokesmen.
Drafting a declaration
Jefferson served as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress beginning in June 1775, soon
after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. When Congress began considering a
resolution of independence in June 1776, Jefferson was appointed to a five-man committee to
prepare a declaration to accompany the resolution. The committee selected Jefferson to write the
first draft probably because of his reputation as a writer. The assignment was considered routine;
no one at the time thought that it was a major responsibility.[38] Jefferson completed a draft in
consultation with other committee members, drawing on his own proposed draft of the Virginia
Constitution, George Mason's draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights, and other sources.[39]
Jefferson showed his draft to the committee, which made some final revisions, and then
presented it to Congress on June 28, 1776. After voting in favor of the resolution of
independence on July 2, Congress turned its attention to the declaration. Over several days of
debate, Congress made a few changes in wording and deleted nearly a fourth of the text, most
notably a passage critical of the slave trade, changes that Jefferson resented.[40] On July 4, 1776,
the wording of the Declaration of Independence was approved. The Declaration would
eventually become Jefferson's major claim to fame, and his eloquent preamble became an
enduring statement of human rights.[40]
State legislator

In John Trumbull's painting Declaration of Independence, the five-man drafting

committee is presenting its work to the Continental Congress. Jefferson is the tall
figure in the center laying the Declaration on the desk.

In September 1776, Jefferson returned to Virginia and was elected to the new Virginia House of
Delegates. During his term in the House, Jefferson set out to reform and update Virginia's system
of laws to reflect its new status as a democratic state. He drafted 126 bills in three years,
including laws to abolish primogeniture, establish freedom of religion, and streamline the
judicial system. In 1778, Jefferson's "Bill for the More General Diffusion of Knowledge" led to
several academic reforms at his alma mater, including an elective system of study—the first in
an American university.
While in the state legislature Jefferson proposed a bill to eliminate capital punishment for all
crimes except murder and treason. His effort to reform the death penalty law was defeated by
just one vote,[41] and such crimes as rape remained punishable by death in Virginia until the
1960s.[42] He succeeded in passing an act prohibiting the importation of slaves but not slavery
itself.
Governor of Virginia
Jefferson served as governor of Virginia from 1779–1781. As governor, he oversaw the transfer
of the state capital from Williamsburg to the more central location of Richmond in 1780. He
continued to advocate educational reforms at the College of William and Mary, including the
nation's first student-policed honor code. In 1779, at Jefferson's behest, William and Mary
appointed George Wythe to be the first professor of law in an American university. Dissatisfied
with the rate of changes he wanted to push through, he later became the founder of the
University of Virginia, which was the first university in the United States at which higher
education was completely separate from religious doctrine.
Virginia was invaded twice by the British led first by Benedict Arnold and then by Lord
Cornwallis during Jefferson's term as governor. He, along with Patrick Henry and other leaders
of Virginia, were but ten minutes away from being captured by Banastre Tarleton, a British
colonel leading a cavalry column that was raiding the area in June 1781.[43] Public disapproval of
his performance delayed his future political prospects, and he was never again elected to office in
Virginia.[44] He was, however, appointed by the state legislature to Congress in 1783.
Member of Congress
See also: Plan for Establishing Uniformity in the Coinage, Weights, and Measures of
the United States

The Virginia state legislature appointed Jefferson to the Congress of the Confederation on 6 June
1783, his term beginning on 1 November. He was a member of the committee set up to set
foreign exchange rates, and in that capacity he recommended that the American currency should
be based on the decimal system.
Jefferson also recommended setting up the Committee of the States, to function as the executive
arm of Congress when Congress was in session.
He left Congress when he was elected a minister plenipotentiary on 7 May 1784. He became
Minister to France in 1785.
Minister to France

Memorial plaque on the Champs-Élysées, Paris, France, marking where Jefferson

lived while he was Minister to France. The plaque was erected after World War I to
commemorate the centenary of Jefferson's founding of the University of Virginia.

Because Jefferson served as minister to France from 1785 to 1789, he was not able to attend the
Philadelphia Convention. He generally supported the new constitution despite the lack of a bill
of rights and was kept informed by his correspondence with James Madison.
While in Paris, he lived in a home on the Champs-Élysées. He spent much of his time exploring
the architectural sites of the city, as well as enjoying the fine arts that Paris had to offer. He
became a favorite in the salon culture and was a frequent dinner guest of many of the city's most
prominent people. In addition, he frequently entertained others from French and European
society. He and his daughters were accompanied by two slaves of the Hemings family from
Monticello. Jefferson paid for James Hemings to be trained as a French chef (Hemings later
accompanied Jefferson as chef when he was in Philadelphia). Sally Hemings, James' sister, had
accompanied Jefferson's younger daughter overseas. Jefferson is believed to have begun his
long-term relationship with Sally Hemings in Paris. Both the Hemings learned French during
their time in the city.[45]
From 1784 to 1785, Jefferson was one of the architects of trade relations between the United
States and Prussia. The Prussian ambassador Friedrich Wilhelm von Thulemeyer and John
Adams, both living in the Hague, and Benjamin Franklin in Paris, were also involved.[46]
Despite his numerous friendships with the social and noble elite, when the French Revolution
began in 1789, Jefferson sided with the revolutionaries.
Secretary of State
After returning from France, Jefferson served as the first Secretary of State under George
Washington (1790–1793). Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton began sparring over national fiscal
policy, especially the funding of the debts of the war, with Hamilton believing that the debts
should be equally shared, and Jefferson believing that each state should be responsible for its
own debt (Virginia had not accumulated much debt during the Revolution). In further sparring
with the Federalists, Jefferson came to equate Hamilton and the rest of the Federalists with
Tories and monarchists who threatened to undermine republicanism. He equated Federalism with
"Royalism," and made a point to state that "Hamiltonians were panting after...and itching for
crowns, coronets and mitres."[47] Jefferson and James Madison founded and led the Democratic-
Republican Party. He worked with Madison and his campaign manager John J. Beckley to build
a nationwide network of Republican allies to combat Federalists across the country.
Jefferson strongly supported France against Britain when war broke out between those nations in
1793. Historian Lawrence S. Kaplan notes Jefferson's "visceral support for the French cause,"
while agreeing with Washington that the nation should not get involved in the fighting.[48] The
arrival in 1793 of an aggressive new French minister, Edmond-Charles Genêt, caused a crisis for
the Secretary of State, as he watched Genêt try to violate American neutrality, manipulate public
opinion, and even go over Washington's head in appealing to the people; projects that Jefferson
helped to thwart. According to Schachner, Jefferson believed that political success at home
depended on the success of the French army in Europe:[49]
Thomas Jefferson, aquatint by Tadeusz Kościuszko

Jefferson still clung to his sympathies with France and hoped for the success
of her arms abroad and a cordial compact with her at home. He was afraid
that any French reverses on the European battlefields would give "wonderful
vigor to our monocrats, and unquestionably affect the tone of administering
our government. Indeed, I fear that if this summer should prove disastrous to
the French, it will damp that energy of republicanism in our new Congress,
from which I had hoped so much reformation."

Break from office

Jefferson at the end of 1793 retired to Monticello where he continued to orchestrate opposition to
Hamilton and Washington. However, the Jay Treaty of 1794, orchestrated by Hamilton, brought
peace and trade with Britain – while Madison, with strong support from Jefferson, wanted,
Miller says, "to strangle the former mother country" without going to war. "It became an article
of faith among Republicans that 'commercial weapons' would suffice to bring Great Britain to
any terms the United States chose to dictate." Jefferson, in retirement, strongly encouraged
Madison.[50]
Election of 1796 and Vice Presidency
As the Democratic-Republican candidate in 1796 he lost to John Adams, but had enough
electoral votes to become Vice President (1797–1801). He wrote a manual of parliamentary
procedure, but otherwise avoided the Senate.
With the Quasi-War, an undeclared naval war with France, underway, the Federalists under John
Adams started a navy, built up the army, levied new taxes, readied for war, and enacted the Alien
and Sedition Acts in 1798. Jefferson interpreted the Alien and Sedition Acts as an attack on his
party more than on dangerous enemy aliens; they were used to attack his party, with the most
notable attacks coming from Matthew Lyon, a representative from Vermont. Jefferson and
Madison rallied support by anonymously writing the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, which
declared that the federal government had no right to exercise powers not specifically delegated to
it by the states. The Resolutions meant that, should the federal government assume such powers,
its acts under them could be voided by a state. The Resolutions presented the first statements of
the states' rights theory, that later led to the concepts of nullification and interposition.
Election of 1800
Main article: United States presidential election, 1800

Working closely with Aaron Burr of New York, Jefferson rallied his party, attacking the new
taxes especially, and ran for the Presidency in 1800. Consistent with the traditions of the times,
he did not formally campaign for the position. Before the passage of the Twelfth Amendment, a
problem with the new union's electoral system arose. He tied with Burr for first place in the
electoral college, leaving the House of Representatives (where the Federalists still had some
power) to decide the election.

Portrait of Thomas Jefferson by Rembrandt Peale, 1800

After lengthy debate within the Federalist-controlled House, Hamilton convinced his party that
Jefferson would be a lesser political evil than Burr and that such scandal within the electoral
process would undermine the still-young regime. The issue was resolved by the House, on
February 17, 1801, after thirty-six ballots, when Jefferson was elected President and Burr Vice
President. Burr's refusal to remove himself from consideration created ill will with Jefferson,
who dropped Burr from the ticket in 1804 after Burr killed Hamilton in a duel.
However, Jefferson's win over the Federalist John Adams in the general election was derided in
its time for how the electoral college was set up under the three-fifths compromise at the
Constitutional convention. Jefferson owed part of his election to the South's inflated number of
Electors due to slave-holdings, which meant that twelve of Jefferson's electoral votes—his
margin of victory—were derived from citizenry who were denied the vote and their full
humanity.[51][52] After his election in 1800, Jefferson was derided as the "Negro President", with
critics like the Mercury and New-England Palladium of Boston writing on January 20, 1801, that
Jefferson had the gall to celebrate his election as a victory for democracy when he won "the
temple of Liberty on the shoulders of slaves."[52][53]

Presidency 1801–1809
Main article: Presidency of Thomas Jefferson

Jefferson repealed many federal taxes, and sought to rely mainly on customs revenue. He
pardoned people who had been imprisoned under the Alien and Sedition Acts, passed in John
Adams' term, which Jefferson believed to be unconstitutional. He repealed the Judiciary Act of
1801 and removed many of Adams' "midnight judges" from office, which led to the Supreme
Court deciding the important case of Marbury v. Madison. He began and won the First Barbary
War (1801–1805), America's first significant overseas war, and established the United States
Military Academy at West Point in 1802.
In 1803, despite his misgivings about the constitutionality of Congress' power to buy land,
Jefferson bought Louisiana from France, doubling the size of the United States. The land thus
acquired amounts to 23 percent of the United States today.[54]
In 1807 his former vice president, Aaron Burr, was tried for treason on Jefferson's order, but was
acquitted. During the trial Chief Justice John Marshall subpoenaed Jefferson, who invoked
executive privilege and claimed that as president he did not need to comply. When Marshall held
that the Constitution did not provide the president with any exception to the duty to obey a court
order, Jefferson backed down.
Jefferson's reputation was damaged by the Embargo Act of 1807, which was ineffective and was
repealed at the end of his second term.
In 1803, President Jefferson signed into law a bill that excluded blacks from carrying the U.S.
mail. Historian John Hope Franklin called the signing "a gratuitous expression of distrust of free
Negroes who had done nothing to merit it." [55]
On March 3, 1807, Jefferson signed a bill making slave importation illegal in the United States.
[56][57]

Administration, Cabinet and Supreme Court appointments 1801-1809

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Father of a university
Also see: History of the University of Virginia

The Lawn, University of Virginia

After leaving the Presidency, Jefferson continued to be active in public affairs. He also became
increasingly concerned with founding a new institution of higher learning, specifically one free
of church influences where students could specialize in many new areas not offered at other
universities. Jefferson believed educating people was a good way to establish an organized
society, and felt schools should be paid for by the general public, so less wealthy people could
obtain student membership as well.[58] A letter to Joseph Priestley, in January 1800, indicated that
he had been planning the University for decades before its establishment.
His dream was realized in 1819 with the founding of the University of Virginia. Upon its
opening in 1825, it was then the first university to offer a full slate of elective courses to its
students. One of the largest construction projects to that time in North America, it was notable
for being centered about a library rather than a church. No campus chapel was included in his
original plans. Until his death, Jefferson invited students and faculty of the school to his home.
Jefferson is widely recognized for his architectural planning of the University of Virginia
grounds, an innovative design that is a powerful representation of his aspirations for both state
sponsored education and an agrarian democracy in the new Republic. His educational idea of
creating specialized units of learning is physically expressed in the configuration of his campus
plan, which he called the "Academical Village." Individual academic units are expressed visually
as distinct structures, represented by Pavilions, facing a grassy quadrangle, with each Pavilion
housing classroom, faculty office, and homes. Though unique, each is visually equal in
importance, and they are linked with a series of open air arcades that are the front facades of
student accommodations. Gardens and vegetable plots are placed behind and surrounded by
serpentine walls, affirming the importance of the agrarian lifestyle.
His highly ordered site plan establishes an ensemble of buildings surrounding a central
rectangular quadrangle, named The Lawn, which is lined on either side with the academic
teaching units and their linking arcades. The quad is enclosed at one end with the library, the
repository of knowledge, at the head of the table. The remaining side opposite the library
remained open-ended for future growth. The lawn rises gradually as a series of stepped terraces,
each a few feet higher than the last, rising up to the library set in the most prominent position at
the top, while also suggesting that the Academical Village facilitates easier movement to the
future.
Stylistically, Jefferson was a proponent of the Greek and Roman styles, which he believed to be
most representative of American democracy by historical association. Each academic unit is
designed with a two story temple front facing the quadrangle, while the library is modeled on the
Roman Pantheon. The ensemble of buildings surrounding the quad is an unmistakable
architectural statement of the importance of secular public education, while the exclusion of
religious structures reinforces the principle of separation of church and state. The campus
planning and architectural treatment remains today as a paradigm of building of structures to
express intellectual ideas and aspirations. A survey of members of the American Institute of
Architects identified Jefferson's campus as the most significant work of architecture in America.
The University was designed as the capstone of the educational system of Virginia. In his vision,
any citizen of the state could attend school with the sole criterion being ability.
Death

Jefferson's gravesite

Jefferson died on July 4, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of
Independence. He died a few hours before John Adams, his compatriot in their quest for
independence, then great political rival, and later friend and correspondent. Adams is often
rumored to have referenced Jefferson in his last words, unaware of his passing.[59]
Although he was born into one of the wealthiest families in North America, Thomas Jefferson
was deeply in debt when he died.
Jefferson's trouble began when his father-in-law died, and he and his brothers-in-law quickly
divided the estate before its debts were settled. It made each of them liable for the whole amount
due – which turned out to be more than they expected.
Jefferson sold land before the American Revolution to pay off the debts, but by the time he
received payment, the paper money was worthless amid the skyrocketing inflation of the war
years. Cornwallis ravaged Jefferson's plantation during the war, and British creditors resumed
their collection efforts when the conflict ended. Jefferson suffered another financial setback
when he cosigned notes for a relative who reneged on debts in the financial Panic of 1819. Only
Jefferson's public stature prevented creditors from seizing Monticello and selling it out from
under him during his lifetime.
After his death, his possessions were sold at auction. In 1831, Jefferson's 552 acres (223
hectares) were sold to James T. Barclay for $7,000, equivalent to $140 thousand today.[60]
Thomas Jefferson is buried on his Monticello estate, in Charlottesville, Virginia. In his will, he
left Monticello to the United States to be used as a school for orphans of navy officers. His
epitaph, written by him with an insistence that only his words and "not a word more" be
inscribed (notably omitting his service as Governor of Virginia, Vice-President and President),
reads:
HERE WAS BURIED THOMAS JEFFERSON
AUTHOR OF THE DECLARATION OF AMERICAN
INDEPENDENCE

OF THE STATUTE OF VIRGINIA FOR RELIGIOUS

 FREEDOM

AND FATHER OF THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA

Below the epitaph on a separate panel is written:

BORN APRIL 2 1743
O.S.
DIED JULY 4 1826

The initials O.S. are a notation for Old Style and that is a reference to the change of dating that
occurred during Jefferson's lifetime from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar under the
British Calendar (New Style) Act 1750.[61]

Appearance and temperament

Jefferson was a thin, tall man, who stood at approximately six feet and remarkably straight.[62]
"The Sage of Monticello" cultivated an image that earned him the other nickname, "Man of the
People." He affected a popular air by greeting White House guests in homespun attire like a robe
and slippers. Dolley Madison, wife of James Madison (Jefferson's secretary of state), and
Jefferson's daughters relaxed White House protocol and turned formal state dinners into more
casual and entertaining social events.[63] Although a foremost defender of a free press, Jefferson
at times sparred with partisan newspapers and appealed to the people.[64]
Jefferson's writings were utilitarian and evidenced great intellect, and he had an affinity with
languages. He learned Gaelic to translate Ossian, and sent to James Macpherson for the originals.
As President, he discontinued the practice of delivering the State of the Union address in person,
instead sending the address to Congress in writing (the practice was eventually revived by
Woodrow Wilson); he gave only two public speeches during his Presidency. Jefferson had a
lisp[65] and preferred writing to public speaking partly because of this. He burned all of his letters
between himself and his wife at her death, creating the portrait of a man who at times could be
very private. Indeed, he preferred working in the privacy of his office than the public eye.[66]

Interests and activities

Jefferson was an accomplished architect who was extremely influential in bringing the Neo-
Palladian style—popular among the Whig aristocracy of Britain—to the United States. The style
was associated with Enlightenment ideas of republican civic virtue and political liberty. Jefferson
designed his home Monticello near Charlottesville, Virginia. Nearby is the University of
Virginia, the only university ever to have been founded by a U.S. president. Jefferson designed
the architecture of the first buildings as well as the original curriculum and residential style.
Monticello and the University of Virginia are together one of only four man-made World
Heritage Sites in the United States of America.
Jefferson also designed Poplar Forest, near Lynchburg, in Bedford County, Virginia, as a private
retreat from his very public life. Jefferson contributed to the design of the Virginia State Capitol,
which was modeled after the Maison Carrée, an ancient Roman temple at Nîmes in southern
France. Jefferson's buildings helped initiate the ensuing American fashion for Federal
architecture.
Jefferson invented many small practical devices, such as a rotating book stand and (in
collaboration with Charles Wilson Peale) a number of improvements to the polygraph, a device
that made a copy of a letter as he wrote the original.[67] Monticello included automatic doors, the
first swivel chair, and other convenient devices invented by Jefferson. His interest in mechanical
drawing devices included the use of the physiognotrace. In 1802, Charles Willson Peale sent a
watercolor sketch of this instrument to Thomas Jefferson[68], along with a detailed explanation.
The drawing now sits with the Jefferson Papers in the Library of Congress. In 1804, Charles
Fevret de Saint-Memin created an oval silhouette likeness of Jefferson using the physiognotrace,
which became one of the best known likenesses of Jefferson in his day.[69]
Jefferson's interests included archeology, a discipline then in its infancy. He has sometimes been
called the "father of archeology" in recognition of his role in developing excavation techniques.
When exploring an Indian burial mound on his Virginia estate in 1784, Jefferson avoided the
common practice of simply digging downwards until something turned up. Instead, he cut a
wedge out of the mound so that he could walk into it, look at the layers of occupation, and draw
conclusions from them.

Monticello

Thomas Jefferson enjoyed his fish pond at Monticello. It was about three feet (1 m) deep and
mortar lined. He used the pond to keep fish which were recently caught as well as to keep eels
fresh. Recently restored, the pond can be seen from the west side of Monticello.
In 1780, he joined Benjamin Franklin's American Philosophical Society. He served as president
of the society from 1797 to 1815.
Jefferson was interested in birds. His Notes on Virginia contains a list of the birds found in his
home state, though there are "doubtless many others which have not yet been described and
classed." He also comments that the drawings of Virginia birds by the English naturalist Mark
Catesby "are better as to form and attitude, than colouring, which is generally too high."
Jefferson was an avid wine lover and collector, and a noted gourmet. During his years in France
(1784–1789), he took extensive trips through French and other European wine regions, and
bought wine to send back to the United States. He is noted for the bold pronouncement: "We
could in the United States make as great a variety of wines as are made in Europe, not exactly of
the same kinds, but doubtless as good." While there were extensive vineyards planted at
Monticello, a significant portion were of the European wine grape Vitis vinifera and did not
survive the many vine diseases native to the Americas.
In 1801, he published A Manual of Parliamentary Practice that is still in use. In 1812, Jefferson
published a second edition.
After the British burned Washington, D.C. and the Library of Congress in August 1814,
Jefferson offered his own collection of books to the nation. In January 1815, Congress accepted
his offer, appropriating $23,950 for his 6,487 books. The foundation was laid for a great national
library. Today, the Library of Congress' website for federal legislative information is named
THOMAS, in honor of Jefferson.[70] In 2007, Jefferson's two-volume 1764 edition of the Qur'an
was used by Rep. Keith Ellison for his swearing in to the House of Representatives.[71]

Political philosophy and views

In his May 28, 1818, letter to Mordecai Manuel Noah, Jefferson expressed his faith in
humanity and his views on the nature of democracy.

Jefferson was a leader in developing republicanism in the United States. He insisted that the
British aristocratic system was inherently corrupt and that Americans' devotion to civic virtue
required independence. In the 1790s he repeatedly warned that Hamilton and Adams were trying
to impose a British-like monarchical system that threatened republicanism. He supported the
War of 1812, hoping it would drive away the British military and ideological threat from
Canada.
Jefferson's vision for American virtue was that of an agricultural nation of yeoman farmers
minding their own affairs. His agrarianism stood in contrast to the vision of Alexander Hamilton,
who envisioned a nation of commerce and manufacturing, which Jefferson said offered too many
temptations to corruption. Jefferson's deep belief in the uniqueness and the potential of America
made him the father of American exceptionalism. In particular, he was confident that an
underpopulated America could avoid what he considered the horrors of class-divided,
industrialized Europe.
Jefferson's republican political principles were heavily influenced by the Country Party of
eighteenth century British opposition writers. He was influenced by John Locke (particularly
relating to the principle of inalienable rights). Historians find few traces of any influence by his
French contemporary, Jean-Jacques Rousseau.[72]
His opposition to the Bank of the United States was fierce: "I sincerely believe, with you, that
banking establishments are more dangerous than standing armies; and that the principle of
spending money to be paid by posterity, under the name of funding, is but swindling futurity on a
large scale."[73] Nevertheless Madison and Congress, seeing the financial chaos caused by the
War of 1812, disregarded his advice and created the Second Bank of the United States in 1816.
Jefferson believed that each individual has "certain inalienable rights." That is, these rights exist
with or without government; man cannot create, take, or give them away. It is the right of
"liberty" on which Jefferson is most notable for expounding. He defines it by saying, "Rightful
liberty is unobstructed action according to our will within limits drawn around us by the equal
rights of others. I do not add 'within the limits of the law,' because law is often but the tyrant's
will, and always so when it violates the rights of the individual."[74] Hence, for Jefferson, though
government cannot create a right to liberty, it can indeed violate it. The limit of an individual's
rightful liberty is not what law says it is but is simply a matter of stopping short of prohibiting
other individuals from having the same liberty. A proper government, for Jefferson, is one that
not only prohibits individuals in society from infringing on the liberty of other individuals, but
also restrains itself from diminishing individual liberty.
Jefferson's commitment to equality was expressed in his successful efforts to abolish
primogeniture in Virginia, the rule by which the first born son inherited all the land.[75]
Jefferson believed that individuals have an innate sense of morality that prescribes right from
wrong when dealing with other individuals—that whether they choose to restrain themselves or
not, they have an innate sense of the natural rights of others. He even believed that moral sense
to be reliable enough that an anarchist society could function well, provided that it was
reasonably small. On several occasions, he expressed admiration for the tribal, communal way of
living of Native Americans:[76] Jefferson is sometimes seen as a philosophical anarchist.[77]
He said in a letter to Colonel Carrington: "I am convinced that those societies (as the Indians)
which live without government, enjoy in their general mass an infinitely greater degree of
happiness than those who live under the European governments." However, Jefferson believed
anarchism to be "inconsistent with any great degree of population."[78] Hence, he did advocate
government for the American expanse provided that it exists by "consent of the governed."
In the Preamble to his original draft of the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson wrote:

Jefferson's dedication to "consent of the governed" was so thorough that he believed that
individuals could not be morally bound by the actions of preceding generations. This included
debts as well as law. He said that "no society can make a perpetual constitution or even a
perpetual law. The earth belongs always to the living generation." He even calculated what he
believed to be the proper cycle of legal revolution: "Every constitution then, and every law,
naturally expires at the end of nineteen years. If it is to be enforced longer, it is an act of force,
and not of right." He arrived at nineteen years through calculations with expectancy of life tables,
taking into account what he believed to be the age of "maturity"—when an individual is able to
reason for himself.[80] He also advocated that the national debt should be eliminated. He did not
believe that living individuals had a moral obligation to repay the debts of previous generations.
He said that repaying such debts was "a question of generosity and not of right."[81]
Jefferson's very strong defense of States' rights, especially in the Kentucky and Virginia
Resolutions of 1798, set the tone for hostility to expansion of federal powers. However, some of
his foreign policies did strengthen the government. Most important was the Louisiana Purchase
in 1803, when he used the implied powers to annex a huge foreign territory and all its French and
Indian inhabitants. The population was estimated to be 97,000 as of the 1810 census.[82] His
enforcement of the Embargo Act of 1807, while it failed in terms of foreign policy, demonstrated
that the federal government could intervene with great force at the local level in controlling trade
that might lead to war.
Carrying of arms
Jefferson's commitment to liberty extended to many areas of individual freedom. In his
"commonplace book," he copied a passage from Cesare, Marquis of Beccaria related to the issue
of gun control. The quote reads, "Laws that forbid the carrying of arms ... disarm only those who
are neither inclined nor determined to commit crimes ... Such laws make things worse for the
assaulted and better for the assailants; they serve rather to encourage than to prevent homicides,
for an unarmed man may be attacked with greater confidence than an armed man."[83][84][85]
Corporations
Jefferson in 1816 wrote to George Logan,

Judiciary
Trained as a lawyer, Jefferson was a gifted writer but never a good speaker or advocate and
never comfortable in court. He believed that judges should be technical specialists but should not
set policy. He denounced the 1803 Supreme Court ruling in Marbury v. Madison as a violation of
democracy, but he did not have enough support in Congress to propose a Constitutional
amendment to overturn it. He continued to oppose the doctrine of judicial review:

Rebellion to restrain government and retain individual rights

After the Revolutionary War, Jefferson advocated restraining government via rebellion and
violence when necessary, in order to protect individual freedoms. In a letter to James Madison on
January 30, 1787, Jefferson wrote, "A little rebellion, now and then, is a good thing, and as
necessary in the political world as storms in the physical…It is a medicine necessary for the
sound health of government."[88] Similarly, in a letter to Abigail Adams on February 22, 1787 he
wrote, "The spirit of resistance to government is so valuable on certain occasions that I wish it to
be always kept alive. It will often be exercised when wrong, but better so than not to be exercised
at all."[88] Concerning Shays' Rebellion after he had heard of the bloodshed, on November 13,
1787 Jefferson wrote to William S. Smith, John Adams' son-in-law, "What signify a few lives
lost in a century or two? The tree of liberty must from time to time be refreshed with the blood of
patriots and tyrants. It is its natural manure."[89] In another letter to William S. Smith during
1787, Jefferson wrote:

Self-esteem
In a letter to Francis Hopkinson of March 13, 1789, Jefferson wrote:[90]
Women in politics
Jefferson was not an advocate of women's suffrage; author Richard Morris wrote, "Abigail
Adams excepted, Jefferson detested intellectual women. Annoyed by the political chatter of
women in Parisian salons, he wrote home expressing the hope that 'our good ladies ... are
contented to soothe and calm the minds of their husbands returning ruffled from political
debate.'" While President, Jefferson wrote that "The appointment of a woman to office is an
innovation for which the public is not prepared, nor am I."[91]

Religion
Further information: Thomas Jefferson and religion

The religious views of Thomas Jefferson diverged widely from the orthodox Christianity of his
day. Throughout his life Jefferson was intensely interested in theology, biblical study, and
morality.[92] He is most closely connected with the Episcopal Church, the religious philosophy of
Deism, and Unitarianism.

Native American policy

Jefferson was the first President to propose the idea of a formal Indian Removal plan.[93][94]
Andrew Jackson is often erroneously credited with initiating Indian Removal, because Congress
passed the Indian Removal Act in 1830, during his presidency, and also because of his personal
involvement in the forceful extermination and removal of many Eastern tribes.[93] But Jackson
was merely legalizing and implementing a plan laid out by Jefferson in a series of private letters
that began in 1803 (for example, see letter to William Henry Harrison below).[93]
Jefferson's first promotions of Indian Removal were between 1776 and 1779, when he
recommended forcing the Cherokee and Shawnee tribes to be driven out of their ancestral
homelands to lands west of the Mississippi River.[93]
His first such act as president, was to make a deal with the state of Georgia that if Georgia were
to release its legal claims to discovery in lands to the west, then the U.S. military would help
forcefully expel the Cherokee people from Georgia. At the time, the Cherokee had a treaty with
the United States government which guaranteed them the right to their lands, which was violated
in Jefferson's deal with Georgia.[93]
Acculturation and assimilation
Jefferson's original plan was for Natives to give up their own cultures, religions, and lifestyles in
favor of western European culture, Christian religion, and a sedentary agricultural lifestyle.[93][94]
Jefferson's expectation was that by assimilating them into an agricultural lifestyle and stripping
them of self-sufficiency, they would become economically dependent on trade with white
Americans, and would thereby be willing to give up land that they would otherwise not part with,
in exchange for trade goods or to resolve unpaid debts.[95] In an 1803 letter to William Henry
Harrison, Jefferson wrote:
To promote this disposition to exchange lands, which they have to spare and
we want, for necessaries, which we have to spare and they want, we shall
push our trading uses, and be glad to see the good and influential individuals
 among them run in debt, because we observe that when these debts get
beyond what the individuals can pay, they become willing to lop them off by
a cession of lands.... In this way our settlements will gradually circumscribe
and approach the Indians, and they will in time either incorporate with us a
citizens or the United States, or remove beyond the Mississippi. The former is
certainly the termination of their history most happy for themselves; but, in
the whole course of this, it is essential to cultivate their love. As to their fear,
we presume that our strength and their weakness is now so visible that they
must see we have only to shut our hand to crush them, and that all our
liberalities to them proceed from motives of pure humanity only. Should any
tribe be foolhardy enough to take up the hatchet at any time, the seizing the
whole country of that tribe, and driving them across the Mississippi, as the
only condition of peace, would be an example to others, and a furtherance of
our final consolidation.[95]

Forced removal and extermination

In cases where Native tribes resisted assimilation, Jefferson believed that they should be
forcefully removed from their land and sent west.[93] Tribes that joined the British in the War of
1812 and massacred American settlements had to be fought against. As Jefferson put it in a letter
to Alexander von Humboldt in 1813:
You know, my friend, the benevolent plan we were pursuing here for the
happiness of the aboriginal inhabitants in our vicinities. We spared nothing to
keep them at peace with one another. To teach them agriculture and the
rudiments of the most necessary arts, and to encourage industry by
establishing among them separate property. In this way they would have
been enabled to subsist and multiply on a moderate scale of landed
possession. They would have mixed their blood with ours, and been
amalgamated and identified with us within no distant period of time. On the
commencement of our present war, we pressed on them the observance of
peace and neutrality, but the interested and unprincipled policy of England
has defeated all our labors for the salvation of these unfortunate people.
They have seduced the greater part of the tribes within our neighborhood, to
take up the hatchet against us, and the cruel massacres they have
committed on the women and children of our frontiers taken by surprise, will
oblige us now to pursue them to extermination, or drive them to new seats
beyond our reach.[96]

Jefferson believed assimilation was best for Indians; second best was removal to the west. The
worst possible outcome would happen if Indians attacked the whites.[97] He told his Secretary of
War, General Henry Dearborn (who was the primary government official responsible for Indian
affairs): "if we are constrained to lift the hatchet against any tribe, we will never lay it down until
that tribe is exterminated, or driven beyond the Mississipi."[98]

On slavery
Jefferson
 portrayed
on the U.S.
Nickel

1938–2004

2005

2006–present

Main article: Thomas Jefferson and slavery

Jefferson was an outspoken abolitionist, but he owned many slaves over his lifetime. Although
these facts seem baffling, biographers point out that Jefferson was deeply in debt and had
encumbered his slaves by notes and mortgages; he could not free them until he was free of debt,
which never happened.[99] As a result, Jefferson seems to have suffered pangs and trials of
conscience. His ambivalence was also reflected in his treatment of those slaves who worked
most closely with him and his family at Monticello and in other locations. He invested in having
them trained and schooled in high quality skills.[100] He wrote about slavery, "We have the wolf
by the ears; and we can neither hold him, nor safely let him go. Justice is in one scale, and self-
preservation in the other."[101]
During his long career in public office, Jefferson tried many times to abolish or limit the advance
of slavery. He sponsored and encouraged Free-State advocates like James Lemen.[102] According
to a biographer, Jefferson "believed that it was the responsibility of the state and society to free
all slaves."[103] In 1769, as a member of the House of Burgesses, Jefferson proposed for that body
to emancipate slaves in Virginia, but he was unsuccessful.[104] In his first draft of the Declaration
of Independence, Jefferson condemned the British crown for sponsoring the importation of
slavery to the colonies, charging that the crown "has waged cruel war against human nature
itself, violating its most sacred rights of life and liberty in the persons of a distant people who
never offended him, captivating & carrying them into slavery in another hemisphere." However,
this language was dropped from the Declaration at the request of delegates from South Carolina
and Georgia.
In 1778, the legislature passed a bill he proposed to ban further importation of slaves into
Virginia; although this did not bring complete emancipation, in his words, it "stopped the
increase of the evil by importation, leaving to future efforts its final eradication." In 1784, his
draft of what became the Northwest Ordinance stipulated that "there shall be neither slavery nor
involuntary servitude" in any of the new states admitted to the Union from the Northwest
Territory.[105] In 1807, as President, he signed a bill abolishing the slave trade.
Jefferson attacked the institution of slavery in his Notes on the State of Virginia (1784):

In this same work, Jefferson advanced his suspicion that black people were inferior to white
people "in the endowments both of body and mind."[107] However, he also wrote in the same
work that black people could have the right to live free in any country where people judge them
by their nature, and not as just being good for labor.[108] He also wrote, "Nothing is more certainly
written in the book of fate than that these people are to be free. [But] the two races...cannot live
in the same government. Nature, habit, opinion has drawn indelible lines of distinction between
them."[63] According to historian Stephen Ambrose: "Jefferson, like all slaveholders and many
other white members of American society, regarded Negroes as inferior, childlike, untrustworthy
and, of course, as property. Jefferson, the genius of politics, could see no way for African
Americans to live in society as free people." At the same time, he trusted them with his children,
with preparation of his food and entertainment of high-ranking guests. So clearly he believed that
some were trustworthy.[109] For a long-term solution, Jefferson believed that slaves should be
freed then deported peacefully to African colonies. Otherwise, he feared war and that, in his
words, "human nature must shudder at the prospect held up. We should in vain look for an
example in the Spanish deportation or deletion of the Moors. This precedent would fall far short
of our case."[110]
But on February 25, 1809, Jefferson repudiated his earlier view, writing in a letter to Abbé
Grégoire:

In August 1814 Edward Coles and Jefferson corresponded about Coles' ideas on emancipation:
In 1817, as Polish general and American war of independence rebel Tadeusz Kościuszko died,
Jefferson was named by Kościuszko as the executor of his will, in which the Pole asked that the
proceeds from the sale of his assets be used to free, among others, Jefferson's slaves. Jefferson,
seventy-five at the time, did not free his slaves and pleaded that he was too old to take on the
duties of executor, while at the same time energetically throwing himself into the creation of the
University of Virginia.[113] Some historians have speculated that he had qualms about freeing
slaves.[114]
The downturn in land prices after 1819 pushed Jefferson further into debt. Jefferson finally
emancipated his five most trusted slaves (two his alleged mixed-race sons) and petitioned the
legislature to allow them to stay in Virginia. After his death, his family sold the remainder of the
slaves by auction on the lawn of his estate[113] to settle his high debts.[115]

Monuments and memorials

Further information: List of places named for Thomas Jefferson

Jefferson has been memorialized in many ways, including buildings, sculptures, and currency.
The Jefferson Memorial was dedicated in Washington, D.C. on April 13, 1943, the 200th
anniversary of Jefferson's birth. The interior of the memorial includes a 19-foot (6 m) statue of
Jefferson and engravings of passages from his writings. Most prominent are the words which are
inscribed around the monument near the roof: "I have sworn upon the altar of God eternal
hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind of man".[116]
His original tombstone, now a cenotaph, is now located on the campus in the University of
Missouri's Quadrangle.
Jefferson, together with George Washington, Theodore Roosevelt and Abraham Lincoln, was
chosen by sculptor Gutzon Borglum and approved by President Calvin Coolidge to be depicted
in stone at the Mount Rushmore Memorial.[117]
Jefferson's portrait appears on the U.S. $2 bill, nickel, and the $100 Series EE Savings Bond.
Recent memorials to Jefferson include the commissioning of the NOAA ship Thomas Jefferson
in Norfolk, Virginia on July 8, 2003, in commemoration of his establishment of a Survey of the
Coast, the predecessor to NOAA's National Ocean Service; and the placement of a bronze
monument in Jefferson Park, Chicago at the entrance to the Jefferson Park Transit Center along
Milwaukee Avenue in 2005.

Jefferson on Mount
The Jefferson Memorial in
Rushmore Jefferson portrayed on the United
Washington, D.C.
States two-dollar bill
Writings
• Memorandums taken on a journey from Paris into the southern parts of
France and Northern Italy, in the year 1787
• A Summary View of the Rights of British America (1774)
• Autobiography (1821)
• Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms (1775)
• Notes on the State of Virginia (1781)
• Jefferson Bible, or The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth
• Manual of Parliamentary Practice for the Use of the Senate of the United
States (1801)

See also
Book:Presidents of the United States (1789 -
1860)

Books are collections of articles which can be downloaded or

ordered in print.

• American philosophy
• Jefferson disk
• Jeffersonia
• Jeffersonian
• List of American philosophers
• List of coupled cousins
• Maria Cosway
• Monticello Association
• Plan for Establishing Uniformity in the Coinage, Weights, and Measures of the
United States
• The Rotunda (University of Virginia)
• Thomas Jefferson and Haitian Emigration

Notes
1. ^ "The Thomas Jefferson Papers Timeline: 1743 -1827".
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/jefferson_papers/mtjtime1.html.
Retrieved 2009-07-19.
2. ^ a b The birth and death of Thomas Jefferson are given using the Gregorian
calendar. However, he was born when Britain and her colonies still used the
Julian calendar, so contemporary records record his birth (and on his
tombstone) as April 2, 1743. The provisions of the Calendar (New Style) Act
1750, implemented in 1752, altered the official British dating method to the
 Gregorian calendar with the start of the year on January 1 – see the article on
Old Style and New Style dates for more details.
3. ^ Robert W. Tucker, and David C. Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty: The
Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson (1990)
4. ^ Jefferson, Thomas. "Jefferson's Wall of Separation Letter". U.S. Constitution
Online. http://www.usconstitution.net/jeffwall.html. Retrieved April 13, 2008.
5. ^ April 29, 1962 dinner honoring 49 Nobel Laureates (Simpson's
Contemporary Quotations, 1988, from Public Papers of the Presidents of the
United States: John F. Kennedy, 1962, p. 347).
6. ^ Henry Stephens Randall, The Life of Thomas Jefferson
7. ^ Merrill D. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson: Writings, p. 1236
8. ^ Thomas Jefferson on Wine by John Hailman, 2006
a b c
9. ^ Henry Stephens Randall, The Life of Thomas Jefferson. p 41
a b
10.^ Henry Stephens Randall, The Life of Thomas Jefferson. p 47
11.^ Thomas Jefferson p.214
12.^ TJ to John Minor August 30, 1814 Lipscomb and Bergh, WTJ 2:420-21
13.^ ArchitectureWeek. "The Orders - 01".
http://www.architectureweek.com/topics/orders-01.html. Retrieved 2009-07-
20.
14.^ "nMonticello". Plantationdb.monticello.org.
http://plantationdb.monticello.org/. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
15.^ "''John Wayles Paternity''". Wiki.monticello.org. 2009-05-19.
http://wiki.monticello.org/mediawiki/index.php/John_Wayles. Retrieved 2009-
09-02.
16.^ Foster, EA, et al.; Jobling, MA; Taylor, PG; Donnelly, P; De Knijff, P;
Mieremet, R; Zerjal, T; Tyler-Smith, C (Nov 1998). "Jefferson fathered slave's
last child" (PDF). Nature 396 (6706): 27–28. doi:10.1038/23835. ISSN 0028-
0836. PMID 9817200. http://www.familytreedna.com/pdf/Jeffersons.pdf.
17.^ "ISOGG 2008 Y-DNA Haplogroup T". Isogg.org.
http://www.isogg.org/tree/ISOGG_HapgrpT08.html. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
18.^ "Appendix J: The Possible Paternity of Other Jeffersons, A Summary of
Research". Report of the Research Committee on Thomas Jefferson and Sally
Hemings. Thomas Jefferson Foundation. January 2000.
http://www.monticello.org/plantation/hemingscontro/appendixj.html.
19.^ "The Scholars Commission on the Jefferson-Hemings Issue". Tjheritage.org.
http://www.tjheritage.org/scholars.html. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
20.^ Leary, Helen F. M. (September 2001). "Sally Hemings's Children: A
Genealogical Analysis of the Evidence". National Genealogical Society
Quarterly 89 (3): 165–207. http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/0205/hemings.html.
21.^ Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American
Controversy, Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press, 1997, p. 66
22.^ Joshua D. Rothman, Notorious in the Neighborhood: Sex and Families
across the Color Line in Virginia, 1787-1861, Chapel Hill: University of North
Carolina Press, 2003, pp. 18-19
23.^ Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American
Controversy, Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1997, pp. 128-129
24.^ Mayer, David N. (April 9, 2001). "A. Denials by Jefferson Himself and
Virtually All His Contemporaries". The Thomas Jefferson - Sally Hemings Myth
and the Politicization of American History. Ashbrook Center.
http://www.ashbrook.org/articles/mayer-hemings.html#VIA.
25.^ "Sally Hemings: An American Scandal Time Line".
http://www.ibiblio.org/samneill/films/shtimeline.txt. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
26.^ Miller, John Chester (1977). The Wolf by the Ears: Thomas Jefferson and
Slavery. New York: Free Press. p. 207.
27.^ Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American
Controversy, Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1997, pp. 216-217
28.^ a b Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An
American Controversy, Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1997, p.
220
29.^ Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American
Controversy, Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1997, p. 219
30.^ Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American
Controversy, Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1997, p. 66
31.^ "Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: A Brief Account".
http://www.monticello.org/plantation/hemingscontro/hemings-
jefferson_contro.html. Retrieved 2009-07-05.
32.^ Charles Giuliano (2008-06-06). "Thomas Jefferson’s Monticello An American
Masterpiece by a Founding Father". http://www.berkshirefinearts.com/?
page=article&article_id=700&catID=26. Retrieved 2009-07-06.
33.^ a b Foner, Eric (October 3, 2008). "The Master and the Mistress (A review of
Annette Gordon-Reed's The Hemingses of Monticello: An American Family".
New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/05/books/review/Foner-
t.html?_r=1&pagewanted=2. Retrieved February 10, 2009.
34.^ Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American
Controversy, Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1997, p.209
35.^ Annette Gordon-Reed, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American
Controversy, Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1997, p. 213
36.^ "A Sprig of Jefferson was Eston Hemings". Jefferson's Blood. Public
Broadcasting Service.
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/jefferson/cron/1902sprig.html
. Retrieved 2008-04-27.
37.^ a b c Merrill D. Peterson, "Jefferson, Thomas"; American National Biography
Online, February 2000.
38.^ Ellis, American Sphinx, 47–49.
39.^ Maier, American Scripture. Other standard works on Jefferson and the
Declaration include Garry Wills, Inventing America: Jefferson's Declaration of
Independence (1978) and Carl L. Becker, The Declaration of Independence: A
Study in the History of Political Ideas (1922).
a b
40.^ Ellis, American Sphinx, 50.
41.^ "Part I: History of the Death Penalty". Deathpenaltyinfo.org.
http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?scid=15&did=410. Retrieved
2009-09-02.
42.^ "Virgina Executions". Rob Gallagher.
http://users.bestweb.net/~rg/execution/VIRGINIA.htm. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
43.^ Bennett, William J. (2006). "The Greatest Revolution". America: The Last
Best Hope (Volume I): From the Age of Discovery to a World at War. Nelson
Current. p. 99. ISBN 1-59555-055-0.
44.^ Ferling 2004, p. 26
45.^ Annette Gordon-Reed, The Hemingses of Monticello: An American Family,
New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2008
46.^ The Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States of America.
Books.google.com. http://books.google.com/books?
id=dmgUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA218&lpg=PA218&dq=Thulemeier+Magdeburg&so
urce=bl&ots=88_moQefOS&sig=78Uawff9ApALaQjVjOix13xjBug&hl=en&sa=
X&oi=book_result&resnum=10&ct=result#PPA307,M1. Retrieved 2009-09-
02.
47.^ Ferling 2004, p. 59
48.^ "Foreign Affairs," in Peterson, ed. Thomas Jefferson: A Reference
Encyclopedia (1986) p 325
49.^ Schachner 1951, p. 495
50.^ Miller (1960), 143–4, 148–9.
51.^ An American History Lesson For Pat Buchana, Kenneth C. Davis, Huffington
Post, July 18, 2009.
52.^ a b Thomas Jefferson, the 'Negro President', Gary Willis on The Tavis Smiley
Show, February 16, 2004.
53.^ Negro President: Jefferson and the Slave Power, Review of Garry Willis's
book on WNYC, February 16, 2004.
54.^ "Table 1.1 Acquisition of the Public Domain 1781-1867" (PDF).
http://www.blm.gov/natacq/pls02/pls1-1_02.pdf. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
55.^ [John Hope Franklin, Race and History: Selected Essays 1938-1988
(Louisiana State University Press: 1989) p. 336] and [John Hope Franklin,
Racial Equality in America (Chicago: 1976), p. 24-26]
56.^ Martin Kelly. "Thomas Jefferson Biography - Third President of the United
States".
http://americanhistory.about.com/od/thomasjefferson/p/pjefferson.htm.
Retrieved 2009-07-05.
57.^ Robert MacNamara. "Importation of Slaves Outlawed by 1807 Act of
Congress".
http://history1800s.about.com/od/slaveryinamerica/a/1807slaveact.htm.
Retrieved 2009-07-05.
58.^ "Jefferson on Politics & Government: Publicly Supported Education".
Etext.lib.virginia.edu.
http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/jefferson/quotations/jeff1370.htm. Retrieved
2009-09-02.
59.^ Jefferson Still Survives. Retrieved on 2006-12-26.
60.^ "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–2008". Federal Reserve Bank of
Minneapolis.
http://www.minneapolisfed.org/community_education/teacher/calc/hist1800.c
fm. Retrieved August 1, 2009.
61.^ "Monticello Report: The Calendar and Old Style (O. S.)". Thomas Jefferson
Foundation (Monticello.org). 2007.
http://www.monticello.org/reports/life/old_style.html. Retrieved 2007-09-15.
62.^ Monticello Report: Physical Descriptions of Thomas Jefferson. Retrieved
September 14, 2007.
63.^ a b "'Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826)' at the University of Virginia".
Americanpresident.org.
http://www.americanpresident.org/history/thomasjefferson/biography/FamilyL
ife.common.shtml. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
64.^ "Thomas Jefferson". Spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk. 1999-09-22.
http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/WWjefferson.htm. Retrieved 2009-09-
02.
65.^ "Thomas Jefferson: Silent Member".
http://www.awesomestories.com/biography/thomas_jefferson/thomas_jefferso
n_ch1.htm. Retrieved 2007-07-23.
66.^ "'American Sphinx' by Joseph J. Ellis at". Futurecasts.com.
http://www.futurecasts.com/Ellis,%20Jefferson,%20American%20Sphinx.htm.
Retrieved 2009-09-02.
67.^ ""Jefferson's Inventions"". Cti.itc.virginia.edu.
http://cti.itc.virginia.edu/~meg3c/classes/tcc313/200Rprojs/jefferson_invent/i
nvent.html. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
68.^ Physiognotrace http://lewis-clark.org/content/content-article.asp?
ArticleID=2539
69.^
http://wiki.monticello.org/mediawiki/index.php/Jefferson_Oval_Portrait_by_Me
min_(Physiognotrace) The Jefferson Encyclopedia
70.^ Ellis, Joseph J. (1994). "American Sphinx: The Contradictions of Thomas
Jefferson". Library of Congress. http://thomas.loc.gov/.
71.^ Amy Argetsinger and Roxanne Roberts (January 1, 2007). "But It's Thomas
Jefferson's Koran!". Washington Post: p. C03.
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-
 dyn/content/article/2007/01/03/AR2007010300075.html. Retrieved January 3,
2007.
72.^ J. G. A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and
the Atlantic Republican Tradition (1975), 533; see also Richard K. Matthews,
The Radical Politics of Thomas Jefferson, (1986), p. 17, 139n.16.
73.^ Thomas Jefferson to John Taylor May 28, 1816, in Appleby and Ball (1999) p
209); also Bergh, ed. Writings 15:23
74.^ Letter to Isaac H. Tiffany, April 4, 1819 in Appleby and Ball (1999) p 224.
75.^ Brown 1954, pp. 51–52
76.^ "Notes on Virginia". Etext.lib.virginia.edu.
http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/JefVirg.html. Retrieved 2009-
09-02.
77.^ Adler, Mortimer Jerome (2000). The Great Ideas. Open Court Publishing.
p. 378.
78.^ Letter to James Madison, January 30, 1787
79.^ "Professor Julian Boyd's reconstruction of Jefferson's "original Rough draft"
of the Declaration of Independence". Loc.gov. 2005-07-06.
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/declara/ruffdrft.html. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
80.^ Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789
81.^ Letter to James Madison, September 6, 1789; Daniel Scott Smith,
"Population and Political Ethics: Thomas Jefferson's Demography of
Generations," The William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd Ser., Vol. 56, No. 3 (Jul.,
1999), pp. 591–612 in jstor
82.^ [1]
83.^ http://quotes.liberty-tree.ca/quote/cesare_beccaria_quote_e215
84.^ "The James Madison Research Library and Information Center".
Madisonbrigade.com. http://www.madisonbrigade.com/t_jefferson.htm.
Retrieved 2009-09-02.
85.^ Kopel, David B. (2007-04-18). "'Gun-Free Zones' - WSJ.com".
Online.wsj.com. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB117686668935873725.html.
Retrieved 2009-09-02.
86.^ Ford, ed, Paul Lester (1899). The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, Vol X,
1816–1826. New York, London: G. P. Putnam's Sons.
http://www.archive.org/stream/writingsofthomas10jeffiala/writingsofthomas1
0jeffiala_djvu.txt.
87.^ Letter to William C. Jarvis, 1820
a b c
88.^ Melton, The Quotable Founding Fathers, 277.
89.^ Letter to William Smith, November 13, 1787
90.^ "Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to American Presidents". Britannica.com.
http://www.britannica.com/presidents/article-9116912. Retrieved 2009-09-
02.
91.^ Seven Who Shaped Our Destiny, p. 133, Richard B. Morris, 1973, Harper &
Row Publishers, Inc.
92.^ Charles Sanford, The Religious Life of Thomas Jefferson (Charlotte: UNC
Press, 1987).
93.^ a b c d e f g Miller, Robert (July 1, 2008). Native America, Discovered and
Conquered: : Thomas Jefferson, Lewis & Clark, and Manifest Destiny. Bison
Books. p. 90. ISBN 978-0803215986.
94.^ a b Drinnon, Richard (March 1997). Facing West: The Metaphysics of Indian-
Hating and Empire-Building. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-
0806129280.
95.^ a b Jefferson, Thomas (1803). "President Thomas Jefferson to William Henry
Harrison, Governor of the Indiana Territory,".
http://courses.missouristate.edu/ftmiller/Documents/jeffindianpolicy.htm.
Retrieved 2009-03-12.
96.^ "Letter From Thomas Jefferson to Alexander von Humboldt December 6,
1813". http://www.let.rug.nl/usa/P/tj3/writings/brf/jefl224.htm. Retrieved
2009-03-12.
97.^ Bernard W. Sheehan, Seeds of extinction: Jeffersonian philanthropy and the
American Indian (1974) pp 120-21
98.^ James P. Ronda, Thomas Jefferson and the changing West: from conquest
to conservation (1997) p. 10; text in Moore, MariJo (2006). Eating Fire,
Tasting Blood: An Anthology of the American Indian Holocaust. Running
Press. ISBN 978-1560258384. http://books.google.com/books?id=3oNPH4-
ovFcC&pg=PA208&lpg=PA208&dq=Thomas+Jefferson+dearborn+hatchet&s
ource=bl&ots=H7cwLd-MIA&sig=-
Yro3VMQ2KKmoaQSeOl52Ndte1Q&hl=en&ei=EpG5SdXaLpK2sAOZpNAt&sa=
X&oi=book_result&resnum=8&ct=result.
99.^ Herbert E. Sloan, Principle and Interest: Thomas Jefferson and the Problem
of Debt (2001) pp. 14–26, 220–1.
100.^ Hitchens 2005, p. 48
101.^ Miller, John Chester (1977). The Wolf by the Ears: Thomas Jefferson and
Slavery. New York: Free Press, p. 241. The letter, dated April 22, 1820, was
written to former Senator John Holmes of Maine.
102.^ Macnaul, W.C. (1865). The Jefferson-Lemen Compact.
103.^ Willard Sterne Randall, Thomas Jefferson: A Life. p 593.
104.^ The Works of Thomas Jefferson in Twelve Volumes at the Library of
Congress.
105.^ Ordinance of 1787 Lalor Cyclopædia of Political Science
106.^ Notes on the State of Virginia, Ch 18.
107.^ Notes on the State of Virginia Query 14
108.^ "'Jefferson, Thomas, 1743–1826 . Notes on the State of Virginia ' at
University of Virginia Library". Etext.lib.virginia.edu.
http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?
 id=JefVirg.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parse
d&tag=public&part=18&division=div1. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
109.^ Flawed Founders by Stephen E. Ambrose.
110.^ Hitchens 2005, pp. 34–35
111.^ Letter of February 25, 1809 from Thomas Jefferson to French author
Monsieur Gregoire, from The Writings of Thomas Jefferson (H. A. Worthington,
ed.), Volume V, p. 429. Citation and quote from Morris Kominsky, The
Hoaxers, pp. 110–111.
112.^ Twilight at Monticello, Crawford, 2008, Ch 17, p.101
113.^ a b Why we should all regret Jefferson's broken promise to Kościuszko,
Nash&Hodges http://hnn.us/articles/48794.html
114.^ For your freedom and ours, the Kościuszko squadron, Olson&Cloud, pg 22-
23, Arrow books ISBN 0-09-942812-1
115.^ Peterson 1975, pp. 991–992, 1007
116.^ Office of the Historic American Buildings Survey/Historic American
Engineering Record (HABS/HAER), of the National Park Service, Library of
Congress (September 1994). "Documentation of the Jefferson Memorial".
http://memory.loc.gov/pnp/habshaer/dc/dc0400/dc0473/sheet/00001a.tif.
Retrieved 2009-09-04.
117.^ National Park Service. "Carving History". Mount Rushmore National
Memorial.
http://www.nps.gov/archive/moru/park_history/carving_hist/carving_history.ht
m. Retrieved 2009-09-04.

References
• This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh
Edition, a publication now in the public domain.

Primary sources
• Thomas Jefferson: Writings: Autobiography / Notes on the State of Virginia /
Public and Private Papers / Addresses / Letters (1984, ISBN 978-0-94045016-
5) Library of America edition. There are numerous one-volume collections;
this is perhaps the best place to start.
• Thomas Jefferson, Political Writings ed by Joyce Appleby and Terence Ball.
Cambridge University Press. 1999 online
• Lipscomb, Andrew A. and Albert Ellery Bergh, eds. The Writings Of Thomas
Jefferson 19 vol. (1907) not as complete nor as accurate as Boyd edition, but
covers TJ from birth to death. It is out of copyright, and so is online free.
• Edwin Morris Betts (editor), Thomas Jefferson's Farm Book, (Thomas Jefferson
Memorial: December 1, 1953) ISBN 1-882886-10-0. Letters, notes, and
drawings—a journal of plantation management recording his contributions to
scientific agriculture, including an experimental farm implementing
innovations such as horizontal plowing and crop-rotation, and Jefferson's own
moldboard plow. It is a window to slave life, with data on food rations, daily
work tasks, and slaves' clothing. The book portrays the industries pursued by
 enslaved and free workmen, including in the blacksmith's shop and spinning
and weaving house.
• Boyd, Julian P. et al., eds. The Papers of Thomas Jefferson. The definitive
multivolume edition; available at major academic libraries. 31 volumes
covers TJ to 1800, with 1801 due out in 2006.
• The Jefferson Cyclopedia (1900) large collection of TJ quotations arranged by
9000 topics; searchable; copyright has expired and it is online free.
• The Thomas Jefferson Papers, 1606–1827, 27,000 original manuscript
documents at the Library of Congress online collection
• Jefferson, Thomas. Notes on the State of Virginia (1787), London: Stockdale.
This was Jefferson's only book
○ Shuffelton, Frank, ed., (1998) Penguin Classics paperback: ISBN 0-14-
043667-7
○ Waldstreicher, David, ed., (2002) Palgrave Macmillan hardcover: ISBN
0-312-29428-X
○ online edition
• Cappon, Lester J., ed. The Adams-Jefferson Letters (1959)
• Howell, Wilbur Samuel, ed. Jefferson's Parliamentary Writings (1988).
Jefferson's Manual of Parliamentary Practice, written when he was vice-
President, with other relevant papers
• Melton, Buckner F.: The Quotable Founding Fathers, Potomac Books,
Washington D.C. (2004).
• Smith, James Morton, ed. The Republic of Letters: The Correspondence
between Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, 1776–1826, 3 vols. (1995)

Biographies
• Appleby, Joyce. Thomas Jefferson (2003), short interpretive essay by leading
scholar.
• Bernstein, R. B. Thomas Jefferson. (2003) Well regarded short biography.
• Burstein, Andrew. Jefferson's Secrets: Death and Desire at Monticello. (2005).
• Cunningham, Noble E. In Pursuit of Reason (1988) well-reviewed short
biography.
• Crawford, Alan Pell, Twilight at Monticello, Random House, New York, (2008)
• Ellis, Joseph. "American Sphinx: The Contradictions of Thomas Jefferson".
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/jefferson_papers/mtjessay1.html.
• Ellis, Joseph. American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson (1996).
Prize winning essays; assumes prior reading of a biography.
• Hitchens, Christopher (2005), Thomas Jefferson: Author of America , short
biography.
• Malone, Dumas. Jefferson and His Time, 6 vols. (1948–82). Multi-volume
biography of TJ by leading expert; A short version is online.
 • Onuf, Peter. "The Scholars' Jefferson," William and Mary Quarterly 3d Series,
L:4 (October 1993), 671–699. Historiographical review or scholarship about
TJ; online through JSTOR at most academic libraries.
• Padover, Saul K. Jefferson: A Great American's Life and Ideas
• Pasley, Jeffrey L. "Politics and the Misadventures of Thomas Jefferson's
Modern Reputation: a Review Essay." Journal of Southern History 2006 72(4):
871–908. Issn: 0022-4642 Fulltext in Ebsco.
• Peterson, Merrill D. (1975). Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation. A standard
scholarly biography.
• Peterson, Merrill D. (ed.) Thomas Jefferson: A Reference Biography (1986), 24
essays by leading scholars on aspects of Jefferson's career.
• Randall, Henry Stephens (1858). The Life of Thomas Jefferson (volume 1 ed.).
• Schachner, Nathan (1951). Thomas Jefferson: A Biography. 2 volumes.
• Salgo, Sandor (1997). Thomas Jefferson: Musician and Violinist. Abook
detailing Thomas Jefferson's love of music.

Academic studies
• Ackerman, Bruce. The Failure of the Founding Fathers: Jefferson, Marshall,
and the Rise of Presidential Democracy. (2005)
• Adams, Henry. History of the United States of America during the
Administrations of Thomas Jefferson (1889; Library of America edition 1986)
famous 4-volume history
○ Wills, Garry, Henry Adams and the Making of America (2005), detailed
analysis of Adams' History
• Banning, Lance. The Jeffersonian Persuasion: Evolution of a Party Ideology
(1978)
• Brown, Stuart Gerry (1954). The First Republicans: Political Philosophy and
Public Policy in the Party of Jefferson and Madison.
• Channing; Edward. The Jeffersonian System: 1801–1811 (1906), "American
Nation" survey of political history
• Dunn, Susan. Jefferson's Second Revolution: The Election Crisis of 1800 and
the Triumph of Republicanism (2004)
• Elkins, Stanley and Eric McKitrick. The Age of Federalism (1995) in-depth
coverage of politics of 1790s
• Fatovic, Clement. "Constitutionalism and Presidential Prerogative:
Jeffersonian and Hamiltonian Perspectives." : American Journal of Political
Science, 2004 48(3): 429–444. Issn: 0092-5853 Fulltext: in Swetswise,
Ingenta, Jstor, and Ebsco
• Ferling, John (2004). Adams vs. Jefferson: The Tumultuous Election of 1800.
• Finkelman, Paul. Slavery and the Founders: Race and Liberty in the Age of
Jefferson (2001), esp ch 6–7
• Hatzenbuehler, Ronald L. "I Tremble for My Country": Thomas Jefferson and
the Virginia Gentry, (University Press of Florida; 206 pages; 2007). Argues
 that the TJ's critique of his fellow gentry in Virginia masked his own
reluctance to change
• Hitchens, Christopher (2005). Author of America: Thomas Jefferson.
HarperCollins.
• Horn, James P. P. Jan Ellen Lewis, and Peter S. Onuf, eds. The Revolution of
1800: Democracy, Race, and the New Republic (2002) 17 essays by scholars
• Jayne, Allen. Jefferson's Declaration of Independence: Origins, Philosophy and
Theology (2000); traces TJ's sources and emphasizes his incorporation of
Deist theology into the Declaration.
• Roger G. Kennedy. Mr. Jefferson's Lost Cause: Land, Farmers, Slavery, and
the Louisiana Purchase (2003).
• Knudson, Jerry W. Jefferson and the Press: Crucible of Liberty. (2006)
• Lewis, Jan Ellen, and Onuf, Peter S., eds. Sally Hemings and Thomas
Jefferson: History, Memory, Civic Culture. (1999)
• McDonald, Forrest. The Presidency of Thomas Jefferson (1987) intellectual
history approach to Jefferson's Presidency
• Matthews, Richard K. "The Radical Political Philosophy of Thomas Jefferson:
An Essay in Retrieval," Midwest Studies in Philosophy, XXVIII (2004)
• Mayer, David N. The Constitutional Thought of Thomas Jefferson (2000)
• Onuf, Peter S. Jefferson's Empire: The Languages of American Nationhood.
(2000). Online review
• Onuf, Peter S., ed. Jeffersonian Legacies. (1993)
• Onuf, Peter. "Thomas Jefferson, Federalist" (1993) online journal essay
• Perry, Barbara A. "Jefferson's Legacy to the Supreme Court: Freedom of
Religion." Journal of Supreme Court History 2006 31(2): 181–198. Issn: 1059-
4329 Fulltext in Swetswise, Ingenta and Ebsco
• Peterson, Merrill D. The Jefferson Image in the American Mind (1960), how
Americans interpreted and remembered Jefferson
• Rahe, Paul A. "Thomas Jefferson's Machiavellian Political Science". Review of
Politics 1995 57(3): 449–481. ISSN 0034–6705 Fulltext online at Jstor and
Ebsco.
• Sears, Louis Martin. Jefferson and the Embargo (1927), state by state impact
• Sloan, Herbert J. Principle and Interest: Thomas Jefferson and the Problem of
Debt (1995). Shows the burden of debt in Jefferson's personal finances and
political thought.
• Smelser, Marshall. The Democratic Republic: 1801–1815 (1968). "New
American Nation" survey of political and diplomatic history
• Staloff, Darren. Hamilton, Adams, Jefferson: The Politics of Enlightenment and
the American Founding. (2005)
• Taylor, Jeff. Where Did the Party Go?: William Jennings Bryan, Hubert
Humphrey, and the Jeffersonian Legacy (2006), on Jefferson's role in
Democratic history and ideology.
 • Tucker, Robert W. and David C. Hendrickson. Empire of Liberty: The
Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson (1992), foreign policy
• Urofsky, Melvin I. "Thomas Jefferson and John Marshall: What Kind of
Constitution Shall We Have?" Journal of Supreme Court History 2006 31(2):
109–125. Issn: 1059-4329 Fulltext: in Swetswise, Ingenta and Ebsco
• Valsania, Maurizio. "'Our Original Barbarism': Man Vs. Nature in Thomas
Jefferson's Moral Experience." Journal of the History of Ideas 2004 65(4): 627–
645. Issn: 0022-5037 Fulltext: in Project Muse and Swetswise
• Wagoner, Jennings L., Jr. Jefferson and Education. (2004).
• Wiltse, Charles Maurice. The Jeffersonian Tradition in American Democracy
(1935), analysis of Jefferson's political philosophy
• PBS interviews with 24 historians
Religion
• Gaustad, Edwin S. Sworn on the Altar of God: A Religious Biography of
Thomas Jefferson (2001) Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, ISBN 0-8028-0156-0
• Sanford, Charles B. The Religious Life of Thomas Jefferson (1987) University
of Virginia Press, ISBN 0-8139-1131-1
• Sheridan, Eugene R. Jefferson and Religion, preface by Martin Marty, (2001)
University of North Carolina Press, ISBN 1-882886-08-9
• Edited by Jackson, Henry E., President, College for Social Engineers,
Washington, D. C. "The Thomas Jefferson Bible" (1923) Copyright Boni and
Liveright, Inc. Printed in the United States of America. Arranged by Thomas
Jefferson. Translated by R. F. Weymouth. Located in the National Museum,
Washington, D. C.

External links and sources

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Definitions from Wiktionary

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Images and media from Commons

News stories from Wikinews

Learning resources from Wikiversity

• The Thomas Jefferson Encyclopedia, for information on TJ's life and times,
written and referenced by historians at Monticello
• University of Virginia
• The Papers of Thomas Jefferson - Digital Edition
○ University of Virginia Jefferson Papers
○ B. L. Rayner's 1829 Life of Thomas Jefferson, an on-line etext
○ "The Hobby of My Old Age": Jefferson's University of Virginia
○ Quotations from Jefferson
○ University of Virginia biography
• Biography on White House website
• Library of Congress
○ Library of Congress: Jefferson exhibition
○ Library of Congress: Jefferson timeline
○ Thomas Jefferson: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress
• National Park Service
○ Thomas Jefferson's Plan for the University of Virginia: Lessons from the
Lawn, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP)
lesson plan
○ Jefferson Memorial, Washington DC
• Monticello - Home of Thomas Jefferson
• Poplar Forest-Thomas Jefferson's second home
• "Frontline: Jefferson's blood: Chronology: The Sally Hemings story (1977), PBS
 • The Papers of Thomas Jefferson at the Avalon Project
• Thomas Jefferson at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
• Notes on the State of Virginia from American Studies at the University of
Virginia.
• Works by Thomas Jefferson at Project Gutenberg
• Online catalog of Thomas Jefferson's personal library, based on the catalog of
books he sold to the Library of Congress in 1815

Political offices

President of the United

Succeeded by
States
James Madison
Preceded by March 4, 1801 – March 4, 1809
John Adams
Vice President of the United
Succeeded by
States
Aaron Burr
March 4, 1797 – March 4, 1801

United States Secretary of

Preceded by
State
John Jay Served under: George Succeeded by
as United States Washington Edmund Randolph
Secretary for Foreign
March 22, 1790 – December 31,
Affairs
1793

Succeeded by
William Fleming
Preceded by Governor of Virginia
(acting);
Patrick Henry 1779 – 1781
Thomas Nelson, Jr.
(elected)

Party political offices

Democratic-Republican
Succeeded by
New political party Party presidential candidate
James Madison
1796¹, 1800, 1804

Diplomatic posts

United States Minister

Preceded by Succeeded by
Plenipotentiary to France
Benjamin Franklin William Short
1785 – 1789

Notes and references

1. Prior to the passage of the Twelfth Amendment in 1804, each Presidential elector would
cast two ballots; the highest vote-getter would become President and the runner-up would
become Vice President. Thus, in 1796, the Democratic-Republican Party fielded Jefferson as a
Presidential candidate, but he came in second and therefore became Vice President.

[show][show]
v • d • e

Signers of the
Declaration of
Independence

J. Adams • S. Adams
• Bartlett • Braxton •
Carroll • Chase •
Clark • Clymer •
Ellery • Floyd •
Franklin • Gerry •
Gwinnett • Hall •
Hancock • Harrison •
Hart • Hewes •
Heyward • Hooper •
Hopkins • Hopkinson
• Huntington •
Jefferson • F. Lee •
R. Lee • Lewis •
Livingston • Lynch •
McKean • Middleton
• L. Morris • R. Morris
• Morton • Nelson •
Paca • Paine • Penn
• Read • Rodney •
Ross • Rush •
Rutledge • Sherman
• Smith • Stockton •
Stone • Taylor •
Thornton • Walton •
Whipple • Williams •
Wilson •
Witherspoon •
Wolcott • Wythe

[show][show]
v • d • e

Presidents of
the United
States

George
Washington ·
John Adams ·
Thomas
Jefferson ·
James
Madison ·
James
Monroe · John
Quincy
Adams ·
Andrew
Jackson ·
Martin Van
Buren ·
William Henry
Harrison · John
Tyler · James
K. Polk ·
Zachary
Taylor · Millard
Fillmore ·
Franklin
Pierce · James
Buchanan ·
Abraham
Lincoln ·
Andrew
Johnson ·
Ulysses S.
Grant ·
Rutherford B.
Hayes · James
A. Garfield ·
Chester A.
Arthur ·
Grover
Cleveland ·
Benjamin
Harrison ·
Grover
Cleveland ·
William
McKinley ·
Theodore
Roosevelt ·
William
Howard Taft ·
Woodrow
Wilson ·
Warren G.
Harding ·
Calvin
Coolidge ·
Herbert
Hoover ·
Franklin D.
Roosevelt ·
Harry S.
Truman ·
Dwight D.
Eisenhower ·
John F.
Kennedy ·
Lyndon B.
Johnson ·
Richard
Nixon · Gerald
Ford · Jimmy
Carter ·
Ronald
Reagan ·
George H. W.
Bush · Bill
Clinton ·
George W.
Bush · Barack
Obama

[show][show]
v • d • e

Vice Presidents
of the United
States

John Adams ·
Thomas
Jefferson ·
Aaron Burr ·
George Clinton ·
Elbridge Gerry ·
Daniel D.
Tompkins · John
C. Calhoun ·
Martin Van
Buren · Richard
Mentor Johnson ·
John Tyler ·
George M.
Dallas · Millard
Fillmore · William
R. King · John C.
Breckinridge ·
Hannibal Hamlin ·
Andrew Johnson ·
Schuyler Colfax ·
Henry Wilson ·
William A.
Wheeler ·
Chester A.
Arthur · Thomas
A. Hendricks ·
Levi P. Morton ·
Adlai E.
Stevenson I ·
Garret Hobart ·
Theodore
Roosevelt ·
Charles W.
Fairbanks · James
S. Sherman ·
Thomas R.
Marshall · Calvin
Coolidge ·
Charles G.
Dawes · Charles
Curtis · John
Nance Garner ·
Henry A.
Wallace · Harry S.
Truman · Alben
W. Barkley ·
Richard Nixon ·
Lyndon B.
Johnson · Hubert
Humphrey · Spiro
Agnew · Gerald
Ford · Nelson
Rockefeller ·
Walter Mondale ·
George H. W.
Bush · Dan
Quayle · Al Gore ·
Dick Cheney · Joe
Biden

[show][show]
v • d • e

United States
Secretaries of
State

Jefferson •
Randolph •
Pickering •
J Marshall •
Madison • Smith
• Monroe •
Adams • Clay •
Van Buren •
Livingston •
McLane •
Forsyth •
Webster •
Upshur •
Calhoun •
Buchanan •
Clayton •
Webster •
Everett • Marcy
• Cass • Black •
Seward •
Washburne •
Fish • Evarts •
Blaine •
Frelinghuysen •
Bayard • Blaine
• Foster •
Gresham •
Olney •
Sherman • Day
• Hay • Root •
Bacon • Knox •
Bryan • Lansing
• Colby •
Hughes •
Kellogg •
Stimson • Hull •
Stettinius •
Byrnes •
G Marshall •
Acheson •
Dulles • Herter
• Rusk • Rogers
• Kissinger •
Vance • Muskie
• Haig • Shultz
• Baker •
Eagleburger •
Christopher •
Albright •
Powell • Rice •
Clinton

[show]
[show]
v • d • e

Governo
rs of
Virginia

H
e
n
r
y
·
J
e
ff
e
r
s
o
n
·
Fl
e
m
i
n
g
·
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ls
o
n
·
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a
rr
is
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n
·
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e
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r
y
·
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.
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a
n
d
o
l
p
h
·
B
.
R
a
n
d
o
l
p
h
·
H
.
L
e
e
·
B
r
o
o
k
e
·
W
o
o
d
·
M
o
n
r
o
e
·
P
a
g
e
·
C
a
b
e
ll
·
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e
r
S
r.
·
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.
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m
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h
·
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·
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.
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m
it
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·
P
.
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a
n
d
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·
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b
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·
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s
·
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·
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.
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a
n
d
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·
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·
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.
·
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s
·
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Fl
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·
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a
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·
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s
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·
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·
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·
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·
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·
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·
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·
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B
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·
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s
·
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·
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·
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·
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·
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·
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·
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·
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.
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·
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·
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n
·
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·
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a
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·
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·
B
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·
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·
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y
·
P
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c
e
·
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·
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·
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·
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·
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·
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is
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·
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·
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·
G
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d
w
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·
D
a
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·
R
o
b
b
·
B
a
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e
s
·
W
il
d
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·
A
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·
G
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m
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·
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·
K
a
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n
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·
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c
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n
n
e
ll

[show][show]
v • d • e

United States Ambassadors to France

E
n
v
Benjamin Franklin, Arthur Lee, Silas Deane (substituted by John Adams in 1778) 1776–1779
o
y
s

MFranklin 1778–85 · Jefferson 1785–89 · Short 1790–92 · Morris 1792–94 · Monroe 1794–96 ·
iPinckney 1796–97 · Livingston 1801–04 · Armstrong 1804–10 · Russell (chargé d'affaires) 1811
nBarlow 1811–12 · Crawford 1813–15
i
s
t
e
r
s

P
l
e
n
i
p
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
r
y

E
Gallatin 1816–23 · Brown 1824–29 · Rives 1829–32 · Harris (chargé d'affaires) 1833 ·
n
Livingston 1833–35 · Barton (chargé d'affaires) 1835 · Cass 1836–42 · King 1844–46 · Rush
1847–49 · Rives 1849–53 · Mason 1853–59 · Faulkner 1860–61 · Dayton 1861–64 · Bigelow
v
1865–66 · Dix 1866–69 · Washburne 1869–77 · Noyes 1877–81 · Morton 1881–85 · McLane
o
1885–89 · Reid 1889–92 · Coolidge 1892–93
y

E
x
t
r
a
o
r
d
i
n
a
r
y

a
n
d

M
i
n
i
s
t
e
r

P
l
e
n
i
p
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
r
y

AEustis 1893–97 · Porter 1897–05 · McCormick 1905–07 · White 1907–09 · Bacon 1909–12 ·
mHerrick 1912–14 · Sharp 1914–1919 · Wallace 1919–21 · Herrick 1921–29 · Edge 1929–33 ·
bStrauss 1933–36 · Bullitt 1936–40 · Leahy 1941–42 · Tuck (chargé d'affaires) 1942 · Caffery
a1944–49 · Bruce 1949–52 · Dunn 1952–53 · Dillon 1953–57 · Houghton 1957–61 · Gavin 1961–
62 · Bohlen 1962–68 · Shriver 1968–70 · Watson 1970–72 · Irwin 1973–74 · Rush 1974–77 ·
s
Hartman 1977–81 · Galbraith 1981–85 · Rodgers 1985–89 · Curley 1989–93 · Harriman 1993–
s97 · Rohatyn 1997–2000 · Leach 2001–05 · Stapleton 2005–09 · Rivkin 2009–
a
d
o
r

E
x
t
r
a
o
r
d
i
n
a
r
y
a
n
d

P
l
e
n
i
p
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
r
y

[show][show]
v • d • e

Figures in the Age of Enlightenment by country

[show][show]

Notable figures

Benjamin Franklin · Thomas

British Colonies Jefferson · James Madison ·
Thomas Paine

Prussia and Saxe-Weimar Immanuel Kant · Gotthold

 Ephraim Lessing · Johann
Gottfried von Herder · Johann
Wolfgang von Goethe · Friedrich
von Schiller · Moses Mendelssohn

Edward Gibbon · Samuel Johnson ·

England Mary Wollstonecraft · John Locke
· Isaac Newton · Thomas Hobbes

Joseph Black · James Boswell ·

Scotland Adam Ferguson · David Hume ·
Thomas Reid · Adam Smith

Montesquieu · François Quesnay ·

Voltaire · Buffon · Jean-Jacques
Rousseau · Denis Diderot ·
France Helvétius · Jean le Rond
d'Alembert · Baron d'Holbach ·
Marquis de Sade · Condorcet ·
Étienne Bonnot de Condillac

Italy Cesare Beccaria

Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos ·

Spain Benito Jerónimo Feijoo · Antonio
de Ulloa

Sebastião José de Carvalho e

Portugal
Melo, Marquis of Pombal
 [hide][hide]

Related topics

Atheism · Capitalism · Civil liberties · Critical thinking · Deism · Democracy ·

Diafotismos · Empiricism · Enlightened absolutism · Free markets · Haskalah ·
Humanism · Liberalism · Natural philosophy · Rationality · Reason · Sapere aude ·
Science · Socialism · Secularism · French Encyclopédistes · German Classicism

[show][show]
v • d • e

Cabinet of President George Washington (1789–1797)

V
i
c
e

P
r
John Adams (1789–1797)
e
s
i
d
e
n
t

S
John Jay (1789)
e
c
r
e
t
a
r
y

o
f

F
o
r
e
i
g
n

A
f
f
a
i
r
s

S
Thomas Jefferson (1790–1793) · Edmund Randolph (1794–1795) · Timothy
e
Pickering (1795–1797)
c
r
e
t
a
r
y

o
f

S
t
a
t
e

S
e
c
r
e
t
a
r
y

o
f
Alexander Hamilton (1789–1795) · Oliver Wolcott, Jr. (1795–1797)
t
h
e

T
r
e
a
s
u
r
y

S
Henry Knox (1789–1794) · Timothy Pickering (1795) · James
e
McHenry (1796–1797)
c
r
e
t
a
r
y

o
f

W
a
r

A
t
t
o
r
n
e
y
Edmund Randolph (1792–1794) · William Bradford (1794–1795) · Charles
Lee (1795–1797)
G
e
n
e
r
a
l

P
Samuel Osgood (1789–1791) · Timothy Pickering (1791–1795) · Joseph
o
Habersham (1795–1797)
s
t
m
a
s
t
e
r
G
e
n
e
r
a
l

[show][show]
v • d • e

Cabinet of President John Adams (1797-1801)

V
i
c
e

P
r
Thomas Jefferson (1797-1801)
e
s
i
d
e
n
t

S
Timothy Pickering (1797-1800) • John Marshall (1800-1801)
e
c
r
e
t
a
r
y
o
f

S
t
a
t
e

S
e
c
r
e
t
a
r
y

o
f
Oliver Wolcott, Jr. (1797-1801) • Samuel Dexter (1801)
t
h
e

T
r
e
a
s
u
r
y

S
James McHenry (1796-1800) • Samuel Dexter (1800-1801)
e
c
r
e
t
a
r
y

o
f

W
a
r

A
t
t
o
r
n
e
y
Charles Lee (1797-1801)

G
e
n
e
r
a
l

S
Benjamin Stoddert (1798-1801)
e
c
r
e
t
a
r
y

o
f

t
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e

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a
v
y

[show][show]
v • d • e

Cabinet of President Thomas Jefferson (1801–1809)

V
i
c
e

P
r
Aaron Burr (1801–1805) · George Clinton (1805–1809)
e
s
i
d
e
n
t

S
James Madison (1801–1809)
e
c
r
e
t
a
r
y

o
f

S
t
a
t
e

S
Samuel Dexter (1801) · Albert Gallatin (1801–1809)
e
c
r
e
t
a
r
y

o
f

t
h
e

T
r
e
a
s
u
r
y

S
e
c
r
e
t
a
r
Henry Dearborn (1801–1809)
y

o
f

W
a
r

ALevi Lincoln, Sr. (1801–1804) · Robert Smith (1805) · John Breckinridge

t(1805–1806) · Caesar A. Rodney (1807–1809)
t
o
r
n
e
y

G
e
n
e
r
a
l

S
e
c
r
e
t
a
r
y

o
Benjamin Stoddert (1801) · Robert Smith (1801–1809)
f

t
h
e

N
a
v
y

[show][show]
v • d • e

The College of William & Mary

Williamsburg, Virginia

A Affiliate institutions: Richard Bland College

c Schools: Mason School of Business • School of Arts and Sciences • School of Education •
a School of Law • Virginia Institute of Marine Science
d Programs: Center for Gifted Education • Omohundro Institute of Early American History and
Culture • Thomas Jefferson Program in Public Policy
e
Other: Awards • Brigham-Kanner Property Rights Conference / Prize • Honor Code • Institute
mof Bill of Rights Law • Phi Beta Kappa Society • Public Ivy • Southern Ivy • William & Mary
i
c Scandal of 1951
s

A
t
h
l Sports: Football (Capital Cup) • Men's Basketball • Women's Soccer
Facilities: Albert-Daly Field • Blow Gymnasium • Busch Field • Busch Tennis Courts • Jimmye
e Laycock Football Center • Kaplan Arena at William & Mary Hall • McCormack-Nagelsen
t Tennis Center • Plumeri Park • Walter J. Zable Stadium at Cary Field
i Other: Colonial Athletic Association • Colonel Ebirt • Tribe Fight Song • Tribe Athletics
c
s

C
a
m Alan B. Miller Hall • Alumni House • Brafferton • Crim Dell Bridge • Integrated Science
pCenter • Lake Matoaka Amphitheatre • Muscarelle Museum of Art • Phi Beta Kappa Memorial
Hall • Sunken Garden • Wren Building
u
s

L
i
b
r
Earl Gregg Swem Library • Henry C. Wolf Law Library • Mason School of Business Library •
a School of Education Library • William J. Hargis, Jr. Library • William Small Physical
r Laboratory Library
i
e
s

H History • Firsts • Colonial Colleges • Christopher Newport University • Old Dominion

i University • Priorities of the College
s
t
o
r
y

M
e
dPublications (DoG Street Journal; Flat Hat; Virginia Informer) • William and Mary Quarterly •
i WCWM 90.9 FM • WMTV
a

P
e
o Alumni • Presidents • W. Taylor Reveley III (President) • Sandra Day O'Connor (Chancellor) •
pPolice • King William III & Queen Mary II • Commencement Speakers • Jon Stewart • Glenn
l Close • Thomas Jefferson • Mike Tomlin • John Tyler • James Monroe • John Marshall
e

S
t
u
d
e
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t Mater • Queens' Guard • Secret Societies (7 Society; Bishop James Madison Society; Flat Hat
Club; Wren Society) • Student Assembly
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M Ash Lawn-Highland • City of Williamsburg • Colonial Williamsburg • I Am the College • Royal

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Founded: 1693 • Students: 7,892 • Endowment: $586 million

[show][show]
v • d • e

U NIVERSITY OF

V IRGINIA

Main Article: University of

Virginia

ACADEMICS[hide][hide]

Schools: School of Architecture

(SARC/GARC) · Batten School of
Leadership and Public Policy · College
of Arts & Sciences (CLAS/GSAS) ·
School of Continuing and Professional
Studies (SCED) · Darden Graduate
School of Business Administration
(GSBA) · McIntire School of
Commerce (SCC) · Curry School of
Education (SED/GED) · School of
Engineering and Applied Science
(SEAS/GEAS) · School of Law
(LAW/GLAW) · School of Medicine
(SMD) · School of Nursing
(NURS/GNUR) · College at Wise
(WISE) · US Army Judge Advocate
General’s School
Programs: Jefferson Scholars · Echols
Scholars · Rodman Scholars
Research: Association of American
Universities · Association of
Universities for Research in
Astronomy · Institute for Advanced
Technology in the Humanities ·
Japanese Text Initiative · Universitas
21 · Mid Atlantic Terascale
Partnership · Flexible Extensible Digital
Object Repository Architecture ·
Applied Research in Patacriticism ·
Networked Infrastructure for
Nineteenth-Century Electronic
Scholarship · Legion · Mentat · Real-
Time Cmix
Research publications: Virginia
Journal of International Law · Journal of
Law and Politics
Scholarships: Jefferson Scholars
Miscellaneous: Honor code · Virginia
Standards of Conduct · University
Judiciary Committee · Rare Book
School · Semester at Sea · Weldon
Cooper Center for Public Service ·
Sorensen Institute for Political
Leadership · Miller Center of Public
Affairs · University of Virginia Center
for Politics · Sabato's Crystal Ball

ATHLETICS[hide][hide]

ACC · Virginia Cavaliers · Virginia Pep

Band · Cavalier Marching Band ·
theSabre · Wahoos · The Good Old
Song · The Cavalier Song
Teams: Baseball · Men's basketball ·
Football
Rivalries: Virginia-Virginia Tech
rivalry · South's Oldest Rivalry ·
Maryland–Virginia rivalry ·
Commonwealth Cup · Jefferson-Eppes
Trophy
Current Facilities: Aquatics and
Fitness Center · Birdwood Golf Course ·
Davenport Field · John Paul Jones
Arena · Klöckner Stadium · Lake
Monticello · Lannigan Track ·
Memorial Gym · Panorama Farms · The
Park · Scott Stadium · Sheridan Snyder
Tennis Center · Turf Field
Past Facilities: University Hall

GROUNDS[hide][hide]

The Lawn · The Range · The Rotunda ·

The Corner · Charlottesville · Fan
Mountain Observatory · Hereford
College · Jefferson Hall · McCormick
Observatory · Rugby Road

STUDENT LIFE[hide][hide]

Publications: The Cavalier Daily ·

Corks & Curls · The Declaration ·
University of Virginia Press · Virginia
Law Weekly · The Virginia Quarterly
Review · The Yellow Journal
Online Webcasts: CAV-TV · The
Hoos News Show
Debating Societies: Jefferson Literary
and Debating Society · Washington
Literary Society and Debating Union
Performing Arts: Academical Village
People · Hullabahoos · The New
Dominions · Virginia Glee Club ·
Virginia Gentlemen · The Virginia
Belles · Other
Residential Colleges: Brown College
at Monroe Hill · Hereford College ·
International Residential College
First Year Living Area: Alderman
Road · McCormick Road
Secret Societies: IMP Society · Seven
Society · Z Society · Other

PEOPLE[hide][hide]

Notable Alumni · University

Presidents
Thomas Jefferson · James Madison ·
James Monroe · Woodrow Wilson ·
Robert F. Kennedy · Edgar Allan Poe ·
Georgia O'Keeffe · Javier Solana · Paul
Tudor Jones · Katie Couric · Tiki
Barber · Ronde Barber · Ralph
Sampson · Larry Sabato · Dawn Staley ·
Claudio Reyna · Tina Fey

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Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson"

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