The Arts and Crafts: Reactionary or Progressive?

Author(s): Edgar Kaufmann, Jr.

Source: Record of the Art Museum, Princeton University, Vol. 34, No. 2, Aspects of the
Arts and Crafts Movement in America (1975), pp. 6-12
Published by: Princeton University Art Museum
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/3774435
Accessed: 27-05-2019 17:36 UTC

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The Arts and Crafts: Reactionary or Progressive?
Edgar Kaufmann, jr.

American participation in the Arts and Crafts movement, sig- was the modern architects who stood in the way of our hav-
nified by "the formal founding of specific organizations," was ing a genuine modern architecture of the 19th century.2
surveyed by H. Allen Brooks in the Journal of the Society of
Architectural Historians:' Here, on the other hand, international If one does not allow nomenclature to obscure essential

aspects of an Arts and Crafts attitude will be considered, loose- ideas, it seems fair to say that this points directly to the Arts

ly encompassing more varied data. Only then can one hope to and Crafts. Before making this assumption, it is desirable to
answer the questions: Was the Arts and Crafts movement mere- know something about three ideas that underlie the move-
ly reactionary, a desire to return, as in a dream, to pre-industrial ment: first, progress and reaction (how has this purely historical
innocence? And if so, how are the close links between the concept affected design?); second, creativity as a positive value
movement and almost every major figure of progressive mod- in everyday life (how did the elixir of genius turn into the tonic
ern design, men as different as Le Corbusier and Frank Lloyd of ordinary citizens?); and third, honesty and sincerity (why
Wright, to be explained? I shall touch on antecedents of the was there an ethical intrusion in the applied arts?). On this
original English Arts and Crafts movement, and some European occasion such large questions will perforce be answered quite
phenomena related to the movement, throwing light, I hope, sketchily.
on the American Arts and Crafts movement. The elaborate interplay of progress and reaction in Western
The famous eleventh edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica art has preoccupied scholars on many occasions, but I have
has an essay by Henry Heathcote Statham, written just as the found one survey to be especially succinct: E. H. Gombrich's
Arts and Crafts movement began to ebb in England. The writer 1971 lectures at Cooper Union (which have been published by
deals with architecture, but his insight and immediate experi- Cooper Union's School of Art and Architecture). Gombrich dis-
ence validate his testimony for the applied arts. Statham writes: cusses the idea that progress entails decay, and that this in turn
puts a premium on primitive states, for they contain the prom-
In England and the United States, the last quarter of the 19th ise of perfection, while perfection itself contains only the
century was a period of unusual interest and activity.... All promise of corruption. Thus an emphasis on incipience accom-
had been copied that could be copied, and the result, to the panies dynamic and evolutionary views of history, views that
architectural mind, was not satisfaction but satiety.... To have been accepted throughout the Western world since the
reduce architecture to good sound building and good work- days of the Enlightenment. In 1762, the case for the primal state
manship seemed to promise at any rate a better basis to work
was encapsulated in the famous opening of Jean-Jacques Rous-
upon than the mere imitation of classic or medieval detail; it seau's Emile: "All is well when it leaves the hands of the Cre-
might conceivably furnish a new starting point. This was the ator of things; all degenerates in the hands of man."3 The Arts
element of life in the Queen Anne revival, and it had ... an and Crafts movement itself never looked further back than to
influence beyond the circle of the special revivers of the
the Middle Ages in its search for authenticity. But one of the
style....
most popular design texts of the era, Owen Jones's Grammar of
The "Queen Anne" type of architecture ... presented a Ornament, written in 1856, presented the arts of the South Sea
simple vernacular of construction and detail, in which solid islanders along with those of the most admired civilizations.
workmanship was a more prominent element than elabora- Jones views the "noble savage" as the first "honest craftsman."4
tion of what is known as architectural style. To a small group
Turning next to creativity as everybody's birthright, the
of clever and enthusiastic architects of the younger genera-
record leads to an epoch fifty years before Rousseau's Emile, to
tion it appeared that this idea might be carried still further;
the essays of the third Earl of Shaftesbury. His highly personal
that ... the real chance for giving life to architecture as a
insights were summarized, in 1932, by Ernst Cassirer:
modern art was to throw aside all the conventionally accept-
ed insignia of architectural style-columns, pilasters, cornices, Shaftesbury ... wants to go back from the work of art to the
buttresses, etc.-and trust that in the process of time a new artist who formed it and who is immediately present in all its
decorative detail would be evolved, indebted to no prece- manifestations of form.... to the world of the creative
dent. The building artisans, in fact, were collectively to take process.... Rational analysis and psychological introspection,
the place of the architect and the form of the building to be according to Shaftesbury, leave us on the periphery of the
evolved by a natural process of growth. This was a favorite beautiful, not at its center. This center is ... to be found in
idea also with William Morris, who insisted ... that in fact it the process ... of forming and creating.... Once this source

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has been discovered, the true and the only possible synthesis
has been accomplished ... between subject and object,
between the ego and the world.... We consider man ... not
as something created, but as a creator.... Here man's real ...
nature comes to light; he becomes a "second maker, a just
Prometheus under Jove."5
Shaftesbury's concept of creativity as a divine grace could not,
in a Protestant culture, be confined to an elite; it was poten-
tially everyone's, if the effort was made to reach it. By
mid-nineteenth century, the potential had become a right: a
human being was a creative being and society should make it
possible for him to develop his capacity freely. John Ruskin was
eloquent on this score.
Ruskin also spoke for honesty and sincerity. He urged an
ethical approach to design, that is, for the open expression of
structural facts and of the nature of materials. To hide these ele-
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1 Frank Lloyd Wright, drawing of living room, Avery Coonley house,
Riverside, III. Reproduced from Frank Lloyd Wright, Ausgefurhte Bauten
und Entwurfe (Berlin, 1910), pl. 56.
ments was, he deemed, a sin. Others before him had been of
the same mind. As early as the mid-eighteenth century, such
thoughts had been expounded by the Venetian Fra Carlo Lodo-
li. Lodoli's notes for a book on architecture, unpublished until
the 1830s, read: "A material [should be] used so as to express
its particular nature and the purpose intended.... Form is the
individual and complete expression which arises when materi-
als are employed in accord with . . . [scientific] rules to reach an
intended result.... Function and form ... should be so merged
as to become one single thing.... Ornament is not essential
but accessory."6
Thus, as regards primitivity, creativity, and honesty, the pre-
conditions for an Arts and Crafts attitude are found, perhaps
unexpectedly, in the Enlightenment. These trends of thought
persisted throughout the romantic era and of course were
tinged by it before they influenced the artists and designers of
the mid-nineteenth century. I hold, nevertheless, that the Arts and
Crafts movement is as much an outcome of the Enlightenment was won by Ralph N. Wornum, a lecturer on art at the Govern-
as is the Industrial Revolution. ment Schools. His lengthy entry, promptly published,7 is per-
With these basic ideas at hand, it became possible for an Artsceptive but not as interesting here as its runner-up. The Journal
editors also presented an article, even longer than Wornum's,
and Crafts attitude to arise during the mid-1850s. What precipi-
tated the event then was the condition of design. I name this in the October and November issues of 1851. It was written by
era of design "bourgeois," since that class, not the court of any George Wallis, graduate of the Government Schools of Design,
monarch, called the tune. To glance at bourgeois design, espe- later head of the Design School at Manchester and, before that,
cially in its native England, is revealing. The first aspect of bour- of the one at Spitalfields.
geois design that claims attention is its division into three prov- Wallis and Redgrave saw the central problem of mass pro-
inces. Design was characterized differently for home life, for duction from opposing viewpoints. Wallis wrote:
commerce and industry, and for the various forms of public
life. As late as the neoclassic era, such differentiations were If one excellent [product] is valuable and useful in one
achieved by inflection, not by an outright shift of formal vocab- place ... then is its usefulness multiplied by reproduction,
and its distribution into channels into which but for these
ulary. Bourgeois design, however, made use of separate genres,
economic methods it could never have found its way, a
and this was possible in part because of a studious mastery of
so many design expressions from the past. The eclectic welter greater good....
enriched the vocabulary of forms, which then tended to be Never was there a greater fallacy than the proposition so

sorted according to more or less appropriate associations,
rather loosely understood.
It is important to observe that the Arts and Crafts attack cen-
tered on design for home life. The hope of storming this bas-
tion was aroused by disarray among the forces of bourgeois
design. This was particularly evident in published controversies
over the consumer wares displayed in 1851 at the Great Exhibi-
tion of the Industry of All Nations. The Great Exhibition pre-
sented riot only an exhaustive survey of industry's products, it
also took stock of the bourgeois world. Handcrafts as well as
factory products were on view. Oriental handcraft design was,
Redgrave's report was based on the proposition that, in fact,
in fact, a feature of the event. Most examples came from
excellence is not achieved:
centers of Islamic culture tributary to Europe-post-Mogul India
(where England dominated), North Africa, and the countries of
the Near East. The huge array of consumer goods and the chal-
lenging contrast between the products of industry and those of
traditional crafts led to an outpouring of comment and criti-
cism. Three bourgeois critics stand out, two of whom have
something to say apt to the present purpose.
Richard Redgrave, later famous as co-author with his brother
of a standard work on British painting, was himself a painter,
associated with the Royal Academy and the Government
Schools of Design. He played a prominent role in preparing the
Great Exhibition. I will quote presently from Redgrave's Supple-
mentary Report on Design, added to the 1852 Reports by Juries.
Other quotations come from the Art Journal, a monthly for
general readers, which in 1851 awarded a large cash prize for
"an essay on the best mode of rendering the Exhibition of the
Works of Industry of All Nations ... practically useful to the
British Manufacturer." Submissions were anonymous; the prize
frequently maintained, that machinery has been the immedi-
ate cause of... low priced shams and imitations, and that
therefore machinery is to be repudiated in the production of
artistic results.... What is our machinery? Is it not another
mode of applying the ingenuity and inventive power with
which man has been endowed?
... Provided excellence is achieved, the use of machinery
and its productions is one of the features of modern progress
that every true and enlightened man would seek to
encourage.8
The facilities which machinery gives to the manufacturer
enable him to produce the florid and overloaded as cheaply
as simple forms, and thus to satisfy ... the multitude, who
desire quantity rather than quality, and value the thing the
more, the more it is ornamented.
... One would think that what was to be produced by
thousands and tens of thousands should at least be a work of
beauty, and no pains spared to insure its excellence. The cost
of the first design or model must in such a case be a mere
atom when divided among its myriad [replicas]. It would
seem strange, too, that anyone could be found to throw
away great expense upon dies and moulds to carry out a
design which in itself was hardly thought worth paying for.
Yet often in this country [the artist is] paid little better than
[a workman] ... his name is unknown ... and what there may
be of beauty and excellence in his work is often spoiled by
the ... manufacturer, who makes no scruple of setting his

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 own taste above that of the artist and altering ... a design at gious reforms of the mid-nineteenth century. Pugin, in the very
his sole pleasure (Supplementary Report on Design, London, heyday of miscellaneous historical stylings, could honestly say
1852). that what he sought was "not a style, but a principle" of
design. More than anyone, Pugin pushed mid-nineteenth-cen-
Redgrave went on to state a widely held view:
tury English design to become ethical.
In old times the artist was at once designer, ornamentist, and The next outsider is Horatio Greenough, the American expa-
craftsman ... his hand and his mind wrought together, not triate. Unlike Pugin, he was no leader; on the contrary, his
only in the design, but in every stage of its completion, and trenchant aphorisms continued an old romantic worship of
thus there entered a portion of that mind into every minute organic growth. Yet Greenough succeeded in bridging what
detail ... many a beautiful after-thought... many a grace seemed unbridgeable-the gap between the organic and the
added.... He worked ... as Nature works:-she produces mechanical. Greek philosophers had gradually differentiated
nothing exactly similar to its fellow.... This is not possible one concept from the other. Immanuel Kant, centuries later,
with the stamp, the mould, the press, and the die, the orna- spread the use of the word "organic" to denote one of them.
mental agents of our days ... whence arises a sickening After another fifty years, Greenough saw beyond the multipli-
monotony... unknown in the works of nature and peculiar cation of mechanical objects to the development of machinery
to the artificial works of man: the varying mind has no share itself, a process dependent on the interactions of human minds
in their production, and man himself becomes only the ser- and thus inevitably organic. He explained: "If we compare the
vant of the machine ... who cares for a work that is not to be forms of a newly invented machine with the perfect type of the
the child of his own hand, but to be produced in thousands same instrument, we observe, as we trace it through the phases
by the aid of machinery? (Supplementary Report on Design). of improvement, how weight is shaken off where strength is
less needed, how functions are made to approach without
Wallis, however, replied: impeding on each other... till the straggling and cumbersome
machine becomes the compact, effective, and beautiful
Strange to say, it has been argued that the use of machinery
engine."10 Greenough attacked the bourgeois approach to
deadens the energies of the worker, renders him too a
machine, and lessens his interest in his work.... it is most
design not from a moral or religious point of view, like Pugin,
but from a humanist ground.
unhesitatingly declared, from long personal observation and
It remained for Ruskin to combine the moral and the human-
an intimate acquaintance with ... employments in which
ist attacks on bourgeois civilization; his overall impact was cor-
machinery is most largely used that... far from the machine-
respondingly greater than that of Greenough or Pugin. In the
ry they direct and superintend reducing [workers] to a state
year of the Great Exhibition, 1851, Ruskin published the first
of mere mechanical exertion, it produces the very opposite
volume of his Stones of Venice, which was to become influen-
result, and the higher the character of the machine, and the
tial only later. In an appendix he posited a doctrine seminal for
more subtle and complete its action, the more intelligent,
the revival of handcrafts: "All art which is worth its room in this
accurate, and pains-taking the worker who attends it
world ... is art which proceeds from an individual mind, work-
becomes... the man must of necessity be superior in action
ing through instruments which assist, but do not supersede, the
to the machine, since he has to think for it, and until some
muscular action of the hand, upon materials which most ten-
inventor perfect a machine which shall be so utterly inde-
derly receive, and most securely retain, the impressions of such
pendent of human direction as to do everything for itself and
human labour.'"' Two years later the rest of Stones of Venice
of itself, the worker of the machine must progress in intelli-
was issued, and some implications of the doctrine of the
gence according to the perfection he has to aim at and
direct.9 "impressions of human labour" were developed more fully, this
time in a main section. He writes: "Now, in the make and
Out of this confrontation it is easy to draw elements that nature of every man, however rude or simple, whom we
invited the Arts and Crafts reaction. Further steps toward that employ in manual labour, there are some powers for better
end were taken by men antagonistic to bourgeois design, things, some tardy imagination.... They cannot be strength-
unlike Redgrave and Wallis, who were pillars of its establish- ened, unless we are content to take them in their feebleness,
ment. The first outsider who comes to mind is A. Welby Pugin, and unless we prize and honour them in their imperfection
an early leader among designers involved with the strong reli- above the best and most perfect manual skill."'2 Ruskin valued

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not the "impressions of... labour" as men had done for cen-
turies, but the "impressions of human labour" for their sheer
humanity. Since civilization began, accuracy and perfection
have been the goals of craftsmanship; but now, when machines
placed them within everyone's grasp, the values were reversed
and discovered in the hitherto scorned evidences of fumbling
effort: "If you will make a man of the working creature, you
cannot make a tool. Let him begin to imagine, to think, to try
to do anything worth doing; and the engine-turned precision is
lost at once. Out come all his roughness, all his dulness, all his
incapability; shame upon shame, failure upon failure, pause
after pause: but out comes the whole majesty of him also."'3 In
1870 Ruskin wrote that "all the architectural arts begin in the
shaping of the cup and the platter, and they end in a glorified
roof."'4 The bond that unites the useful arts has rarely been
characterized so crisply, or with such heterodox inversion. For
Ruskin was claiming that architecture was not the mother of
these arts but their daughter!
A similar opinion was held by the two most influential
design theorists of the 1860s and 1870s, Gottfried Semper and
E.-E. Viollet-le-Duc. Semper's great unfinished opus, Der Stil in
den technischen und tektonischen Kunsten, was based on the
priority of the crafts to architectural design.'5 Viollet published
his two dictionnaires raisonnees, one for architecture and the
other for furnishings, as concurrent and largely equal enter-
prises.'6 Thus the champions of the classical and the medieval
paradigms in design both greatly strengthened the reputation
of handcrafts. Together with Ruskin they pointed the way to
what now appears as the inevitable next step.
Before turning to the Arts and Crafts movement itself, a brief
synopsis of the practice of design in the 1860s and 1870s will be
helpful. Again, the generalizations are based on conditions in
England, since detailed research has been pursued there. Four
principal types of designers were at work. First, there were the
aesthetes, many of whom were architects. E. W. Godwin, once
dubbed "the greatest aesthete of them all," may stand as the
exemplar of this trend-subtle, witty, and avant-garde. The next
group were the professionals, who followed various avant-
garde modes as far as the market allowed. Christopher Dresser,
master of not a few trades and a leading exponent of commer-
cial design, will serve to represent this group, in whose work
one sees so much striving after effect. Then there were the
performers, slickly schooled experts, hired to produce big, bra-
vura pieces for the many international exhibitions that fol-
lowed after 1851. A. E. Carrier, head of the studio at Minton's
ceramic works and later in a similar position at Sevres, is a good
example. Young Rodin worked for him. Lastly, there were the
10
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reformers, who were close forerunners of the Arts and Crafts
movement. William Morris is the inevitable paragon, not only
because of his own work, but for the efforts he elicited from
others. The 1870s saw Morris's greatest success as a designer;
dependent on historic examples, he reused them with versatili-
ty and poetic skill. The last twenty years of his life, however,
were devoted more to Socialism than to design. Morris and his
followers, who were some of the best designers of the period,
believed that one must help reform the life of the many rather
than merely ornament the surroundings of a few.
In England, amid these fertile complications, the Arts and
Crafts movement was born, a crusade for the indivisibility of all
arts. The Royal Academy could not and would not accept the
debasement of fine arts by the utilitarian crafts. Those who
believed in the homogeneity of man's artistic efforts were com-
pelled to form new agencies for the exchange of ideas and
experiences and the promotion of their ideals. Although the
English Arts and Crafts movement has been examined many
times, some aspects of it deserve scrutiny now, as do some of
its repercussions abroad.
A founder of the movement, Arthur H. Mackmurdo, is fairly
well known, but his enthusiasm for forms of the early Renais-
sance-an interest surprisingly acquired while traveling with
that arch-Gothicist, Ruskin, in Italy-has not been more than
indicated in published works. This is an important ingredient in
the amalgam of the Arts and Crafts movement and deserves
further study. W. A. S. Benson, who took the lead in Morris's
firm after the master's death, is less renowned than Mackmur-
do. One of Benson's fancy cabinets, made by Morris and Com-
pany, was recently acquired by the Victoria and Albert Muse-
um, London. Benson's inexpensive metalwares, produced in
quantity at his workshops and of more significance today than
his luxury wares, are well represented in the Nordenfjeldske
Kunstindustrimuseum in Trondheim, Norway. These metal-
wares, with Morris's earliest printed wallpapers and rush-bot-
tomed chairs and settles, were among the few English products
of reformist design priced to reach a wider public.
A Dutchman who followed in Benson's path, Jan Eisenloeffel,
is remembered even less. As an apprentice he worked in
Faberge's ateliers and, like Benson, he produced luxury wares
on occasion throughout his career. Established near Amster-
dam, Eisenloeffel became famous for rational, boldly elegant,
low-cost metal products. A brief stay in Munich and repeated
publication made him especially well known in Germany,
where Eisenloeffel's influence can be traced through the
Deutscher Werkbund to the metalshop of the Bauhaus in the
1920s. Another Dutchman, H. P. Berlage, is very well remem-
2 Frank Lloyd Wright, dining room, Avery Coonley house, Riverside, III.,
1907-09. Reproduced from Grant C. Manson, Frank Lloyd Wright to 1910:
The First Golden Age (New York, 1958), p. 195.

bered; indeed, a monograph devoted to him has been pub-
lished in an English translation.'7 Berlage's furniture and metal
fittings continued the older styles of English designers, from
Pugin to Street, while Berlage's influential ideals largely echoed
those of the contemporary English Arts and Crafts movement.
In another section of Europe, Antoni Gaudi began to design
furniture and furnishings which were no more progressive than
Berlage's.'8 Before the turn of the century, however, Gaudi had
outstripped the Dutchman in free expression and experimental
craftsmanship. Gaudi often exceeded the dogma of the Arts
and Crafts movement, but on occasion he worked within it
with undeniable genius. Equally protean was Emile Galle of
Nancy, although only one aspect of his design is heeded today.
Galle achieved inexpensive quantity production of original and
distinctively craftsmanlike glass, drawing the attention of the
world. But Galle's success also attracted a chorus of imitators,
who in time thoroughly debased this kind of art glass. Galle's
cabinetry fared better. In his furniture, Galle sometimes

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demonstrated a spirited and entirely personal mastery of up-to- 10. Horatio Greenough, "American Architecture," United
date technology. It was what in these years Frank Lloyd Wright States Magazine and Democratic Review (1843); reprinted in
called "the art and craft of the machine."'9 idem, Form and Function, ed. Harold A. Small (Berkeley, 1957),
Three men active in the English Arts and Crafts movement pp. 51-68.
were especially influential to Wright: Charles R. Ashbee, whose11. John Ruskin, The Works of John Ruskin, eds. E. T. Cook
relationship to Wright has been explored by Alan Crawford;20and Alexander Wedderburn, Library Edition (London, 1903),
Charles F. A. Voysey, who Wright openly admired;2' and M. H. vol. 9, p. 456.
Baillie Scott. One might compare a paradigm of Wright's art 12. Ibid., vol. 10, p. 191.
and craft adapted to machine production-the 1910 Wasmuth 13. Ibid., p. 192.
portfolio drawing of the living room of the Avery Coonley 14. Ibid., vol. 20, p. 96.
house (figure 1)-with a photograph of the dining room of the 15. Gottfried Semper, Der Stil in den technischen und tekton-
same house (figure 2), the latter showing furniture that is, I ischen Kunsten (Munich, 1878-79).
believe, by Baillie Scott-a rare concession, indeed, for Wright. 16. E.-E. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonne de I'architec-
The Arts and Crafts movement, was it reactionary or progress-
ture fran;aise du Xle au XVle siecle, 10 vols. (Paris, 1858-68);
ive? Reactionary, yes, when reduced to manifestations like idem, Dictionnaire raisonne du mobilier fran;ais de I'epoque
Morris's book, all too aptly named News from Nowhere.22 Prog-
Carlovingienne a la Renaissance, 6 vols. (Paris, 1858-75).
ressive, yes, when one takes into account how perdurable are 17. Pieter Singelenberg, H. P. Berlage, Idea and Style: The
certain of its chief trends: the aim to serve a wide public; the Quest for Modern Architecture (Utrecht, 1972).
reliance on primitive brusqueness for vigor; the faith in the 18. Cesar Martinell, Gaudi' su vida, su teoria, s~u obra (Bar-
virtue of the so-called creative milieu-or failing that, at least in
celona, 1967).
some token "creative" objects; and the resistance to the dehu- 19. Frank Lloyd Wright, "The Art and Craft of the Machine,"
manizing effects of orthodox bourgeois standards of living. Catalogue of the Fourteenth Annual Exhibition of the Chicago
Architectural Club (Chicago, 1901), n.pag. This address was
delivered by Wright to the Chicago Arts and Crafts Society at
Hull House on March 6,1901, and to the Western Society of
Engineers on March 20,1901.
Notes 20. Alan Crawford, "Ten Letters from Frank Lloyd Wright to
1. H. Allan Brooks, "Chicago Architecture: Its Debts to the Charles Robert Ashbee," Architectural History, 13 (1970), pp.
Arts and Crafts," Journal of the Society of Architectural Histori- 68-76.
ans, 30 (December 1971), pp. 312-17. 21. Familiar as Voysey's works are becoming to students of
2. Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th ed., s.v. "Architecture, Mod-the period, one aspect remains little known: his adherence to
ern," by Henry Heathcote Statham. the hues and color combinations introduced by Pre-Raphaelite
3. Ernst Cassirer, Philosophy of the Enlightenment, trans. painters. It seems that these colorings were scarcely used in
Fritz C. A. Koelln and James P. Pettegrove (Boston, 1951), pp. American design at the time.
156, 157. 22. William Morris, News from Nowhere, 5th ed. (London,
4. Owen Jones, Grammar of Ornament (London, 1868), chap. 1897).
1 ("Ornament of Savage Tribes").
5. Cassirer, Philosophy, pp. 84 passim.
6. Edgar Kaufmann, jr., "Memmo's Lodoli," Art Bulletin, 46
(June 1964), p. 175; see also C. Lodoli, Elementi d'architettura
Lodoliana (1834; reprint ed., Milan, 1973), vol. 2, pp. 59, 60.
7. Ralph N. Wornum, "The Government Schools of Design:
Signs of Progress-The Exhibition at Marlborough House," Art
Journal, 3 (April 1851), pp. 101-4.
8. George Wallis, "Art, Science, and Manufacture, as an
Unity," Art Journal, 3 (October 1851), pp. 245-52.
9. Ibid., p. 249.

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