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Summary of Chemistry

Dr. Sun
For Chemistry SAT and AP

2019
New York
Dr. Sun Chemistry Summary .

CONTENTS

Chapter Page
Chapter 01 Atoms and Periodic Table 03
Chapter 02 Chemical Bond and Molecular geometry 11
Chapter 03 Name Compounds and Ions 18
Chapter 04 Liquid , Solid and Intermolecular Force 20
Chapter 05 Gases 23
Chapter 06 Solutions 25
Chapter 07 Stoichiometry 28
Chapter 08 Chemical Reactions 30
Chapter 09 Kinetics 36
Chapter 10 Chemical Equilibrium 40
Chapter 11 Acids and Bases 42
Chapter 12 Electrochemistry 48
Chapter 13 Thermodynamics 53
Chapter 14 Nuclear Chemistry 55
Chapter 15 Organic Chemistry 58
Chapter 16 Coordination Chemistry 62
Chapter 17 Experimental Chemistry 66
Chapter 18 Units and Significant Figures 71
Chapter 19 Overview 73

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Chapter 1 Atoms and Periodic Table

1. Everything is made of three particles: protons, neutrons and electrons.


Protons and neutrons form atomic nucleus then nucleus and electrons form atoms. Atoms bond together to form
molecules.
mass charge

proton 1 amu +1
matter molecule atom
water H2O H, O neutron 1 amu 0

electron 1
amu -1
1840

an atom

2. Atomic Mass Unit (amu)


The mass of a carbon-12 atom containing 6 protons, 6 neutrons and 6 electrons is set to be 12 amu.
mass of C-12 1
Definition of amu: = 1 amu = gram
12 6.02×1023
Amu is a very small mass unit. 1 amu = 1.66 x 10-24 gram. Mass of a C-12 atom is 1.99 x 10-23 grams. So atoms
are very tiny. Mass of electron is often treated as 0.
q1q2
3. Force in Chemistry: Coulomb’s Law F k
r2
Proton has +1 charge and electron has -1 charge. Like charges repel and opposite charges attract. This is the
original force for atoms to combine to form molecules and for molecules to aggregate to form liquid and solid.

4. 118 elements have been discovered or created.


Each element has different number protons and electrons. For example, oxygen has 8 protons and 8 electrons.
You can find all elements in Periodic Table of Elements.

5. Atom: the unit to form molecules.


1) Molecule is the smallest unit of a substance. H2O is a molecule having 3 atoms: 2H and O.
2) Atomic number = proton number = electron number = nuclear charge.
An oxygen atom has 6 protons and 6 electrons because atomic number of oxygen is 6.
3) Atomic mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons. It is always a whole number.
C-12 means the atomic mass number is 12. As C has 6 protons, so it has 6 neutrons.
4) Element: all atoms with same number of protons. If proton number changes, it becomes another element.
5) Atomic mass is the average mass of nature occurring isotopes. For example, there are 75% of Cl-37 and 25% of
Cl-35 in nature, atomic mass of Cl = 75% x 37 + 25% x 35 = 35.5 amu
6) Atomic radius : H = 37 pm; 1pm = 10-12 m O = 0.65 Å; Å = 10-10 m

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7) Isotopes and Allotropes

Isotopes Allotropes
Same element Same element
Different number of neutrons Different structures
C-12 and C-13 Diamond, Graphite and C60
O-16 and O-18 O2 and O3 ; S4 and S8
H-1(hydrogen), H-2 (deuterium), H-3 (tritium) P4 (white) and P1000 (red)

O2 O3 diamond (carbon) graphite (carbon) C60

O
O O O O

Double bond Bond order 1.5 4 single bonds 3 bonds 2 single


1 free electron 1 double bonds
Absorb UV Very hard Conduct electricity

6. Electrons move in orbitals


Atoms have many orbitals, like hotels have many rooms. Electrons move in orbitals like guests live in rooms.
1) What is orbital: the region for electrons to move around.
2) Number of orbitals = n2 where n = energy level. There are 9 orbitals in energy level 3.
3) There are four types of orbitals: s, p, d, f. Their shapes show below ( f orbitals not shown).

s orbital (one) p orbital (three) d orbital (five)

4) Orbitals have different energy


See diagram on the right showing the number of orbital in
each energy level and their relative energy. Please note that
the energy of 4s is lower than 3d.

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7. Three rules for electrons to fill orbitals


Energy
1) Aufbau Principle: Electrons fill lowest energy orbital first.
4f
4d
2) Pauli Exclusion Principle: Each orbital can have at most
2 electrons with opposite spin. Pauli exclusion can also be n=4
4p
expressed as “ There are no two electrons in an atom can
have identical quantum numbers.” 3d
4s n=3
3p
3s

2p
n=2
3) Hund’s Rule: Electrons fill empty orbital first if they have 2s
the same energy. If there are 3e in three p orbitals,
1s energy level n = 1
each p orbital has 1 electron.

8. Electron Configuration 1S22S2P4


2p4
Oxygen has 8e. Filling 8e into orbitals according to the n=2
2s2
three rules above, you get 1s2 2s2 2p4 (see right diagram).
This is electron configuration of oxygen, which shows
1s2 oxygen n=1
number of electrons in orbitals.

9. Valence Electrons
Look electron configuration of oxygen: 1s2 2s2 2p4 . There are 6 electrons in energy level 2.
Electrons in the outermost energy level are valence electrons. Oxygen has 6 valence electrons.

10. Octet Rule


Elements with 8 valence electrons are stable. This is Octet Rule. Elements can lose or gain electrons to reach
8 valence electrons. It is a simple and useful rule to understand bond formation.

11. Number of valence electrons determine chemical properties


Elements with 1-2 valence electrons are metals and are tend to lose electrons;
Elements with 6-7 valence electrons are nonmetals and tend to gain electrons from metal when they meet.
Elements with 8 valence electrons are noble gas and do not tend to lose or gain electrons. They are stable.
You can find number of Valence Electrons quickly by looking at Periodic Table of Elements.

12. Periodic Table of Elements


1) Periodic Table contains all 118 elements with symbol, atomic number and atomic mass. Elements are arranged
according to their atomic numbers, because atomic numbers determine chemical properties.

Atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons = nuclear charges


2) Elements are arranged in such a way that all elements on the the same row have the same number of energy
level, and all elements on the the same column have the same number of valence electrons. The row is called
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period and the column is called group. There are 7 periods and 8 main group(A groups) and 10 transition groups
( B groups).

Number of A group = number of valence electrons


For example, all 1A-group elements have 1 valence electron, all 7A-group elements have 7 valence electrons.
Again, this is very important: number of valence electrons determine chemical properties. Elements on the same
group have similar chemical properties.
3) Groups of Elements and their Properties
Generally, on the left side are metals and on the right side are nonmetals. Metals have less valence electrons (1-3)
and nonmetals have more valence electrons (4-8). When metals react with nonmetals, metals lose electrons to
become positive ion and nonmetals gains electrons ti become negative ions.

Group Name Number of Property


Valence Electron

1A Alkali metals 1 active metals (except H), always lose 1e to form M+1 when react
with nonmetals.
2A Alkaline earth 2 less active than group 1, always lose 2e to form +2 ions.
metals
3A Metalloid 3 B is metalloid. Al is a common metal to form +3 ions.
Metals Other are metals
4A Nonmetal 4 C is nonmetal and forms four bonds with nonmetals.
Metalloid Si is metalloid and used in making computer chips.
Metal Pb is metal.
5A Nonmetal to 5 N, P are nonmetals; As, Sb are metalloids; Bi is metal.
metalloid to metal
6A Nonmetal to 6 O, S, Se are nonmetals; Te is metalloids; Po is metal.
metalloid to metal
7A Halogens 7 F always get 1e. Cl, Br, I gain 1e when react with metal, lose
Active nonmetal electrons when react with oxygen and can be +1, +3, +5, +7.
8A Noble gas 8 They are not active. Rarely react with F and O.
B Transition Metals 1-2 They can form +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7 ions.
group Because d orbitals can be involved to form bond.
Rare earth metals Lanthanide Series and Actinide Series
Diatomic elements H2, N2, O2, and halogen F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
Monoatomic elements All noble gases
2 liquid elements Br2 (purple), Hg (shining liquid metal)
11 gas elements H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2 and noble gas.

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13. Electronegativity: Ability to attract electrons.


q1q2
Electronegativity is one of the most important properties of elements. The force between F k
two charges (q1 and q2) at distance r is governed by Coulomb law. Elecments with more r2
nuclear charges and smaller radius have high electronegativity.

Trend of electronegativity Because Top three


Increase from left to right Nuclear charges increase from left to right, therefore attraction F 4.0
force increases. O 3.5
Decrease from top to bottom radius of atoms increase from top to bottom so attraction force N 3.0
between nucleus and out-most electrons decrease. Although nuclear
charges increase also, but radius increasing dominates.

14. Ionization Energy: Energy required to remove an electron


1) Trend of Ionization Energy: IE has the same trend as electronegativity - Increases from left to right and
decreases from top to bottom, because if atom has high electronegativity , it attract electrons strongly and it need
more energy to remove an electron.

increase decrease

decrease
Electronegativity increase Atomic radius
Ionization Energy

2) Second and Third Ionization Energy


A. First Ionization Energy (I1) : energy required to lose first electron. Usually ionization energy refers to I1.
B. Second Ionization Energy (I2): energy required to lose second electron.

Element I1 I2 I3 Note I1 < I2 < I3


Na 496 4560 If an atom has only 1 valence electron, I2 will increase dramatically
Mg 738 1450 7730 ( 5 times higher than the I1), because losing inner shell electron
requires much more energy. If there is a “jump” from I2 to I3, it has
X 400 800 4000 two valence electron, such as Mg.
Q: how many valence X has? Two, because there is big jump from I2 to I3.

15. Atomic Radius


Decease from left to right because nuclear charges increase
Increase from top to bottom because electron shells increase.

16. Electron Affinity: Energy released when an atom gains an electron.

Cl > F > Br > I > other elements

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17. General Properties of Metals


1) Have less valence electrons (1-3) Metal Nonmetal
2) Low electronegativity (EG) and low ionization energy(IE) Low EG High EG
3) Lose electrons when react with nonmetal to form ionic bonds. Low IE High IE
4) Form metallic bond in metal by the “sea” of electrons Lose e Gain e
5) Malleable, ductile and shining Metallic bond Covalent bond
6) Good conductors of heat and electricity Ionic bond Ionic bond
7) Alkali metals react with water to produce H2 and base. Good conductor Poor conductor
8) React with acid to product H2 and salt, except Cu, Ag, Au, At, Hg.
Fr is most active F is most active
Shining, malleable Dull, brittle
18. General Properties of Nonmetal
1) Nobel gases have 8 valence electrons and they are stable.
2) Group 7A are the most active nonmetals.
3) High electronegativity and high ionization energy
4) Gain electrons when react with metal to form ionic bonds
5) Form covalent bonds with nonmetal by sharing electrons
6) Poor conductors of heat and electricity, brittle, dull

19) Quantum Numbers - A set of four numbers


A 3d electron 3 2 1 1/2

Name Principal Angular Magnetic Spin


quantum number quantum number quantum number quantum number
Symbol n L ML Ms
Meaning Energy of orbital Shape of orbital Orientation of ortal Spin of electron
Rule positive integer L<n | ML | ≤ L 1
n = 1, 2, 3 s=0 p=1 If d = 2, ML can be 2
d=2 f=3 -2, -1, 0, 1, 2
a 3d electron 3 2 1 1/2
2)The energy of an orbital is determined by n + L. Which orbital is in higher energy, 4f and 6s ? 4f.
n + L of 4f = 4 + 3 = 7 so 4f > 6s.
n + L of 6s = 6 + 0 = 6

20. Calculate Energy of Orbitals E3

Each orbital has a certain energy, which can be calculated by E2


Rydberg equation. Orbitals with greater energy level n have
higher energy. An electron moving from high energy orbital to low
energy level emits light.
Z
2
E  E f  Ei  RH Z 2 ( 1
 1
)
E1
Rydberg equation En  RH 2 2 2
n nf ni
En = Energy of orbital at energy level n. RH = -2.18 x 10-18 J Z = atomic number
n = principal quantum number or energy level.

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21. Energy, Frequency Wavelength of Light


Light has energy. It relates to the frequency
E hf hC C  f

E = Energy of light (Joule)
f = frequency of light ( Hz = 1/second)
h = Planck constant = 6.63 x 10-34 J.s
C = speed of light = 3.00 x 108 m/s
 = wavelength of light (meter)
Emission Spectra
Example: when an electron in an hydrogen atom moves from energy level 2 to energy level 1, it emits light. What
is the energy, frequency and wavelength of the light emitted ?
1 1 18 1 1
1) Use Rydbergy equation: E  RH ( 2  2 )  2.18 X 10 ( 2  2 ) = -1.64 x 10-18 Joule ( - means release E)
nf ni 1 2
8
2) f = E/h = 1.64 x 10-18 /6.63 x 10-34 = 2.48 x 1015 Hz   C  3.0  10 15  1.2 107 m
f 2.48  10

22. Atomic Emission and Absorbance Spectrum


1) Spectrum: when an electron move from high to low energy level, it emit light, which has a specific frequency
and produce a white line in a screen. If an electron in level E3, it can move to E2 or E1, so that two white lines can
be produced. A set of these lines is called spectrum. White line spectrum is emmission spectrum, and black line
is absorbance spectrum. Spectrum is the evidence that elelctrons transfer between different energy levels.

2) Each element has its own spectrum, which can be used to identify the element.

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23. History of Atomic Theory - Big Names and Experiments

Dalton 1. Mater is made of atoms;


Atomic theory 2. Atoms are indivisible;
1803 3. All atoms of an element are identical
Solid sphere 4. Compounds are combination of atoms.
model
Mendeleev On 6 March 1869, he made a formal presentation to the Russian Chemical
Society, titled The Dependence between the Properties of the Atomic Weights
Periodic table of the Elements.
1869
Thomson Experiments with cathode ray tubes showed atoms contain tiny
Electron negatively charged subatomic particles: electrons. plum pudding
model: electrons embedded within positive charged soup.
1904
Pudding model
Rutherford Gold foil experiment: Uranium was used to emit alpha
Nucleus particle to hit a 0.0004 mm-thick gold foil: 1/10000
alpha particles were reflected back. Conclusion:
1911
Gold atoms have a dense, small, positive nucleus.
Bohr A. Electrons move in circular orbitals.
Energy Level B. Orbitals have different Energy.
C. Electrons emit light moving from High Energyto LE.
1913
D. Hydrogen atom spectra strongly support Bohr Model.
Planetary model
De broglie h Electron is a particle and wave.
duality   mv  = wavelength h = Planck constant
hypothesis m = mass v = speed
Heisenberg It is impossible to accurately know position and speed at the same
uncertainty xp  h time. x is the error of position, px is the error of momentum,
4
principle h = Planck constant.
Millikan 1.60 x 10-19 C Oil drop experiment
e charge C = Coulomb
Einstein Photon was Photoelectric Effect: electron KE = hf -W
Photon first named Light consists of photons.
1905
Schrodinger Electrons are particles and waves and Energy is quantized.
equation 1926 Density of Electron clouds. = square of wave functions
Quantum [ h2  2  U ]  E 
2
h f  Z me
2 4
[ 1  1 ]  13.6 Z 2 [ 12  12 ]eV
8 m 8h2 02 n f 2 ni2 nf ni
Chadwick Mass Scattering data was used to calculate the mass of this neutral particle
Neutron 1 amu
1932

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Chapter 2 Chemical Bond and Molecular geometry

q1q 2 F = Electrostatic Force


F k K = constant 8.99 x 109
r2 q1 and q2 = two charges
Coulomb Law r = distance between two charges

1. Coulomb Law:
Like charges repel and unlike charges attract. This is the only force to understand atoms to form molecules and
molecules to form solids and liquids.

2. Chemical Bond
1) Chemical bond is the force between atoms. Protons in one atom attract electrons in another atoms.
2) Bond Energy = the energy required to breaking a bond. Formation of a bond always release energy. For
example, H + H = H2 + 436 kJ/mole, which means formation of H2 release 436 kJ/mole. Breaking H-H bond
requries 436 kJ/mol. When a system releases energy, it becomes more stable. If the bond energy of a bond is
higher, the bond is stronger.
3) Bond length: Distance between two bonded atoms. Bond length of H-H is 74 pm. 1pm = 1 x 10-12 m.

3. Three Types of Chemical Bonds


1) Ionic Bond: when metals react with nonmetals, metals lose electrons to form positive ion and nonmetals gain
electrons to form negative ions, then two opposite ions attract each other to form ionic bond.
2) Covalent bond: when nonmetals react nonmetals, Two atoms share electrons to release energy.
3) Metallic bond: when metals combine with metals, metal cations emerge in the “sea” of electrons.

4. Octet Rule - Atoms tend to have 8 electrons in its valence shell ( outermost shell).
Atoms can lose, gain or share electrons to have 8 valence electrons. This rule is useful to understand bond
formation. For example, when Na meets Cl, Na loses 1e and Cl gains 1e, then both have 8e in valence shell.

Na+2 8 + 17Cl- 2 8 8 Na+Cl-


11 11
Na 2 8 1 + 17
Cl 2 8 7 ionic bond

Atoms with 8 VE are unreactive, such as noble gases.


Atoms with 7 VE tend to gain 1e to be octet, such as F.
Atoms with 1 VE tend to lose 1e to be octet, such as K.
Elements C, N, O, F always obey Octet Rule. Group 1 metals always obey Octet Rule.

5. Polarity of covalent bonds


 Polar Bond: If A and B share electrons to form a covalent bond and they have different electronegativities, they
share electrons unequally. The one with high electronegativity will partially gain electrons and have negative
charges, and the one with low electronegativity will have positive charge, then bond A-B is polar. In polar
bonds, electrons are shared unequally.

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 Generally, X < 0.5 = nonpolar bond; 0.5 ≤ X ≤ 1.8 = polar bond; X > 1.8 = ionic bond.
Where X = electronegativity difference of atoms A and B.
 When X is larger, bond is more polar.
 Polarity is measured by dipole moment (µ) = Q.d Q = charge d = distance between two charges.
Unit of dipole moment: Debye (D) = 3.34 x 10-30 coulomb.meter. For example, µ of H-F = 1.91D

6. Single, Double, Triple Bonds and Bond Order


 If A and B share 1 electron pair, A - B is single bond; H - H Bond order is 1
 If A and B share 2 electron pairs, A = B is double bond; O = O Bond order is 2
 If A and B share 3 electron pairs, A ≡ B is triple bond. N ≡ N Bond order is 3

7. Sigma Bond and Pi Bond


 Sharing electrons is achieved by overlapping orbitals. Only atoms with unpaired electrons can form covalent
bonds. The number of unpaired electrons determines the number of bonds that can be formed. F has 1 unpaired
electrons, so F-F; O has 2 unpaired electrons, so O=O; N has 3 unpaired, so NN.
 Sigma ( ) bond: electrons are shared by “Head to Head” overlapping. See below.
 Pi () bond: electrons are shared by “Side to Side” overlapping.
 Single bond is  bond : F-F 
Double bond is 1 and 1: O=O + p-p
s-p p-p
Triple bond is 1 and 2: NN ++
-bond -bond -bond
8. Lewis Structures
1) Lewis Structure: the structure that shows all valence electrons in molecules.
2) Significance of Lewis Structure: predict and understand molecular reactivity and geometry.
3) How to write Lewis structures
H N H
Example: NH3
H
A. Valence electrons of N = 5. Draw 3 N-H bonds.
B. Draw 1 electron pair on N, because 3 single bonds use 3 valence electron so 5-3 = 2
F
Example: SF4 F
S
A. Valence electrons of S = 6. Draw 4 S-F bonds. F
B. Draw 1 electron pair on S, because 4 single bonds use 4 valence electron so 6-4 = 2 F
C. Add electrons to F to satisfy octet. Done.
Example: NO2-
-1
A. Valence electrons of N: 5+1 = 6 ( negative charge). Draw two N-O bonds. N
B. Draw one electron pair on N, because O share 2e no matter single or double bond.
So 6-2 x 2 = 2 . O O
C. Write one N=O double bond for N to satisfy octet. Done

9. Resonance Structures
A. Resonance structures: are two or more Lewis structures for one molecule or ion.
B. Why we need to write resonance structures: For some molecules, say SO3 (see below), a single structure
cannot represent its real structure. Look at the Lewis structure below, it has one S=O bond, two S-O bonds. But in
reality, three S-O bonds have the same bond length. So this Lewis structure is not right. How to write a correct one?
You write three structures! The real structure is the average of the three structures. Then the bond order of each S-
O is 4/3 = 1.33. Can bond order be a fraction? Yes.
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C. How to draw resonance structures: change the position of double bond but don’t touch atoms. If you can
draw two or more resonance structures, the one satisfying octet will mostly represent the real structure

O O O

S S S
O O O O O O
Three resonance structures of SO3

10. Not all molecules obey Octet Rule


1) Octet Rule is not a law. It is a simple and useful rule to understand most molecular structures and activities.
But not all molecules obey Octet Rule. Atoms in a molecule can has 2, 6, 10, 12 valence electrons.
2) H and He follow duet rule. H-H and He both have 2e in valence shell. Both are stable.
3) C, N, O, F obey octet rule. They are not stable if less than octet. They never have more than octet.
4) B, Al are less than octet. There are only 6 VE in BH3 and AlCl3 .
5) P, S, I, Br, Cl can be more than Octet. PCl5 has 10e and SF6 has 12e in valence shell.

11. More Example of Lewis Structures

H2O O H NH3 H N H CO C O
H H

O C O O S
CO2 O3 SO2
O O O O

-2 O F
SO3-2 O S O SO3 BF3
S B
O O O F F

Cl O -2 F
SiCl4 SO4-2 SF6 F F
Cl Si Cl O S O S
F F
Cl O F

Cl F
PCl3 Cl P Cl PCl5 Cl SF4 F
P Cl S
Cl
Cl F
Cl F

O O O
HNO3 H2SO4 HClO4
N HO S OH O Cl O H
O OH
O O

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12. Orbital Hybridization


1) What is Orbital Hybridization. Have you ever see something like sp2, sp3? They are hybrid orbitals, which is
a theory to explain bond formation for some molecules. Let us look at some simple molecules: HF, H2O, NH3.

Element F O N C
Valence Electron 2s2, 2p5 2s2, 2p4 2s2, 2p3 2s2, 2p2
configuration
P orbital

Compound HF H2O NH3 CH4


How many unpaired 1 2 3 2
electrons
How many bonds 1 2 3 4
Rule Number of unpaired electrons = number of bonds formed Unpaired e ≠ bonds formed
So C needs “hybridization”
To explain why C can form 4 bonds in stead of 2, “orbital hybridization” theory is proposed.

2) How “Orbital Hybridization” Works - Example of CH4


Step 1. Excitation. one electron in 2s orbital move to 2p orbital, then there are 4 unpaired electrons.
Step 2. Hybridization. one s and three p orbitals “mixed” or “hybridized” to form four orbitals called sp3
hybrid orbital. 1s + 3p = 4 (sp3)
Step 3. Bond formation. Four sp orbitals overlap with four s orbitals of 4H to form four C-H bonds.
3

Energy
H
4H
2p 2p 2p H C H
4 SP3 H
2s
C electron configuration 1) excitation 2)hybridization 3) bond formation
3) Geometry of sp3 hybrid orbital
The left picture shows the shape of one sp3 orbital and the right one shows four sp3
Orbitals with angle 109.5o . This geometry is tetrahedron.

13. More Orbital Hybridization and Molecular Geometry


We just explained sp3 orbital hybridization. There are five types of hybridization shown in the table below. Sp3
means one s and three p orbitals mixed to form four sp3 hybrid orbitals. Sp3d means one s, three p and one d
orbitals mixed to form five sp3d hybrid orbitals.
How to know hybrid orbitals and molecular geometry = Domain can tell. See table below.

Domain = bonding atoms + nonbonding electron pairs

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Domain 2 3 4 5 6
Hybrid sp sp2 sp3 sp3d sp3d2
orbital
Number of 2 3 4 5 6
bonds
Molecular
Geometry
(electron pair
geometry)

Name Linear Trigonal Planar Tetrahedron Trigonal Bipyramidal Octahedron

Example: CO2 central atom C, it bonds to 2 atoms and has 0 electrons pairs. Domain = 2 + 0 = 2
H2O central atom O, it bonds to 2 atoms and has 2 electron pairs. Domain = 2 + 2 = 4.
SF6 central atom S, it bonds to 6 atoms and has 0 electron pairs. Domain = 6 + 0 = 6.

14. Principle of Molecular Geometry: VSEPR - Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
H

Why H C H is tetrahedron rather than square planar? The angles in tetrahedron are 109.5o, while the angles in
H

square planar is 90o. Molecules prefer larger angles, because


Electron pairs reple each other. This principle is VSEPR . Use this principle,
You will understand the five basic molecular geometry above.

Angles are 90o Angles are 109.5o.

15. Electron Pair Geometry and Molecular Geometry of NH3

N
H N H N
H H H H
H H H
Lewis Electron pair geometry Molecular geometry
Structure Tetrahedron Trigonal pyramidal

1) Electron pair geometry: geometry including nonbonding valence electron pairs.


2) Molecular geometry: geometry of atoms only.
3) If there is no nonbonding valence electrons, two geometries are the same. Otherwise, they are different.
4) To predict molecular geometry, you need to know electron pair geometry; To know electron pair geometry,
You need to know domain; to know domain, you need to know number of valence electrons.
Domain of NH3 = 4 because N bonds to 3 atoms and has 1 electron pair. 3+1 = 4

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16. Complete List of Molecular Geometry and Examples


Domain Hybrid Molecular Geometry
Orbital No electron pair 1 electron pair 2 electron pair 3 electron pair 4 electron pair
2 sp linear linear
3 sp2 trigonal planar bent
4 sp3 tetrahedron trigonal pyramidal bent
5 sp3d trigonal bipyramidal seesaw T-shape linear
6 sp3d2 octahedron square pyramidal square planar T-shape linear
Examples
Molecules Bonding Nonbonding Sum Hybrid Electron pair Molecular geometry
or Ions atoms to Electron geometry
center Pairs
(Domain) orbital

2 0 2 sp Linear
BeF2
Linear

3 0 3 sp2 Trigonal
BF3 planar
Trigonal planar

2 1 3 sp2 Trigonal
SO2 planar
Bent

4 0 4 sp3 Tetrahedron
CH4
Tetrahedron

3 1 4 sp3 Tetrahedron
NH3
Trigonal pyramidal

2 2 4 sp3 Tetrahedron
H2O
Bent

5 0 5 sp3d Trigonal
PCl5
bipyramidal
Trigonal bipyramidal

4 1 5 sp3d Trigonal
SF4
bipyramidal
Seesaw

3 2 5 sp3d Trigonal
ClF3
bipyramidal
T-shape

2 3 5 sp3d Trigonal
XeF2
bipyramidal
Linear
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6 0 6 sp3d2 Octahedron
SF6
Octahedron

5 1 6 sp3d2 Octahedron
BrF5
Square pyramidal
XeF4 4 4 6 sp3d2 Octahedron

Square planar
XeF3 -
3 3 6 sp3d2 Octahedron

T-Shape

17. Formal Charge


 What is Formal Charge: If an atom lose orgain 1 electron, its formal charge is +1 or -1. Na+1Cl-1
 How to calculate Formal Charge: you need to draw Lewis structures first.
Formal Charge = Valence Electrons - Bonds - nonbonding electrons.
O
 Examples:
1) H2O: FC of H = 1 - 1 - 0 = 0; FC of O = 6 - 2 - 4 = 0 O H S +2
2) SO3 : FC of S = 6 - 4 - 0 = +2; FC of O = 6 - 1 - 6 = -1
H O -1 O -1

18. Molecular Polarity and Molecular Symmetry


1) Molecular polarity determined by Bond polarity and Molecular symmetry.
2) If bonds are nonpolar, the molecule is nonpolar. Any A-A bonds are nonpolar. For A-B bonds, if the
difference of electronegtivities of A and B is less than 0.5, it is nonpolar. If you don’t know electronegativities,
treat A-B bond as polar except C-H. C-H is nonpolar.
3) If bonds are polar and the molecule is symmetrical, it is nonpolar. If unsymmetrical, it is polar. That is
why we need to know molecular geometry to predict molecular polarity.
4) Shortcut: If a molecule has no nonponding electron pair, it is nonpolar.
If a molecule has nonponding electron pairs, see the table above.
5) Examples
A. Bonds are nonpolar: molecules are nonpolar CH3CH2CH2CH3
B. Bonds are polar: molecules are symmetrical, nonpolar CCl4
C. Bonds are polar: molecules are unsymmetrical, polar SO2

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Chapter 3 Name Compounds and Ions

1. Metal + nonmetal : metal name + nonmetal with ide


Anion = negative ion
NaCl Sodium Chloride (positive ion use element name, anion use -ide) F-
Fluoride
CaCl2 Calcium Chloride (not dichloride, because Ca2+ is always 2+) Cl- Chloride
AlCl3 Aluminum Chloride (see right column for more anions) Br- Bromide
I- Iodide
MgO magnesium oxide
O-2 Oxide
Ca3N2 calcium nitride O2-2 Peroxide
S-2 Sulfide
2. Transition metal + nonmetal: Metal name with I, II, III +1 I
N-3 Nitride
P-3 Phosphide
Use Romania I, II, III to show oxidation states of metals +2 II C-4 Carbide
because transition metals have multiple oxidation states. +3 III Cation = positive ion
CuCl copper (I) chloride +4 IV
Fe +2
Iron (II)
+5 V
CuCl2 copper (II) chloride Fe+3 Iron (III)
+6 VI Cu+ Copper(I)
FeBr2 iron (II) bromide +7 VII
Cu2+ Copper(II)
FeBr3 iron (III) bromide
Co +2
Cobalt (II)
PbCl2 lead (II) chloride 1 Mono
Co+3 Cobalt (III)
PbCl4 lead (IV) chloride 2 Di
Cr+2 Chromium (II)
3 Tri Cr+3 Chromium (III)
4 Tetra
3. Nonmetal + Nonmetal: put di, tri before nonmetals 5 Penta
Mn+2 Manganese (II)
Mn+4 Manganese (IV)
HCl hydrogen chloride 6 Hexa Hg2+2 Mercury (I)
H2S dihydrogen sulfide 7 Hepta Hg+2 Mercury (II)
PCl3 phosphorus trichloride 8 Octa Pb+2 Lead (II)
CCl4 carbon tetrachloride 9 Nona Pb+4 Lead (IV)
P2O5 diphosphorus pentaoxide 10 Deca Sn+2 Tin(II)
Sn+4 Tin (IV)

4. Common Polyatomic Ions

Ion Name Ion Name Ion Name


OH- hydroxide CO32- carbonate CN- cyanide
H3O +
hydronium HCO3- hydrogen carbonate OCN -
cyanate
NH4+ ammonium CH3CO2- acetate SCN- thiocyanate
Hg22+ Mercury (I) C2O42- oxalate CrO42- chromate
NO3- Nitrate ClO- hypochlorite Cr2O72- dichromate
NO2- Nitrite ClO2- chlorite MnO4- permanganate
SO42- Sulfate ClO3- chlorate S2O32- thiosulfate
HSO4- Hydrogen sulfate ClO4- perchlorate
SO32- Sulfite PO4 -3
phosphate
HS- hydrogen sulfide O22- peroxide

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4. More Names

O2 oxygen O2- superoxide O22- peroxide O2- oxide


H2O dihydrogen H3O+ hydronium H+ hydrogen ion OH- hydroxide
monooxide
H2O2 hydrogen peroxide HO2- hydroperoxide H- hydride C-4 carbide
HF hydrogen fluoride F- fluoride HCl hydrochloric Cl- chloride
hydrofluoric acid acid
HBr hydrobromic acid Br- bromide HI hydroiodic acid I- iodide
CH3CO2H acetic acid CH3CO2- acetate NH3 ammonia NH4+ ammonium
H2S dihydrogen sulfide HS- hydrogen sulfide S2- sulfide SO32- sulfite
hydrosulfuric acid
H2SO3 sulfurous acid HSO3- hydrogen sulfite SO42- sulfate H2S2O7 disulfuric acid
pyrosulfuric acid
bisulfite
H2SO4 sulfuric acid HSO4- hydrogen sulfate PbO2 Plumbic oxide PbO lead (II) oxide
bisulfate lead (IV) oxide plumbous oxide
H2S2O3 thiosulfuric acid HS2O3- Hydrogen S2O32- thiosulfate S2O7-2 disulfate
thiosulfate
H2CO3 carbonic acid HCO3- Bicarbonate CO32- carbonate MoO4-2 molybdate
hydrogen carbonate
H2C2O4 oxalic acid HC2O4- hydrogen oxalate C2O42- oxalate SiF6-2 hexafluorsilicate

HNO3 nitric acid NO3- nitrate HNO2 nitrous acid NO2- nitrite
HCN hydrocyanic acid CN- cyanide HOCN cyanic acid OCN - cyanate
HSCN thiocyanic acid SCN- thiocyanate HMnO4 permanganic MnO4- permanganate
acid

HClO hypochlorous acid ClO- hypochlorite HClO2 chlorous acid ClO2- chlorite
HClO3 chloric acid ClO3- chlorate HClO4 perchloric acid ClO4- perchlorate
HBrO3 bromic acid BrO3- bromate HIO3 Iodic acid IO3- Iodate
H3PO4 phosphoric acid H2PO4- dihydrogen HPO42- hydrogen PO43- phosphate
phosphate phosphate
H3PO3 phosphorous acid H2PO3- dihydrogen HPO32- Hydrogen PO33- phosphite
phosphite phosphate
H2CrO4 chromatic acid CrO42- chromate H2Cr2O7 dichromatic Cr2O72- dichromate
acid
Fe2O3 iron(III) oxide FeO iron(II) oxide AlCl3 aluminum Al2O3 aluminum
ferric oxide ferrous oxide chloride oxide
Cr2O3 chromium (III) oxide CrO chromium (II) oxide HgO mercury (II) oxide
Mercuric oxide
Hg2O mercury (I) oxide
Chromic oxide mercurous oxide
chromous oxide
Co2O3 cobalt (III) oxide CoO cobalt (II) oxide SnO2 tin (IV) oxide SnO tin (II) oxide
stannous oxide
cobaltic oxide cobaltous oxide stannic oxide
CuO copper (II) oxide Cu2O copper (I) oxide Ni2O3 nickel (III) oxide NiO nickel (II) oxide
nickelic oxide nickelous oxide
Cupric oxide cuprous oxide
PbO2 plumbic oxide PbO lead (II) oxide
lead (IV) oxide plumbous oxide

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Chapter 4 Liquid , Solid and Intermolecular Force

1. Intermolecular Forces (IMF)


The force between molecules. The origin of IMF is the electrostatic force between positive and negative charges.
IMF is also called Van der Waals Force. According to the molecular polarity, IMF are classified as three types:
Hydrogen bonding, Dipole-Dipole interaction and London dispersion. Liquid and Solid are formed by
intermolecular force. Force between atoms is chemical bond. Force between molecules is intermolecular Force.

IMF Structure Example H2O H2S CH4 Relative Strength


H-bonding Only for H2O √ 10
H-F H-O H-N NH3
HF
Dipole-Dipole Only for H2S √ √ 5
polar molecules
London all molecules CH4 √ √ √ 2*
Dispersion
1) London Dispersion is produced by temporary polarity due to electrons’ moving.
2) London Dispersion depends on number of electrons. The more electrons, the stronger London force.
So I2 > Br2 > Cl2 > F2 in LD force, because I2 has the most electrons.
3)*This is only for molecules with similar number of electrons. If number of electrons are very different, such as H2O (18) and I2
( 254), London force of I2 can be greater than hydrogen bonding of H2O. This explains that I2 is solid and H2O is liquid.

sublimation

fusion/melting vaporization
solid liquid gas
freezing condensation
solidification

deposition solid liquid


gas
absorb energy

2. Phase Diagram
You can change solid to liquid to gas by changing temperature and pressures. Phase diagram tells you the phase
of a substance at a given temperature and pressure.
1) Three regions: Left region is solid (low temperature) What is the phase of H2O at 1 atm and 50 oC?
Middle region is liquid. (Answer: Liquid)
Right region is gas (high temperature)
2) Melting point line: line ABD. Melting point of H2O is 0.00 oC at 1.0 atm and it changes when pressure changes.
3) Boiling point line: line ACE. BP of H2O is 100 oC at 1.0 atm and it increases greatly when pressure increases.
4) Triple point: solid, liquid and gas coexist. Ice, water and steam coexist only at 0.006 atm and 0.01 oC.
5) Critical point: the highest temperature a liquid can exist. Liquid water will not exist if temperature is higher
than 374 oC, no matter how high the pressure is.
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6) Phase change: With phase diagram you can predict phase change. For example, H2O at 1.0 atm, from -5 oC to
20 oC to 120 oC, it change from solid to liquid then to gas. , H2O is solid. When T increase at 1.0 atm, H2O will
changes from solid to liquid then to gas.

3 Heating Curve: Relationship between temperature and heating time.


A-B: solid, T increases, Kinetic Energy (KE) increase; Temperature F
B-C: melting, solid and liquid coexist, T remain unchanged; gas
D E
C-D: liquid, T increases, KE increases 100 oC boiling point

D-E: boiling, liquid and gas coexist, T no change, KE on change;


liquid
E-F: gas, T increase, KE increases
B C
Kinetic Energy: Energy of motion. If T no change, KE no change. 0 oC melting point

Potential Energy: Energy of distance. Solid < liquid < gas in PE. solid
A
water heating curve time
4. Heat Calculation
Calculate the heat absorbed when 10g H2O change from –20oC to 120oC
Process Formula Constant Energy change Note
AB Q = m.Cice.T Cice = 2.05 J/ g. C o
KE  KE = kinetic energy =
BC Q = m.Hfus Hfus = 334 J/g PE  Phase change, T and KE no change
CD Q = m.Cwater.T Cwater = 4.18 J/g.oC KE  PE = potential energy
DE Q = m.Hvap Hvap = 2260 J/g PE  Phase change, T and KE no change
EF Q = m.Csteam.T Csteam = 2.08 J/ g.oC KE 
Two equations Q = m C T Q = m H for phase change
m = mass; C = specific heat capacity; Hfus = heat of fusion; Hvap = heat of vaporization T = change of T

5. Vapor pressure, Boiling point and Intermolecular Force


 Vapor pressure: the pressure exerted by a vapor in equilibrium with its liquid or solid phase.
 Vapor pressure increase when temperature increases. T  VP
 Boiling point is the temperature when vapor pressure = external pressure.
 When external pressure increases, boiling point increases
If you use pressure cooker of 2 atm, water boils at 120 oC;
If you cook on top of a mountain at 0.8 atm, water boils at 94 oC.
When VP = external pressure, liquids boil.
Normally, external pressure is 1 atm.
So VP of all liquids is 1 atm at their boiling point.

 Higher boiling point indicates stronger intermolecular force.


P2 H vap 1 1
 Clausius Equation Ln  (  )
P1 R T1 T2

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6. Type of Solids
Solid Bond Example Electric conductivity
Molecular solid covalent Ice, dry ice (solid CO2), sugar No
Covalent network solid covalent Diamond (carbon) No
Graphite (carbon) Yes
SiO2 (, quartz, sand) No
Metallic network Solid metallic Fe, Cu Yes
Ionic network solid ionic NaCl Solid no
Crystal solid Liquid or solution yes

7. Separation of liquids
1) Separation funnel: used for insoluble liquids, such as water and petrol.
2) Distillation: to separate mixture of soluble liquids with different boiling points, such as water and ethanol.

8. Three Solids that are subject to sublimation


1) I2 (purple solid and gas, 2% ethanol solution is antiseptic ) .

2) CO2 ( dry ice, bp -78 oC)

3) Naphthalene (C10H8, , fumigant, pesticide, used in old mothball )

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Chapter 5 Gases
Gas molecules are much more separated than liquid and solid so they have negligible intermolecule force.
Temperature determines the speed of molecules. Collision between gas molecules and container wall produces
pressure. Most useful formula is ideal gas law PV = nRT.

1. Ideal Gas - Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT)


Gas consists of molecules. To derive the ideal gas law, the volume of gas molecules compared to the container is
negligible and the force between molecules is also negligible. There are four properties of idea gas:
 No volume (Its volume is negligible compared to the container)
 No force (Intermolecular force is negligible because molecules are far away.)
 Always move (Stop at 0K, but never reach 0K)
 Elastic collision Kinetic energy is conserved during collision.
 At high temperature and low pressure, real gas is more like idea gases;
 Small nonpolar real gases (H2, He) are most like idea gases.

2. Kinetic Energy and Speed of Gas Molecules KE  1 mv 2 KE  3 RT


2 2

 Kinetic energy (KE): is the energy of movement. KE  1 mv 2 , where m is mass and v is speed.
2
Kinetic energy and temperature : For idea gas KE  3
 RT , all molecules have the same KE at the same T.
2

 Graham Law: V  3RT the speed of a gas molecule is inversely proportional to square root of its mass.
m
This formula can be derived from the two formulas above. Small molecules move fast.
3(8.31)(298)
What is the speed of O2 at 25 oC : VO 2  3RT   482 m/s m = molar mass of O2 in kg.
m 0.032kg
What is the ratio of speed of H2 to speed of O2: R = 8.31 J/mol.K
VA  mB VH 2 mO
mA  m H2  32  4 H2 moves 4 times as fast as O2.
VB VO2 2 2
Diffusion: gases move from high concentration to low concentration.
Effusion: gases move out from a small hole of a container.

3. Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT


P-pressure in atm 1atm = 760 mmHg (Torr) = 101.3 kPa Pa = N/m2
o
V-volume in Liter V = 22.4 L for 1mole gas at STP (0 C, 1.0 atm)
n-number of mole mole = mass / molar mass
R = 0.082 atm.L/mol.K; or R = 8.31 Joule/mol.K
T-kelvin K = 273 + C o

Density = mass/V V = RT/P assume you have one mole gas.


What is the density of O2 at 20 oC, 1 atm: D = mass/V = 32/[(0.082)(293)/1] = 1.3 g/L

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(P + n 2a )(V-nb) = n R T
2
4. Real gas law:
v
Real gas has intermolecular force and volume. So idea gas law needs to be amended to solve real gas problems.
Two constants a and b are introduced into idea gas law, where a is an indicator of intermolecular force, b is an
indicator of molecular volume.

5. Other forms of idea gas law: Idea gas law covers BCGCA laws.
 Boyle’s law: P1V1 = P2V2 if T is constant
Charles’s law: T1 T2 if P is constant
 
V1 V2
Gay-Lussac’s law: P1 P2 if V is constant
 
T1 T2

Combined gas law P1V1 P2V2 when P, V, T all changes


 
T1 T2
V1 V2
 Avogadro’s law:  if T and P are constant.
n1 n 2
 Avogadro’s number: 6.02 x 1023 number of molecules of 1 mole gas

mole of A PO2 = 3atm 2 mole  2 atm


6. Dalton’s partial pressure laws: PA = Ptotal
mole of total 3 mole
If a mixture of 1 mole N2 and 2 mole O2 has total pressure of 3 atm, N2 contribute 1 atm and O2 contribute 2 atm.
In other words, if the container has only O2, the pressure will be 2 atm, this is PO2 , the partial pressure of O2.
If a container contains three gas A, B, C, then Ptotal = PA+PB+PC

7. Speed distribution

Using Graham law V  3RT we get the speed of O2 is 482 m/s at 25 oC


m
As shown above. Do all O2 molecules move at the same speed? No.
482 m/s is the average speed. Some molecules move fast and some is slow.
Why? This is a fundamental phenomena called speed distribution.
Graph on the right shows the speed distribution of O2.
At higher temperature, speeds are distributed more widely .
n
1
n i
Definition of average speed: root-mean-square speed V  v2
i 1

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Chapter 6 Solutions

1. Solution is a homogenous mixture


If you put 5 grams NaCl into 100 grams of water and stir, NaCl will disappear then you get a homogeneous
mixture called solution. The major part (H2O) is called solvent, and the minor part (NaCl) is solute. Why do we
need to know solutions? because most of reactions take place in solutions.

2. Solubility
 Solubility: maximum amount of solute in 100 gram solvent. Solubility of NaCl = 36g /100g H2O at 25 oC.
 Saturated solution contains maximum solute; Rate of dissolving = rate of crystallizing; It at equilibrium.
 Unsaturated soution: the concentration is lower than saturated. More solute can be dissolved.
 Supersaturated: the concentration is higher than saturated. How to make a supersaturated solution? Make a
hot saturated solution then cool it down. If no solid comes out, you get a supersaturated solution. It is unstable.
If you put a small crystal into a supersaturated solution, the crystal will become larger and it become a
saturated solution.

3. Electrolytes and nonelectrolytes


 Electrolytes are compounds producing ions when dissolved in water. The solution of electrolyte can
conduct electricity. Acids, bases and soluble salts are electrolytes, such as HCl, NaOH, NaCl.
 Nonelectrolytes: are compounds producing no ions when dissolve in water. Solutions of nonelectrolytes do
not conduct electricity, such as sugar (glucose C6H12O6, sucrose C12H22O12), glycerin C3H8O3, and alcohols.

4. Factors affecting solubility: 1) Polarity 2)Temperature 3)Pressure


 Solubility Rule: Polar solvents dissolve polar solutes; Nonpolar dissolves nonpolar. H2O is polar solvent
and can dissolve salt, sugar, alcohol. Gasoline or alkane, oil, lipid, benzene are nopolar.
 Miscible: solubility is infinite. For example, water is miscible with methanol, ethanol and propanol, because
they have -OH group and can form hydrogen bonding with water.
 Temperature increases, solid solubility increases if dissolving process is endothermic.
 Temperature increase, gas solubility decreases. T  Sgas
 Henry’s law: when pressure increases, gas solubility increases. Sgas = k.Pgas
 If Dissolving process is exothermic, the solvent became warmer. If it is endothermic, solvent became colder.

5. Concentration = the ratio of solute to solvent


gram of solute
 Mass percentage = 100%
gram of solution
gram of solute
 Part per million (ppm) = 106
gram of solution
 Molarity (M) = mole of solute used in M1V1 = M2V2 for titration and and dilution
liter of solution
 Molality (m) = mole of solute used in Tb and Tf (See below)
kg of solvent
 Mole fraction (X) XA = mole of A used in calculating vapor pressure and partial pressure
total mole

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6. Colligative properties:
If you dissolve some NaCl in H2O, the following changes will occur:
1) Boiling point elevation : Tb = Kb.m.i Kb=0.52 oC/m for H2O , m = molality
2) Freezing point depression : Tf = Kf.m.i Kf = -1.86 oC/m for H2O i = number of particles
3) Lowering vapor pressure : P = PoX this is Raoult’s law
The solution satisfying Raoutl’s las is called ideal solution.
4) Osmotic pressure  : V = nRT.i  = MRT.i
5) i is the number of particles formed when the solute is dissolved.
C6H12O6 i=1 NaCl i=2
CaCl2 i=3 Mg(NO3)2 i=3
6) Colligative property: the changes above depend on the number of particles
rather than on the nature of the particles. For example, if you dissolve 1 mole
NaCl or 1 mole KCl, the changes will be the same. This is colligative property.
7) What is osmotic pressure: if you separate water and protein solution
by a semipermeable membrane (water can pass but protein can not), water will
move from pure water side to protein solution. This is osmosis.
To prevent osmosis from continuing, a certain pressure needs to apply
on protein solution, This pressure is osmotic pressure.
This is another way to express the concentration of a solution.
8) Example: Given a solution of NaCl (29g) in H2O (500g) with density 1.03 g/ml.
Find boiling point, melting point, vapor pressure at 25 oC, osmotic pressure of this solution. Vapor pressure of
pure water at 25 oC = 24.0 mmHg. Assume NaCl can not pass semi membrane.

Step 1: Convert 29g NaCl into 29/58 = 0.5mol; Convert 500 g into 0.5 kg;
Find volume of the solution: V = mass/density = 529/1.03 = 514 ml = 0.514 Liter.
Then m = mole/kg = 0.5 mol/0.5 kg = 1; M = mole/L = 0.5mol/0.514 L = 0.97
Mole fraction of H2O: X = mole of H2O / mole of solution = (500/18) / (500/18 + 29/58) = 0.982
Step 2: Use formulas
A. Tb = Kb.m.i = 0.52 (1)(2) = 1.04 oC. boiling point = 100 + 1.04 = 101.04 oC.
B. Tf = Kf.m.i = -1.86 (1)(2) = -3.72 oC melting point = 0 - 3.72 = -3.72 oC
C. P = PoX = 24.0 x 0.982 = 23.5 mmHg
D. V = nRT.i  0.514 = 0.5(0.082)(298)(2)  = 47.5 atm

7. Solutions of two volatile liquids: benzene and toluene (for AP only)


1) Find vapor pressure of a solution of benzene (C6H6, 30%, FW 78) and toluene (C7H8, 70%, FW 92) at 25 oC?
Vapor pressure of pure benzene and toluene at 25 oC are 95 and 28 Torr respectively.
Use Raoults law: PA = PoXA where Po is vapor pressure of pure A, XA is mole fraction of A
Assume you have 100g solution: Pbenzene = 95  30/78 = 32 torr Ptoluene = 28  70/92 = 19 torr
30/78+70/92 30/78+70/92

2) Find mole fraction of benzene in the vapor gas phase: XA = PA/(PA + PB)
Xbenzene = 32  63% Xtoluene = 19  37% note: pressure ratio = mole ratio
32 + 19 32 + 19

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3) Fine mass percentage of benzene in gas phase : A% = PA x FWA/(PA x FWA + PB x FWB)

benzene% = 32  78  59% toluene% = 19  92  41%


32  78  19  92 32  78  19  92

8. Colloid: contains particles that are large than solute (0.1-5nm) but smaller than visible solids (50-1000nm)
 It is not stable and may set out.
 It has Tyndall effect : light is scattered when passing through a colloid
Shown on the right, you can see the light path in colloid, not in solution.
 There are several forms of colloid:
Emulsion (liquid in liquid); Foam (gas in liquid or solid);
Aerosol (liquid or solid in gas); Gel (liquid in solid);
Sol (solid in liquid or solid). Solution Colloid

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Chapter 7 Stoichiometry

1. Stoichiometry studies the quantitative relationship between reactants and products.


Question: 10 grams of O2 react with 10 grams of H2 completely, how many grams of H2O will be produced
according to the equation below:
O2 + 2H2 = 2H2O
10g 10g xg x = 20g ? See solution below.

2. Convert amu to Gram - Mole is the key unit (amu = atomic mass unit)

1) Mass of 1 H atom = 1 amu. 1 amu = 1 gram = 1.66  10-24 gram = mass of C-12
23
6.02  10 12
23
2) Mass of 6.02 x 1023 H atoms = 6.02  10 amu = (6.02  10 )(23 1 ) gram = 1 gram .
6.02  10 23
3) mole = 6.02 x 1023 1 mole H = 1 gram 1 mole O = 16 gram
1 mole H2O = 18 gram 1 mole O2 = 32 gram
18 gram is the molar mass of H2O.
4) Avogadra number: 6.02 x 1023 mass
32g
gram
5) Number of mole =
molar mass

3. Conversion-Use conversion factor volume 1 mole molecule


22.4 L O2 6.02x1023

1) How many molecules are there in 54 g H2O:


1 mole H 2 O 6.02  10 23 molecule
54 gram x   18.06 x 10 23 molecules.
18 gram 1 mole H 2 O ratio in
reaction
2) How many molecules are there in 5 liter O2 at STP:

23
5 L 1 mole × 6.02 10 molecules = 1.34 1023 molecules
22.4 L gram 1 mole

4. Limiting Reagent, Theoretical Yield and Experimental Yield


Example: 10 grams of O2 react with 10 grams of H2 completely.
Q1: Which is limiting reagent, O2 or H2 ? Which is excess reagent, how much it left?
Q2: How many grams of H2O will be produced?
Q3: If 9.5g H2O was actually collected, what is experimental yield?

A1: Limit reagent is a reactant that is not enough to react with the other reactant completely.

1O2 + 2H2 = 2H2O 10/32 = y y = H 2 needed = 0.625 mole H 2 given = 10 = 5 mole


10g 10g xg 1 2 2

You can see that H2 given is more than needed. So H2 is excess by 5 - 0.625 = 4.375 mole. It means after the
reaction completion, there are still 4.375 mole left. H2 is excess therefore O2 is limiting reagent.

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Dr. Sun Chemistry Summary .

A2: Use the limiting reagent to calculate the product. Use coefficient to set up a ratio.
10/32 = x 18 g
x = H 2 O produced = 0.625 mole  = 11.25 g This is theoretical yield (calculated yield)
1 2 mol
actually collected
A3: Experimental yield =  9.5 100%  84.4%
theoretical yield 11.25

5. Empirical formula and molecular formula


Example: A compound contains 40.0% carbon, 6.7% hydrogen and the rest is oxygen. What is the empirical
formula and molecular formula of this compound if the molecular mass is 180?
1) Oxygen% = 100% - 40% - 6.7% = 53.3%
2) Mole of C = 40/12 = 3.33; mole of H = 6.7/1 = 6.7; mole of O = 53.3/16 = 3.33
3) Empirical formula = simplest ratio of elements = C3.33H6.7O3.33 = CH2O mass of CH2O = 30
4) Molecular formula = C6H12O6 because 180/30 = 6 and (CH2O)6 = C6H12O6

6. Element percentage = mass of element percentage of O in H 2SO 4 O% = 16  4 = 65%


mass of molecule 98

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Dr. Sun Chemistry Summary .

Chapter 8 Chemical Reactions


Chemical reactions are the recombination of atoms. The knowledge of chemical reactions is on the center of
chemistry. More than 50 million reactions have been recorded. 50 million! How many do you want to know? I
have selected 80 reactions for you to take AP test.

1. Types of Reactions
1) Combination reactions A+B=C Zn + S = ZnS
2) Decomposition reactions AB = A + B CaCO3  CaO + CO2
3) Single replacement AB + C = CB + A Zn + CuSO4 = Cu + ZnSO4
4) Double replacement AB + CD = AD + CB AgNO3 + NaCl  AgCl + NaNO3
5) Combustion CnHmO + O2 = CO2 + H2O C5H12 + 8O2 = 5CO2 + 6H2O
6) Acid-base reactions acid + base = salt + water HCl + NaOH = NaCl + H2O
7) Redox reactions involve electron transfer (see chapter 12)
8) Organic reactions reactions of organic compounds (see chapter 15)

2. Single Replacement - how to predict if it can occur


1) If the free metal is more active than the metal in compounds, it can occur. Otherwise, it can not.
Zn + Cu+2 = Zn+2 + Cu it can occur. Ag + Cu+2 = no reactions
2) If the free nonmetal is more active than the nonmetal in compounds, it can occur. Otherwise, it can not.
F2 + 2Cl- = 2F- + Cl2 it can occur. Br2 + 2Cl-1 = no reaction

3. Double Replacement - how to predict if it can go to completion


If the product is one of precipitate, gas or H2O, the reaction can go to completion.
AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq)  AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)
Na2CO3 (aq) + 2HCl (aq)  CO2 (g) + H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)
NaOH(aq) + HCl (aq)  H2O (l) + NaCl(aq)

4. Balance Reactions - Mass, charge and energy are conserved during a reaction
1) Write correct formula for reactants and products
2) Start with polyatomic compounds, treat polyatomic ions (e.g. NO3- ) as one unit
3) Balance elements last
4) Use fractions to balance, then multiply by Least Common Multiple.
Example: Balance C6H14 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
1) how many C on the left side? 6; so put 6 before CO2. C6H14 + O2 → 6CO2 + H2O
2) how many H on the left side ? 14; so put 7 before H2O C6H14 + O2 → 6CO2 + 7H2O
3) how many O on the right side? 19; so put 19/2 before O2. C6 H14  19 O2  6CO2  7 H 2O
2
4) multiply 2 on both side. Done. 2C6H14 + 19O2 → 12CO2 + 14H2O

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Dr. Sun Chemistry Summary .

5. Net ion equation and spectator ions


1) Balance full equation: AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq)  AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
2) Write ionized compounds as ions. Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq)+ Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)  AgCl(s) + Na+(aq)+ NO3-(aq)
3) Remove spectator ions: Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)  AgCl(s) net ion equation
Spectator ions are ions remaining unchanged (Na and NO3 ) in reactions.
+ -

6. Compounds that are always soluble and form ions in water


1) Compounds containing Na+, K+ , group 1 ions and NH4+ .
2) Compounds containing NO3- , CH3CO2-, ClO3-, ClO4-
3) Strong acids: HCl (HBr, HI), HNO3, H2SO4, HClO3, HClO4
4) Strong bases: Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2

7. Twenty Reactions for SAT


2Ca + O2 = 2CaO metal + nonmetal = salt, ionic bond
O2 + 2H2 = 2H2O nonmetal + nonmental = covalent compound
N2 + 3H2 = 2NH3 Haber process
CaO + H2O = Ca(OH)2 metal oxide + H2O = base
CO2 + H2O = H2CO3 nonmetal oxide + H2O = acid

SO3 + H2O = H2SO4 nonmetal oxide + H2O = acid


SO2 + H2O = H2SO3 nonmetal oxide + H2O = acid
Na2CO3 + HCl  CO2 + H2O + NaCl produce gas, acid-base
NH4Cl + NaOH  NH3 + H2O + NaCl produce gas, acid-base
NaHS + HCl  H2S + NaCl produce gas, acid-base

NaOH + HCl = H2O + NaCl Acid-base


C5H12 + 8O2 = 5CO2 + 6H2O combustion
2KClO3  2KCl + 3O2 preparation of O2
Zn + H2SO4 = H2 + ZnSO4 preparation of H2
2Na + 2H2O = H2 + 2NaOH G1 metal + H2O = H2 and base

F2 + NaCl = Cl2 + NaF Single replacement, Redox


AgNO3 + NaCl  AgCl + NaNO3 Double replacement
Zn + CuSO4 = Cu + ZnSO4 Single replacement, Redox
(NH4)2CO3  NH3 + CO2 + H2O Decomposition
H2CO3  H2O + CO2 Decomposition
CaCO3  CaO + CO2 Decomposition
H2O2  H2O + O2 Decomposition

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Dr. Sun Chemistry Summary .

8. Predict Products - 80 Reactions for AP


Reactants Products
Alkali and alkali earth metal + water produce hydrogen and base
1 Sodium is added to water 2Na + 2H2O  H2 + 2Na(OH)2
2 Calcium is added to water Ca + 2H2O  H2 + Ca(OH)2
Active metal + acid produce hydrogen + salt
3 Zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid Zn + 2HCl  H2 + ZnCl2
4 Calcium reacts with sulfuric acid 2Na + H2SO4  H2 + Na2SO4
5 Nonactive metal Cu, Ag, Au, Pt, Hg +H+  No reaction
metal oxide + water  base
6 calcium oxide reacts with water CaO + H2O  Ca(OH)2
7 sodium oxide is placed into water Na2O + H2O  2NaOH
Nonmetal oxide + water  acid
8 Carbon dioxide is bubbled through water CO2 + H2O  H2CO3
9 Sulfur dioxide reacts with water SO2 + H2O  H2SO3
10 Sulfur trioxide reacts with water SO3 + H2O  H2SO4
11 Dinitrogen pentaoxide reacts with water N2O5 + H2O  2HNO3
12 Diphosphorus pentaoxide reacts with water P2O5 + 3H2O  2H3PO4
Metal hydride reacts with water  hydrogen + base
13 sodium hydride readts with water NaH + H2O  H2 + NaOH
14 Calcium hydride reacts with water CaH2 + 2H2O  2H2 + Ca(OH)2
Burn in air (O2)  Oxide + H2O (in most case)
15 Sulfur burns in air S + O2  SO2
16 Hydrogen burns in air 2H2 + O2  2H2O
17 Hexane burns in air 2C6H14 + 19O2  12CO2 + 14H2O
18 Ethanol burns in air CH3CH2OH + 3O2  2CO2 + 3H2O
Metal + nonmetal  salts
19 sodium reacts with chlorine 2Na + Cl2  2NaCl
20 sodium is placed in hydrogen gas 2Na + H2  2NaH
21 magnesium is heated in nitrogen 3Mg + N2  Mg3N2
22 magnum burns in air 2Mg + O2  2MgO
23 aluminum burns in oxygen 4Al + 3O2  2Al2O3
24 Aluminum is heated in chlorine 2Al + 3Cl2  2AlCl3

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Compounds are heated  gas (O2, CO2, H2O, SO2)


25 Potassium chlorate is heated 2KClO3  2KCl + 3O2
26 Calcium carbonate is heated CaCO3  CaO + CO2
27 Ammonium carbonate is heated (NH4)2CO3  2NH3 + CO2 + H2O
28 Calcium sulfite is heated CaSO3  CaO + SO2
29 Calcium sulfate is heated 2CaSO4  2CaO + 2SO2 + O2
30 Mercury oxide is heated 2HgO  Hg + O2
31 Potassium nitrate is heated 2KNO3  2KNO2 + O2
32 Hydrogen peroxide is decomposed 2H2O2  2H2O + O2
Acid + base  Salt + H2O (in most case)
33 Hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O
hydroxide

34 Sulfuric acid reacts with calcium hydroxide H2SO4 + Ca(OH)2  CaSO4 + H2O
35 Ammonium chloride react with sodium NH4Cl + NaOH  NaCl + NH3 + H2O
hydroxide
36 Ammonia is bubble through carbonic acid H2CO3 + NH3  NH4HCO3
solution
37 Hydrochloric acid reacts with ammonia H+ + NH3  NH4+
Lewis Acid + Lewis Base  Coordinate complex
38 Boron trifluoride reacts with ammonia BF3 + NH3  F3B-NH3
39 Boron trifluoride reacts with phosphine BF3 + PH3  F3B-PH3
40 Aluminum chloride reacts with phosphine AlCl3 + PH3 Cl3Al-PH3
41 Commone Lewis Acid BF3, BH3,  because they have empty
AlCl3 orbital to accept electrons.
42 Commone Lewis base NH3, PH3, PCl3  because they have electron
pairs to donate to acids.
Salts (CO32-, S-2) react with strong acids (HCl, H2SO4)  gas (CO2, H2S)
43 Hydrochloric acid is added to sodium CO32- + 2H+  CO2 + H2O
carbonate solution
44 Hydrochloric acid is added to sodium sulfide S2- + 2H+  H2S
solution

Active metal + less active metal ion  redox reaction


45 zinc metal is place in copper sulfate solution Zn + Cu2+  Zn2+ + Cu
46 Copper metal is placed in silver nitrate Cu + 2Ag+  Cu2+ + 2Ag
solution

F2 (Cl2, Br2) + Cl- ( Br- , I-) (single replacement, redox)  Cl2 ( Br2, I2)
47 Fluorine reacts with sodium chloride F2 + 2Cl-  2F- + Cl2
solution

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48 Chlorine gas was introduced into fluoride Cl2 + 2F-  no reaction


solution

49 Bromine is added to sodium iodide solution Br2 + 2I-  2Br- + I2


Two salts mixed (double replacement)  precipitate (solid)
50 Silver nitrate solution mixed with sodium Ag+ + Cl-  AgCl (s)
chloride solution
51 Lead nitrate solution mixed with sodium Pb2+ + 2Cl-  PbCl2 (s)
chloride solution
52 Barium nitrate solution mixed with sodium Ba2+ + SO42-  BaSO4 (s)
sulfate
53 Copper sulfate solution mixed with sodium Cu2+ + S2-  CuS (s)
sulfide
54 Calcium chloride solution mixed with Ca2+ + PO43-  Ca3(PO4)2 (s)
sodium phosphate
55 Nickel(II) bromide mixed with potassium Ni2+ + 2OH-  Ni(OH)2 (s)
hydroxide solution
56 Sodium carbonate mixed with calcium Ca2+ + CO32-  CaCO3 (s)
hydroxide solution

NH3, Cl-, CN-, OH-, SCN- + transition metal ions (Zn2+, Ag+, Fe2+3+, Cu2+, Ni2+)  complex ions
57 Combine with 1 ligand: Cu2+ + SCN-  Cu(SCN)+
Potassium thiocyanate solution is added to
copper(II) solution
58 Potassium thiocyanate solution is added to Fe3+ + SCN-  Fe(SCN)2+ (red)
iron (III) solution

59 Combine with 2 ligands: AgCl + 2NH3  Ag(NH3)2+ + Cl-


Solid silver chloride is dissolved in
concentrated ammonia solution
60 Solid silver chloride is added to Ag+ + 2Cl-  AgCl2-1
concentrated hydrochloric acid
61 Combine with 4 ligands: Al(OH)3 + OH-  Al(OH)4-
Aluminum hydroxide is dissolved in
concentrated sodium hydroxide solution
62 Zinc hydroxide is dissolved in concentrated Zn(OH)2 + 2OH-  Zn(OH)42-
sodium hydroxide solution
63 Excess ammonia is added to a solution of Zn2+ + 4NH3  Zn(NH3)42+
zinc nitrate
64 Excess ammonia is added to a solution of Cu2+ + 4NH3  Cu(NH3)42+ (dark blue)
copper nitrate
65 Potassium thiocyanate solution is added to Co2+ + 4SCN-  Co(SCN)42-
Cobalt (II) solution

66 Excess potassium iodide is added to Hg2+ + 4I-  HgI42-


mercury(II) nitrate
67 Nickel(II) nitrate is dissolved in Ni2+ + 4OH-  Ni(OH)42-
concentrated soldium hydroxide solution

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68 Combine with 6 ligands: Fe2+ + 6CN-  Fe(CN)64-


a solution of sodium cyanide is added to an
iron(II) solution
69 Complex ions formed in iron(II) aqueous Fe2+ + 6H2O  Fe(H2O)62+
solution
70 Complex ions formed in iron(III) aqueous Fe3+ + 6H2O  Fe(H2O)63+
solution
71 Complex ions formed in aluminum aqueous Al3+ + 6H2O  Al(H2O)63+
solution
72 Excess ammonia is added to a solution of Ni2+ + 6NH3  Ni(NH3)62+
nickel nitrate

Nonactive metal (Cu, Ag, Au) + oxidizing acid (H2SO4, HNO3)  redox reaction
73 Copper metal is placed in concentrated Cu + 2H2SO4  CuSO4 + SO2 + 2H2O
sulfuric acid
74 Copper is placed in dilute nitric acid 3Cu + 8HNO3  3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O
75 Silver is placed in concentrated nitric acid Ag + 2H +
+
NO3-  Ag+ + NO2 + H2O
76 Gold is placed in a mixture of concentrated Au + HNO3 + 3HCl  AuCl3 + NO + 2H2O
nitric acid and hydrochloric (1:3 molar ratio) Aqua regia dissolve gold
Metal oxide and nonmetal oxide  salt
76 Solid calcium oxide powder mixed with hot CaO + SO3  CaSO4
sulfur trioxide gas
77 Solid calcium oxide powder mixed with hot CaO + CO2  CaCO3
carbon dioxide gas

Oxidizing agents + reducing agents  redox reaction (See chapter of electrochemistry)


78 Potassium permanganate solution is mixed KMnO4 + K2C2O4 + H2O  2MnO2 + 6CO2 + 8KOH
with potassium oxalate in basic solution
79 Potassium dichromate is added to solution of K2Cr2O7 + 14HCl  2CrCl3 + 3Cl2 + 2KCl + 7H2O
hydrochloric acid
80 Iodine is added to concentrated nitric acid HNO3 + I2  HIO3 + NO2 + H2O
81 Concentrated solution of hydrochloric acid 16HCl + 2KMnO4  5Cl2 +2MnCl2 + 8H2O
is added to potassium permanganat
82 Carbon monoxide reacts with hot iron (III) 3CO + Fe2O3 =  3CO2 + Fe
oxide
Organic reactions (See chapter of organic chemistry)
83 a solution of bromine in carbon tetrachloride CH3CH=CHCH3 + Br2  CH3CHBrCHBrCH3
is added to 2-butene (addition) Br2 purple color disappears
84 acetic acid reacts with ethanol catalyzed CH3CO2H + CH3CH2OH  CH3COOCH2CH3 + H2O
with acid (esterification)

Read 10 times!

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Dr. Sun Chemistry Summary .

Chapter 9 Kinetics -Study of Reaction Rates


Seventy million chemical reactions have been discovered. Some reactions can complete in 1 second and some may
take many years to finish. How to express the rate of a chemical reaction? What determine the rate of a reaction?
How can we control a given reaction ?

1. Reaction rate = Change of concentration / time

For reaction . aA + bB  cC + dD Rate  -ΔA  -ΔB  ΔC  ΔD


at bt ct dt
molarity mole
Rate unit= = = mole  L-1  s-1
time Ls

2. Collision Theory For a reaction between A and B to occur,


1) A and B must collide;
2) A and B must collide with enough energy (activation Energy);
3) A and B must collide with right orientation.

3. What affect reaction rates?


 Activity: Rates of reactions involving different reactants can be hugely different.
 Concentration: At high concentration, there are more collision so the reactions are fast.
 Temperature: At high T, particles move fast and collide more frequently, so reactions are fast.
 Surface Area: For a solid, a reaction occurs on the surface. Larger surface area results in fast reactions.
 Catalyst: Decrease the energy required for a reaction to occur. As a result, reactions are faster.

4. Activity and Rates


 Group 1 metals are very active. They react with water to produce H2 and base. G1 is more active than G2.
 Group 7 nonmetal is very active. They react with group 1 metal violently. G7 is more active than G6.
 Group 8 noble gas are very unreactive. Kr and Xe react rarely (KrF2, XeF4, XeO3).
 See Ch9-reactions for 80+ common reactions.
 Search CAS database for 70 million reactions.

5. Concentration and Rate [C]  rate  High concentration = more collision = high rate

 Rate Law For aA + bB  cC + dD rate = k[A]a[B]b This is rate law.


 Reaction order = a + b
r2 A
a and b are determined by experiments.  [ 2 ] a when [B] is constant.

r1 A1

6. Experimental Determination of Reaction Order - Concentration vs Rate


Giver a reaction, we can not tell the reaction order based on the equation, because the reaction may undergo
several steps. There are two experimental methods to determine reaction orders: Concentration vs rate and
Concentration vs time.

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The following table is the method of Concentration vs rate.


A + B = 2D + E rate = k[A]a[B]b
Expt [A] [B] Initial rate
mol/L mol/L Mol/L.S
1 0.030 0.010 0.040
2 0.060 0.010 0.080
3 0.060 0.020 0.320
Q1. what is the reaction order respect to A?
Look at Expt 1 and 2, [B] is the same, so the rate is changed only by [A].
r2 A 0.08  [ 0.06 ]a
When [A] doubles, the rate doubles,  [ 2 ]a a=1
r1 A1 0.04 0.03
Q2. what is reaction order respect to B? Look at Expt 2 and 3, [A] is the same, so the rate is changed only by [B].
r3 B 0.32  [ 0.02 ]b
When [B] doubles, the rate quadruples,  [ 3 ]b b=2
r2 B2 0.08 0.01
Q3. What is the overall reaction order? a+b=3 rate = k[A] [B]2
Q4. What is the unit of rate constant K? rate = mole / L  K ( mole )( mole ) 2 K= L2
s L L s. mole 2
Q5. What is the magnitude of rate constant K?
Plug [A], [B] and rate of expt 1 into rate = k[A] [B]2 0.04 = K[0.03][0.01]2 K = 13333 L2
s. mole 2
Q6. If [A] is 0.03M and [B] is 0.06M, what is the initial rate?
Rate = k[A] [B]2 = = 13333[0.03][0.06]2 = 1.44 mol/L.s

7. Experimental Determination of Reaction Order - Concentration vs Time


Reaction order 0 order 1st order 2nd order
Differential rate law rate = -k rate = -k[A]1 rate = -k[A]2
Concentration vs rate
Integrated rate law [At] = -kt + [A0] lnAt = -kt + lnA0 1/At = kt + 1/[A0]
Concentration vs time
Half-life T1/2 = [A0]/2k T1/2 = ln2/k T1/2 = 1/[A0]k
Straight line [A] ln[A] 1
[A]

time time time


0 order 1st order 2nd order

1) Half-life T1/2: the time required for half reactnts to change. Only 1st order has a constant T1/2
3 day 3 day 3 day 3 day
If 32g 16 8 4 2 g, then T1/2 = 3 days
t / T1/2
2) Nt = No 1 Nt = N at time t; No = N initial; t = time; T1/2 = half-life
2

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3) Example: Given the following data, a. Determine the rate law. b. Calculate the rate constant. C. Find [C4H6] at
time 4000s.
2C4H6 (g) → C8H12 (g)
Time (s) [C4H6](M) 10-2 ln[C4H6] 1/[C4H6]
0 1.73 -4.06 58
900 1.43 -4.25 69
1800 1.22 -4.41 80
3 700 0.96 -4.65 105
6000 0.72 -4.91 137

a. Plot [C4H6], ln[C4H6] and 1/[C4H6] versus time. As the plot of 1/[C4H6] versus time is straight line, the reaction
is second order. b. Rate constant k = slope of the straight line. c. At 4000s, [C4H6] = 0.0091M.

Which is a line: Not zero order not first order it is 2nd order

8. Temperature and Rates: Arrhenius Equation T   rate 


When temperature increases, molecules move fast. Both the frequency of collision and the percentage of
molecules with activation energy increase, which result in the increase of rates as shown in Arrhenius equation.

Arrhenius Equation k  Ae  Ea / RT
ln k   Ea ( 1 )  ln A The graph of ln k vs. 1/T is a line with slope -Ea/R and y-intercept lnA .
R T
k
ln 2  Ea ( 1  1 ) With two experimental K and T, you can determine Ea of the reaction.
k1 R T1 T2
K: rate constant in rate law A: frequency factor
Ea: activation energy R: gas constant 8.31 J/k.mol
T: temperature in Kelvin e: constant = 2.718

9. Surface Area If a solid has larger surface area, the reaction is faster.

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10. Reaction Energy Diagram shows changes of energy in a reaction

Potential Energe
(A)-potential energy of reactants (B)
(B)-activation energy of forward reaction (C)
(E)

(C)-potential energy of activated complex A+B

(D)-heat of reaction H = Eproduct - Ereactant


(D)
If H is +, reaction is endothermic; (A) C+D
If H is -, reaction is exothermic. (F)

(E)-activation energy of reverse reaction Progress of Reaction

(F)-potential energy of products Reaction Energy Diagram

11. Catalysts are chemicals that


1) Increase reaction rate  by lowing activation energy
2) low activation energy Ea  by changing mechanism
 Activation energy (Ea): energy required for a reaction to occur.
 Lower Ea results in higher rate.
3) Do not change H and Keq
4) Are not consumed in the reaction

Masses of a catalyst can be as low as 1 (H+) and as high as 20000 (enzymes).


rate = 10 5
12. Multi-Step Reactions - Mechanism and Rate Law A B P

1) The slowest step determines the rate law. Step B → P is the rate-determining step.
2) B is an intermediate, which is neither reactants nor products.
3) Example: Given the mechanism of a reaction on the right.
Q1. What is the overall reaction? 2NO = N2O2 (fast)
Q2. What are the intermediates?
Q3. What is the rate-determining step? N2O2 + H2 = N2O + H2O (slow)
Q4. What is the order of the reaction? N2O + H2 = N2 + H2O (fast)

A1. Add the three elementary reactions, N2O2 and N2O are canceled. 2NO + 2H2 = 2H2O + N2
A2. N2O2 and N2O are intermediates.
A3. The second step is the rate-determining step, because it is the slowest step.
A4. a. Write the rate law according to the slow step: r = k[N2O2][H2]
[N O ]
b. Express N2O2 in term of NO and Keq of step 1. K eq  2 22 then [N 2 O 2 ] = K eq [ NO]2
[ NO ]
c. r = k[N2O2][H2] = k (keq)[NO]2[H2] = K[NO]2[H2] where K = k(keq). Reaction order = 3.

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Chapter 10 Chemical Equilibrium

1. Equilibrium: when forward rate = reverse rate, the reaction is in equilibrium. At equilibrium, the
concentrations of reactants and products remain unchanged.
rate 1

a A + bB   cC + dD rate 1 = rate 2 in equilibrium
rate 2

2. Equilibrium Constant Keq : At equilibrium, the ratio of concentration of products to the concentration of
reactants is constant, which is called equilibrium constant Keq. The expression of Keq is shown below. Liquid and
solids are not included in Keq expression, because their concentrations are constant.
c d
Equilibrium Constant keq  [C ] a[ D]b concentration at equilibrium.
[ A] [ B ]
c d
Reaction Quotient Q  [C ] a[ D]b use concentration at any time.
[ A] [ B ]
Difference between Keq and Q is that you must use concentrations at equilibrium for Keq, and you can use
concentration at any time for Q. Keq is constant but Q is not.
If Q < Keq, the reaction will go forward;
If Q > Keq, the reaction will go backward;
If Q = Keq, the reaction reaches equilibrium.

3. Solve Equilibrium Problems - RICE method


Reaction A + B⇌ 2C + D
Initial I I 0 0 [C ]2 [ D ] (2x)2 x
Keq  
Change -x -x 2x x [ A][ B ] (I-x)2
Equilibrium I-x I-x 2x x

4. Factors Affecting Equilibrium Concentration - Le Chatelier’s Principle


If you add water to the left container, water will flow to the right. This is Le Chatelier’s Principle. It seems
obvious. In other words, if you add A, the reaction will go to the direction in order to decrease A. A can represent
reactants, products, pressure and temperature. Let us look an example.
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) = 2NH3 (g) + 92kJ
Action Shift
N2 ↑ → Adding reactant produces more products
H2 ↑ → Adding reactant produces more products
NH3 ↑ ← Adding product produces more reactants
T ↑ ← Treat temperature or heat as a chemical.
Pressure ↑ → Increasing pressure shifts reaction to less gas sides
Catalyst ↑ no Adding catalyst does not effect equilibrium concentrations.
Inert gas ↑ no Adding inert gas does not effect equilibrium concentrations.
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5. Some Equilibrium Constants: Kw, Ksp, Ka, Kb


1) Water dissociation Kw = [H+][OH-] = 10-14 H2O ⇌ H+ + OH-
2) Solubility product Ksp = [Pb2+][Cl-]2 PbCl2 ⇌ Pb2+ + 2Cl-
3) Acid dissociation Ka = [H+][A-]/[HA] HA ⇌ H+ + A-
4) Base dissociation Kb = [BH+][OH-]/[B] B + H2O ⇌ HB+ + OH-

7. Gibbs Free Energy Go and Equilibrium Constant Keq


1) Go = -RT lnKeq Go = Ho - TSo Go = -nFEo
2) G = Go + RTlnQ G = 0 in equilibrium Go is G at 1atm, 298K, 1.0 M
3) For a given reaction, G < 0 spontaneous, G > 0 not spontaneous G = 0 in equilibrium
4) G o   G fo of products -  G o
f of reactants
5) Temperature and spontaneous H - TS =G H S G Spontaneous
+ + - at high T at high T
6) Find values of Go , Ho , So , Eo are in reference table. + - + never
- + - always
8. Kc and Kp - - - at low T at low T
For gas phase reactions, you can use Kc or Kp as Keq.


a A(g) + bB(g) 
 cC(g) + dD(g) Kp = Kc (RT)n n = (c + d) - (a + b)
c d c d
Becuse keq  [C ] a[ D] b kp  [ PC ] a[ PD ] b P  n RT  CRT
[ A] [ B] [ PA ] [ PB ] V

9. Only temperature can change Keq


Brensted-Lowry
Arrhenius
Lewis
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Chapter 11 Acids and Bases

1. Definition of Acids and Bases


Four Chemists have proposed the definition of Acids and Bases. They are Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry and Lewis.
Their definitions are summarized in the table below.
Acid Base
Definition Example Definition Example
Arrhenius donate H+ HCl(aq) donate OH- NaOH (aq)
(1884) in water in water
Bronsted-Lowry donate H+ HCl accept H+ NaOH
(1923) NH3
Lewis accept HCl donate NaOH
(1923) electron pair BF3 electron pair NH3
AlCl3 PCl3
Lewis acids/bases include Bronsted-Lowry acids/bases, which include Arrhenius acids/bases. Most used definition
is Bronsted -Lowry definition: Acids donate H+ and Bases accept H+.

2. Terms
H+ H3O+ H- OH-
Hydrogen ion/proton hydronium Hydride Hydroxide
HCl, HNO3, H2SO4, H2CO3 H3PO4 H2O, HCO3-, HSO42-, H2PO4-
Monoprotic acid diprotic acid Polyprotic acid Act as both acid and base
amphiprotic or amphoteric

3. Water Self-Ionization and Kw:


1) H+ in one H2O molecule can transfer to another H2O molecule. This is water self-ionization.
H2O + H2O = OH- + H3O+ or H2O = OH- + H+
2) Kw = [H+] [OH-] = 1.0 x 10-14 (25 oC) If temperature increases, Kw will increase.

4. pH and pOH
1) Definition: pH = -log[H+] pOH = -log[OH-]
2) In water, pH + pOH = 14 If pH = 10, pOH = 4 Higher pH = lower [H+] = higher [OH-].
3) If pH = 7 neutral; pH < 7 acidic; pH > 7 basic
4) Example: In pure water, [H+] = 10-7 M
Q1. What is pH of pure water? A1. pH = 7
Q2. What is [OH-] ? A2. [OH-] = 10-7 M
Q3. What is pOH? A3. pOH = 7
Q4. If [H+] = 10-9 M, what is pH and pOH ? A4. pH = 9 pOH = 5
Q5. If [H ] = 10 M, is it acidic or basic?
+ -9
A5. Basic, becaus pH = 9 > 7

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5. Ka and Kb: Dissociation constants of acids and bases


1) HF is a acid, because HF dissociate into H+ and F- when it is in water.

ka  [ H ][ F  ]

HF  H   F   7.2  104 pKa   log Ka  3.1
[ HF ]
2) NH3 is a base, because if NH3 in water accepts H+ from H2O to product OH-.

kb  [ NH 4 ][OH  ]

NH 3  H 2O  NH 4  OH   1.74 105 pKb   log Kb  4.76
[ NH 3]
3) Greater Ka = stronger acid = producing more H+ at the same concentration.
Greater Kb = stronger base = produceing more OH- at the same concentration.

6. Reaction of Acids and Bases Neutralization


1) Generally, acids react with bases to produce H2O and salts. This is neutralization.
HCl + NaOH = H2O + NaCl neutralization H+ + OH- = H2O
2) If the base does not contain OH-, the reaction will not produce H2O: HF + NH3 = F- + NH4+
3) Lewis acids react with Lewis bases: the base donates electron pairs to the empty orbital of Lewis acid.
H H H H

H N + B H H N B H

H H H H

7. Conjugate Base and Conjugated Acid


1) When acid HA lose H+, it change to conjugate base A- . The only difference of acid and conjugated base is H+.
When base B gain H+, it change to conjugated acid BH+ .
HF + NH3 = F- + NH4+
Acid base conjugated base conjugated acid
2) HF is an acid and F- is a base. Ka  Kb  Kw  1014 If the acid is stronger, its conjugated base is weaker.
Example: Ka of HF = 7.2 x 10-4. Kb of F- = Kw/Ka = 10-14/(7.2 x 10-4) = 1.4 x 10-11

8. Titration: Using acid-base reactions to determine concentrations of acids or bases


1) Reaction: H+ + OH- = H2O. Titration of HCl with of NaOH:
2) Process: HCl solution (concentration Ma is known) is added to NaOH solution (volumn Vb is known but
concentration Mb is unknown) drop by drop. pH changes during the addition of HCl. When the reaction is
complete, the solution reaches pH 7. (In this case pH is 7, but not always. See hydrolysis of salt below). pH change
can be monitored by pH-meter or by indicators (see below).
3) Calculation: when reaction is complete, MaVa = MbVb If base is Ca(OH)2, use MaVa = 2MbVb.
4) What you need for titration
A. Standard solution of acid or base: concentration is known.
B. Flask: container of base or acid to be determined.
C. Indicators or pH-meter and Buret.

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5) Buret: a graduated glass tube filled with standard solution of acid or bases
It can measures the volume at 0.01 ml accuracy.
Rinse buret 3 times with standard solution before starting titration.
6) Indicators change colors at different pH to indicate the completion of titration.
A. Two common indicators are litmus and phenolphthalin:
Litmus red in acid and blue in base
Phenolphthalein colorless in acid and pink in base
B. Indicators themselves are weak acids. They change colors only when pH = pKa ± 1.
C. How to choose indicators: calculate pH of equivalent point then choose pKa = pH± 1.
The ranged of initial pH and final pH must include the range of color change.
7) End point: is the point indicators change color.
Equivalent point: the point reactions complete. Ideally, end point is equivalent point.
8) Titration curve: shows pH change during addition of base or acid.
Monoprotic acid HA with strong base Diprotic acids H2A with strong base.
It has one pH jump It has two pH jump

At half-equivalence point pH = pKa At midpoint 1 pH = pKa1


At equivalence point pH may not be 7 At midpoint 2 pH = pKa2
At first equivalence point [OH  ]  Kw C At 2nd equivalence point [OH  ]  Kw C
Ka1 Ka 2

9. Strong Acids and Weak Acids


Strong and weak are commonly used to describe acids and bases. Strong means 100% dissociation. Weak
means less than 5% dissociation. How do you know a given acid is strong or weak? Remember this table.
7 Strong Acid 5 Weak acid 4 Strong base 5 Weak base
HCl hydrochloric HF hydrofluoric acid NaOH sodium NH3 ammonia
acid hydroxide
( HBr, HI )
HNO3 nitric acid CH3CO2H acetic acid KOH potassium CH3NH2 methyl
hydroxide amine
H2SO4 sulfuric acid H2CO3 carbonic acid G1OH group 1 Fe(OH)2 fluoride
hydroxide
HClO3 chloric acid H2S hydrosulfuric acid Ca(OH)2 calcium CH3CO2- acetate
hydroxide
HClO4 perchloric acid HCN Hydrocyanic acid CO32- carbonate

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10. Hydrolysis of Salts


Hydrolysis is the reaction of with water. As said above, HF is a weak acid and only about 5% is F- and 95% is HF.
If you dissolve NaF in water, what happens? F- likes to be HF. So F- will take H+ from H2O to form HF:
F- + H2O = HF + OH- This is hydrolysis of F-
Therefore, the solution of NaF is basic due to the hydrolysis.

Salts of weak acid is Salts of strong acid is Salts of weak base is


basic neutral acidic
NaF basic NaCl neutral NH4+ acidic
CH3CO2Na basic NaBr neutral CH3NH3+ acidic
CO32- basic NaHSO4 neutral Fe2+ acidic
CN- basic NaNO3 neutral Cu2+ acidic
S-2 basic NaClO4 neutral Al3+ acidic

11. Buffer
1) What is Buffer: Add one drop of HCl into a cup of water, pH may change from 7 to 4;
Add one drop of HCl into a cup of buffer, pH may change from 7 to 6.9.
Buffer is a solution resisting the change of pH.
2) How to make Buffer: Mix weak acid and its conjugate base in about 1:1 ratio, you get a buffer.
Example: 0.5 M CH3COOH + 0.5 M CH3COONa this is a buffer
0.2 M NH4Cl + 0.2 M NH3 this is a buffer.
[ B]
3) What is buffer pH: pH  pKa  log
[ HB ]
Example 1. What is the pH of 0.5 M CH3COOH / 0.5 M CH3COONa? pKa of CH3COOH = 4.74
[0.5]
pH  4.74  log  4.74
[0.5]
Example 2. What is the pH of 0.2 M NH3 / 0.2 M NH4Cl pKb of NH3 = 4.76
[0.2]
Find pKa first: pKa = 14 - pKb = 9.24 pH  9.24  log  9.24
[0.2]
Example 3. What is the pH of 0.5 M H2CO3 / 0.6 M NaHCO4 pKa of H2CO3 = 6.37
[0.6]
pH  6.37  log  6.45
[0.5]
Example 4. If 0.4 mL of 0.5 M NaOH was added to a mixture of 50 mL of 0.5 M H2CO3 and 50 mL of 0.6 M
NaHCO4, what is the pH after adding NaOH?
When NaOH was added, [base] will increase and [acid] will decrease.
[ 50×0.6 + 0.4  0.5 ]
pH  6.37  log 100  6.46 pH increased by only 0.01.
[ 50×0.5 - 0.4  0.5 ]
100

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12. Calculation of pH
1) Strong acid [H+] = C C = concentration of acid
2) Strong base [OH-] = C
3) Weak acid [ H  ]  Ka.C Ka = acid dissociation constant
4) Weak base [OH  ]  Kb.C Ka = base dissociation constant
[ B]
5) Buffer pH  pKa  log pKa   log Ka
[ HB ]
6) Diprotic acid H2CO3 = H+ + HCO3- Ka1 = 4.27 x 10-7
HCO3- = H+ + CO3-2 Ka2 = 5.62 x 10-11

Q1: What is the pH of 0.5 M H2CO3 ?


A1: The second dissociation is negligible. [ H  ]  Ka1.C
Q2: What is the concentration of HCO3- ? [ HCO3 ]  [ H  ]  Ka1 .C

Q3: What is the concentration of CO3-2 ? [CO32 ]  Ka 2


[ H  ][CO32 ]
Because Ka 2 

 [CO3
2
] and [ HCO3 ]  [ H  ]
[ HCO3 ]

7) Triprotic acid: 0.5 M H3PO4 H3PO4 = H+ + H2PO4- Ka1 = 7.59 x 10-3


H2PO4- = H+ + HPO4-2 Ka2 = 6.17 x 10-8
HPO4-2 = H+ + PO4-3 Ka3 = 2.14 x 10-13
A. [H+] = Ka1.C
B. [H2PO4-] = [H+] because second dissociation is negligible
C. [HPO42-] = Ka2 because Ka2 = [H+][HPO42-]/[H2PO4-]
D. [PO43-]: Ka3 = [H+][PO43-]/[HPO42-], use [H+] and [HPO42-] to find [PO43-]

8) Polyprotic acid at low concertration: Find pH of 0.01M H2SO4


A. H2SO4 is strong acid, first dissociation is 100% and produces 0.01 M H+.
B. Ka2= [H+][SO42-]/[HSO4-] = [0.01+x][x]/[0.01-x] find x, then x + 0.01 = [H+]

9) Amphiprotic acid/base: what is pH of 0.5 M NaHCO3 ?  H   Ka1.Ka2 = 4.6 x 10-9



pH = 8.34

10) Salt of weak acid and weak base: Fine pH of 0.5M CH3COONH4  H  
 Ka.Kw
Kb

13. Structure and Acidity


1) HClO4 > HClO3 > HClO2 > HClO More O bonding to central atom, it is more acidic,
H2SO4 > H2SO3; HNO3 > HNO2 because O is very electronegative.
2) HI > HBr > HCl > HF because H-I has the lowest bond energy.
3) HF > H2O > NH3 > CH4 because conjugated bases are more stable.

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14. Properties of Acids and Bases


Properties of Acids Properties of Bases M(OH)n
1) Taste sour 1) Taste bitter, feel slippery
2) pH < 7 2) pH > 7
3) Aqueous solutions conduct electricity = Electrolyte 3) aqueous solution conducts electricity = Electrolyte
4) React with NaOH to produce salt and H2O 4) React with acid to produce salt and H2O
5) Nonmetal oxides react with H2O to produce acid 5) Metal oxides react with H2O to produce bases
CO2 + H2O = H2CO3 Na2O + H2O = 2NaOH
SO3 + H2O = H2SO4 CaO + H2O = Ca(OH)2
6) React with metals to product H2 and salts 6) React with metal ions to form complex ions
Zn + 2HCl  H2 + ZnCl2 Al3+ + 4OH- = Al(OH)4-
2Na + 2HNO3  H2 + NaNO3 Zn2+ + 4OH- = Zn(OH)42-
But Cu, Ag, Au, Hg, Pt + HCl  no reaction

15. More Acids


HF hydrofluoric acid HNO3 nitric acid
HCl hydrochloric acid HNO2 nitrous acid
HBr hydrobromic acid H2SO4 sulfuric acid
HI hydroiodic acid H2SO3 sulfurous acid
HClO4 perchloric acid H2S2O3 thiosulfuric acid
HClO3 chloric acid CH3CO2H acetic acid
HClO2 chlorous acid H2CO3 carbonic acid
HClO hypochlorous acid H2S hydrosulfuric acid
H3PO4 phosphoric acid HCN hydrocyanic acid
H3PO3 phosphorous acid H2C2O4 oxalic acid
H2CrO4 chromic acid HMnO4 permanganic Acid

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Chapter 12 Electrochemistry-Electron Transfer

1. Electrochemistry studies chemical reactions involving electron transfer.


If you put zinc metal into Cu2+ solution, Zn will loses 2 electrons to form -2e
Zn2+ And Cu2+ gains 2e to form Cu. As this reaction involves electron
transfer from Zn to Cu2+, it is Reduction Oxidation reaction (Redox).
Study of Redox reactions is electrochemistry. Zn (s)+ Cu+2(aq)  Zn2+(aq) + Cu
+2e
2. Oxidation and Reduction
1) Zn loses electrons and is oxidized and Zn is a reducing agent.
2) Cu2+ gains electrons, and is reduced and Cu2+ is oxidizing agent.
3) When atoms lose/gain electrons, their oxidation numbers change, then the reaction is redox. Single
replacement, combustion, synthesis and combination reactions are redox . Double replacement is not redox.
4) Short cut: If you see an element in a reaction, it is redox.

3. Oxidation numbers: number of electrons gained or losed when atoms form molecules
1) Oxidation number of elements is zero. Oxidation number of F in F2 = 0.
2) In A-B, the atom with greater electronegativity is negative. Electronegativity: F > O > N > C > H > Na
3) H is +1 with nonmetal, such as in HF, H2O, NH3. H is -1 with metal, such as in NaH, KH.
4) O is -2 in most compounds. O is -1 in H2O2, NaO2; O is +2 in F2O.
5) F is -1 in all compounds. Cl, Br and I could be -1, +1, +3, +5, +7. Cl is +7 in HClO4.
7) Group 1 is +1, Group 2 is +2. Al is +3.
8) Sum of oxidation numbers is zero for neutral molecules for equals charge of ions.

4. Balancing Redox Reactions


1) Identify changes of oxidation number and numbers of electrons gained and lose.
2) Equalize electron by adding proper coefficients
3) In acidic solution, add H+ and H2O to balance O and H; In basic, add OH- and H2O.
Example: Balance Cu + HNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + NO + H2O
A. Cu → Cu+2 lose 2e; HNO3 → NO N+5 → N+2 gain 3e -2e x 3
B. 2e x 3 = 3e x 2 to equalize electrons .
C. There are 8N on right side, so put 8 before HNO3. 3Cu + 8HNO3 = 3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O
D. There are 8H on left side, so put 4 before H2O. Done. +3e x 2

5. Direction of Electron Transfer and Reduction Potential Eo


1) In the following reaction, which one gain the electron, Ag+ or Na+ ? How do you know?
Ag+ + e- + Na+ = Ag+ + Na or Ag + Na+
Ag+ will gain the electron, because Ag+ has a greater reduction potential Eo.

2) Reduction potential Eo represent the ability to gain electrons. From the table below, you can see that, Li+
(Eo = -3.04 V) has the lowest ability to gain an electron or Li has the highest ability to donate an electron. F2 (Eo =
+2.87) has the highest ability to gain electrons. Eo of 2H+/H2 is set to zero arbitrarily.

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Standard Reduction Potential Eo of half reactions at 1.0 M, 25 oC, 1 atm

Ox/red Eo(V) Cd2+/Cd -0.40 Ag+/Ag +0.80


Li+/Li -3.04 PbSO4/Pb+SO42- -0.35 Hg2+/Hg +0.85
Rb+/Rb -2.92 Ni2+/Ni -0.26 Hg2+/Hg22+ +0.92
K+/K -2.92 Sn2+/Sn -0.14 ClO2/ClO2- +0.95
Ba2+/Ba -2.90 Pb2+/Pb -0.13 NO3-/NO acidic +0.96
Ca2+/Ca -2.76 2H+/H2 +0.00 Br2/Br- +1.09
Na+/Na -2.71 S+2H+/H2S +0.14 O2 +4H+/2H2O +1.23
Mg2+/Mg -2.37 Sn4+/Sn2+ +0.15 Cr2O72-/Cr3+ acidic +1.33
Ce3+/Ce -2.34 Cu2+/Cu+1 +0.15 Cl2/Cl- +1.36
H2/H- -2.23 Cu2+/Cu +0.34 Au3+/Au +1.50
Be2+/Be -1.70 O2+2H2O/4OH- +0.40 MnO4-/Mn2+ acidic +1.51
Al3+/Al -1.66 Cu+/Cu +0.52 IO4-/IO3- acidic +1.60
Mn2+/Mn -1.18 I2/I- +0.54 MnO4-/MnO2 acidic +1.68
2H2O/(H2+2OH-) -0.83 MnO4-/MnO2 basic +0.59 PbO2 + 4H+/PbSO4 +1.69
Zn2+/Zn -0.76 O2 +2H+/2H2O2 +0.68 Ce+4/Ce+3 +1.70
Cr3+/Cr -0.74 Fe3+/Fe2+ +0.77 Co3+/Co2+ +1.82
Fe2+/Fe -0.44 Hg22+/Hg +0.79 F2/F- +2.87

6. Use Eo to predict the direction of a redox reaction -2e


1) Find reduction potential E :
o
Zn + 2e- = Zn
2+
E = -0.76 V
o

Cu2+ + 2e- = Cu Eo = +0.34 V Zn(s)+ Cu+2(aq)  Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)


2) The one with higher Eo gains electrons.
So Cu2+ gain electrons and Zn lose electrons. +2e

7. Use redox reaction to make a battery


A battery is a device that converts chemical energy to electrical energy.
Let’s use the above reaction to make a battery.
1) You need: metal Cu and Zn, solutions of CuSO4 and ZnSO4.
2) Connect Cu and Zn by a conductor and insert Cu into CuSO4 solution
and Zn into ZuSO4 solution.
3) Connect CuSO4 and ZnSO4 solutions by a bridge filled with semisolid
Salt (KCl). Then you have a battery.

If you place a bulb between the conductor in the position of voltmeter, the
Bulb glows! What happened? Electrons flow through the bulb from
Zn to Cu2+. The bridge is called salt bridge. The conductor is for electrons to flow and the salt bridge is for ions
to flow to equalize the charge on two containers. What direction do the ions flow? If electrons flow to right side,
there will be too many negative charge on right side, so negative ions will flow to left side through the salt bridge.

Synonyms: Battery = Voltaic Cell = Galvanic Cell = Electrochemical Cell = Chemical Cell = Cell

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8. Anode and Cathode 2e-


In a chemical cell there are two containers linked
by a conductor and a salt bridge. The one losing electrons is Zn + Cu 2+ = Zn 2+ + Cu
called anode and another gaining electrons is called cathode. lose e- gain e-
In other words, anode loses electrons and cathode gains electrons, anode cathode
electrons flow from anode to cathode in both voltaic cell and oxidized reduced
electrolytic cell. reducing oxidizing
agent agent
0
8. Calculate E cell of a voltaic cell
Did you see the number 1.10 in the cell diagram ? It is the voltage of the cell.

E 0cell = E red
o
- E oox = E oCu 2+ /Cu - E oZn 2+ /Zn = 0.34 - (-0.76) = 1.10 V

10. Nernst Equation - Calculate Reduction Potential at Nonstandard Conditions

o RT [products]
Nernst Equation: E = E - lnQ = E o - 0.059 log Q Q= R = 8.31 J/mol.k T = Kelvin
nF n [reactants]
n = number of moles of electrons F = Faraday = 96500 coulomb = charge of 1 mole electrons

Q1. What is the reduction potential of half reaction Cu2+ + 2e- = Cu at [Cu2+] = 0.1 M, T = 30 oC ?
o RT [Cu]
lnQ = E o - RT ln
(8.31)(303)
A1. E = E - = 0.34 - ln 1  0.31V [Cu] = [solid] = 1
nF nF [Cu ] 2+
(2)(96500) [0.1]

Q2. what is the cell voltage of Zn + Cu2+ = Zn2+ + Cu when [Cu2+] = 0.1 M, [Zn2+] = 2.0 M, T = 30 oC ?
[Zn 2+ ] (8.31)(303)
A2: V = V o RT
- lnQ = V o RT
- ln = 1.10 - ln 2  1.06 V
nF nF [Cu ] 2+
(2)(96500) 0.1

11. Electrolytic Cell


1) Electrolytic cell is a device that uses battery to make a non-spontaneous reaction to occur. It converts electrical
energy to chemical Energy. The reaction in an electrolytic cell is electrolysis.
1) Electrolysis of NaCl (l): 2NaCl + energy = 2Na + Cl2
2) Electrolysis of H2O: 2H2O + energy = 2H2 + O2
3) Electrolysis of NaCl(aq) 2Na+ + 2Cl- + H2O = H2 + Cl2 + 2NaOH
4) Electroplating of Fe with gold: Au+ + e- = Au

It It
12. Current and Mole MM  gram  mole of e Al+3 + 3e- = Al n = 3
96500 n 96500
Q1. Electrolysis of NaCl at current I = 5A for 2 hours. How many moles of Cl2 were produced?
It (5A)(7200s)
A1. mole of Cl2 = = = 0.19
Fn (96500)(2)

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Q2. Electroplating of a Fe spoon with gold at 10A for 2 min. How many grams of gold was plated on the spoon ?

A2. Gram of Au =
I t  molar mass = (10A)(120s) (197) = 2.45 g
nF (1)(96500)

13. Difference between Voltaic cell and electrolytic Cell


Voltaic Cell / Battery Electrolytic Cell

Cell

Diagram

Energy Release energy Absorb energy


Spontaneity Spontaneous Nonspontaneous
E E is positive E is negative
Salt bridge Yes No
Anode Negative Positive

14. Equilibrium Constants Keq, Spontaneity and Go


1) All reactions are reversible and have equilibrium constants Keq = [products] / [reactants].
[Zn 2+ ]
Zn + Cu2+ = Zn2+ + Cu Keq  nFE o  RT ln Keq
[Cu 2+ ]

2) If a reaction potential (or a cell voltage) Eo is positive, the reaction is spontaneous or the reaction could occur.
If E is negative, it is nonspontaneous or the reaction cannot occur. If E is zero, the reaction is in equilibrium.

3) Go is the change of Gibbs Free Energy.


Go = Ho -TSo Ho = change of enthalpy T = Kelvin So = change of entropy
Go = -nFEo n = number of electrons F = 96500
Go = -RTlnKeq R = 8.31 Eo = reaction potential.

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15. Common Oxidizing and Reducing Agents


Oxidizing Regents Products Condition Reducing Agents Products
(gain e) (lose e)
KMnO4 MnO4-2 Basic Zn Zn2+
KMnO4 MnO2 Neutral Na Na+
KMnO4 Mn2+ Acidic Fe Fe2+
MnO2 Mn2+ Acidic Fe2+ Fe3+
K2Cr2O7 CrO2- Basic I- I2
K2CrO4 CrO2- Basic S2O32- S4O62-
K2Cr2O7 Cr3+ Acidic S2- S, SO2
K2CrO4 Cr3+ Acidic SO32- SO42-
HNO3 NO2 Concentrated Sn2+ Sn4+
HNO3 NO Dilute  6M SO2 SO42-
H2SO4 SO2 Concentrated LiAlH4 H2
HClO4 Cl- Acidic NaBH4 H2
H2O2 H2O Acidic
H2O2 OH- Basic
Cl2 , I2 X-

16. Battery Reactions


Nickel-Cadmium Battery Anode Cd(s) + 2 OH-)(aq) = Cd(OH)2(s) + 2e-
(Rechargeable 1.4 V) Cathode 2 NiO(OH)(s) + 2H2O(l) + 2e- = 2Ni(OH)2(s) + 2 OH-(aq)
Overall Cd(s) + 2 NiO(OH)(s) + 2H2O(l) = 2Ni(OH)2(s) +Cd(OH)2(s)
Lithium Solid-State Battery Anode Li(s) = Li+ (solid electrolyte) + e-
(non rechargeable 3.0 V) Cathode MnO2(s) + Li+ + e- = LiMnO2(s)
Overall Li(s) + MnO2(s) = LiMnO2(s)
Zn-Mn Alkaline Cell Anode Zn(s) +2OH- = ZnO(s) + H2O(l) + 2e-
(non rechargeable) 1.43 V Cathode 2MnO2(s) + H2O + 2e- = Mn2O3 + 2OH-(aq)
Overall Zn(s) + 2MnO2(s) = Mn2O3 + ZnO(s)
Dry Cell Anode Zn(s) = Zn2+ (aq) + 2e-
(non rechargeable 1.51 V ) Cathode 2MnO2(s) + 2H+ + 2e- = Mn2O3 + H2O
2MnO2(s) + 2NH4+ + 2e- = Mn2O3 + 2NH3 + H2O
Overall 2MnO2 + 2NH4+ + Zn(s) = Mn2O3 + 2NH3 +H2O + Zn2+
Pb Acid Cell Anode Pb + H2SO4 = PbSO4 + 2H+ + 2e −

(rechargeable 2.04 V) Cathod PbO2 + H2SO4 + 2H++ 2e = PbSO4 + 2H2O


Overall Pb + PbO2 + 2H2SO4 = 2PbSO4 + 2H2O


Zn Air Cell Anode Zn + 2OH- = ZnO + H2O + 2e-
(non rechargeable 1.65 V) Cathode 1/2 O2 + H2O + 2e- = 2OH-
Over all Zn + 1/2 O2 = ZnO

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17. Redox Reactions: The following reactions can be used to practice balancing.
1) H2S + 2HNO3 → 2NO2 + S + 2 H2O
2) S + 2HNO3 → 2NO + H2SO4
3) Sn + 4HNO3 → SnO2 + 4NO2 + 2H2O
4) 4H+ + FeS + 3NO3- → 3NO + SO42- + Fe3+ + 2H2O
5) 5HNO3 + P → H3PO4 + 5NO2 + H2O
6) 4Zn(s) + 10H+ + NO3- 4Zn2+ + NH4+ + 3H2O
7) 2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2MnCl2 + 5Cl2 + 2KCl + 8H2O
8) 2KMnO4 + 5K2C2O4 + 16HCl = 2MnCl2 + 10CO2 + 8H2O
9) 2KMnO4 + 3K2C2O4 + 4H2O = 2MnO2 + 6CO2 + 8KOH
10) 2MnO4- + 5H2O2 + 6 H+ → 2 Mn2+ + 5O2 + 8H2O
11) MnO2 + 4HCl = MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O
12) MnO2 + 2FeSO4 + 2H2SO4 → MnSO4 + Fe2(SO4)3 + 2H2O
13) K2Cr2O7 + 14HCl = 2CrCl3 + 3Cl2 + 2KCl + 7H2O
14) K2Cr2O7 + 6FeSO4 + 7H2SO4 = Cr2(SO4)3 + 3Fe2(SO4)3 + K2SO4 + 7H2O
15) 3PbO2 + 2H2MnO3 + 6HNO3 → 3Pb(NO3)2 + 2HMnO4 + 4H2O
16) 3H2SO4 + 6FeSO4 + KClO3 3Fe2(SO4)3+ KCl + 3H2O
17) Cr2O72- + 6I- + 14H+ = 2Cr3+ + 3I2 + 7H2O
18) 2S2O32- + I2 = S4O6-2 + 2I- Iodometry
19) H2S + I2 = S + 2HI
20) 6KI + HClO3 + 5HCl = 3I2 + 3H2O + 6KCl

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Chapter 13 Thermodynamics

1. Thermodynamics studies the relationship between energy, heat, work, chemical and physical changes.

2. First Law of Thermodynamics - Relationship of heat, energy and work


Q1: If a system absorb 100 J heat and do 75 J work
on the surrounding, what is the change of energy
of the system? U = Q - W = 100 -75 = 25 J
Q U W U = Q - W

System absorb heat : Q is positive heat total energy work first law
System do work on surrounding: W is positive
Q heat
3. How to calculate work ( W) U internal energy
1) If pressure is constant: W = PV = P(Vf - Vi) W work
Vf
nRT dV = nRT ln Vf
Vf J unit for Q, U, W
2) If idea gas at constant T: W= Vi PdV  
Vi V Vi R 8.31 J/mol.K
1 1 - P2 V2
PV nR (T1-T2 ) Cp 5 T Kelvin
3) If idea gas at adiabatic (Q = 0) : W  r -1

r -1
r= 
Cv 3 m mass
C heat of capacity
4. How to calculate internal energy ( U)
Cv 3R
idea gas
3 2
1) For idea gas : U  RT per mole
2 Cp 5R
idea gas
2) For idea gas : U = m Cv T 2
5. How to calculate heat ( Q ) Q = m C T or Q = m Hvap Cv 5R
diatomic gas
2
Cp 7R
6. Entropy (S) and Change of Entropy (S) 2
diatomic gas

1) Entropy (S) is the measure of disorder. S is the change of entropy.


2) How to Predict S
A. If temperature in crease, S is positive.
B. Solids change to liquids and to gas, S is positive.
C. If products have more gas than reactants, S is positive.
D. If gases, liquids or solids are mixed, S is positive.
E. If volume of gas increase, S is positive.

7. Second Law of Thermodynamics: Suniverse  0


Given a reaction, how do you know if it can occur or not? You can tell by the change of entropy S !
If Snet is positive , it can occur; If Snet is negative, it cannot occur.
If a process involves the system and environment, then Ssystem + Senvironment  0 So one of the S could be
negative. It means for a reaction with negative S, it may occur if Ssystem is greater negative.

8. Change of Enthalpy (H) H = U + PV

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If H is negative, the reaction releases heat and it is exothermic.


If H is positive, the reaction absorbs heat and it is endothermic.

9. Calculate Heat of Reactions (Hrxn) and Hess Law


1) Use heat of formation (Hf) : Hrxn = Hf.products - Hf.reactants
2) Use bond energy (BE) Hrxn = BEreactants - BEproducts
3) Forward and reverse reactions: Hreverse = - Hforward
4) Hess Law Hrxn3 = Hrxn1 + Hrxn2

10. G, Spontaneity and Equilibrium Constant


1) G = Change of Gibbs free energy, which determine if a reaction is spontaneous or not.
Spontaneous means occurring without external energy.
If G = negative, the reaction is spontaneous ;
If G = positive, the reaction is nonspontaneous ;
If G = 0, the reaction is in equilibrium.
H S G spontaneous
2) Calculate G: Gre = Gf.products - Gf.reactants
- + - always
Gf is G of formation and can be found on reference table. + - + never
3) Calculate G: G = H - TS - - - at low T
4) Calculate G: G = -nFE in electrochemical reactions
o o + + - at high T
5) Go and Keq: Go = - RTln Keq
Go is G at standard condition (1atm, 298K, 1.0 M).

11. Third law of thermodynamic Entropy of pure crystals S = 0 at 0K

12. Calculate S
Qrev Q max Definition of entropy Wmax Vf V change at constant T
S   S   nRTln for idea gas
T T T Vi

Qfus Qvap phase change at constant T S   Cv dT  CvLn


Tf Tf T change at constant V
S  S  given Cv, Ti, Tf
T T Ti
T Ti
Q Q when heat flow from hot body to P change at constant T for
S   cold body S  Wmax  nRTln Pi idea gas
Tlow Thigh T Pf
S  k ln   = number of micro states Tf Cp Tf T change at constant P
k= = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K
S   dT  CpLn given Cp, Ti, Tf
Boltzmann constant Ti
T Ti
Pf P, V, T change  heat expansion Smix  nAR ln VAVB  nBR ln VAVB idea gases mix isothermally
S   V  dP coefficient VA VB
Pi

Isometric Isothermal Adiabatic = no heat transfer Isobaric


V is constant T is constant r r P is constant
Q = 0 U = -W PV
1 1  PV
2 2
V = 0 T = 0 U = 0 P = 0
Tf Vf
 ( )1r Tf Pf r
W=0 P1V1 = P2V2  ( )1r W = PV
Ti Vi Ti Pi
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Chapter 14 Nuclear Chemistry

1. Nuclear Chemistry study the change of nuclei. Can nuclei change? Yes. Why?

2. Stability of Nuclei
Nuclei contain protons and neutrons. Some nuclei are stable and some are not stable. Here is the reason. Protons
have positive charge and neutrons have no charge. Like charges repel each other. Wait, if protons repel each other,
how can they stay together to form nuclei? There must be another force to bind them. The force binding protons
and neutrons to form nuclei is called strong nuclear force. If the strong force is greater than the repel force of
protons, the nucleus is stable. Otherwise, it is not stable.

3. What happens if a nucleus is not stable - It decays or it emit particles.


1) If a nucleus has 84 or more protons, it is not stable. Then it emits alpha particle (2 proton + 2 neutron) to
decrease the number of protons. The process of emitting alpha particle is called alpha decay.
226
88 Ra  24  222
86 Rn 222
86 Rn  24  218
84 Po
2) If a nucleus has more mass than atomic mass in periodic table, it has too many neutrons and is not stable.
Then it emits beta particle (electron) for neutron to change to proton. This is called beta decay. Can a neutron
changes to a proton by losing a electron ? Yes. This is new to you. A proton can change to a neutron also. See the
equations below.
1
0 n  10 e  11 p 14
C  10 e  147 N
6

3) If a nucleus has less mass than its atomic mass, it has too less neutrons. Then it emits positron (positive
electron) for proton to change to neutron. This is positron decay .
1
1 p  10 e  01n 37
19 K   10 e  18
37
Ar
4) Gamma decay: excited nucleus  ground state nucleus + 0 
0
(gamma ray - high energy photon)
5) Electron capture:
201
80 Hg + 0
1 e  201
79 Au + 00

4. Radioactivity: Unstable nuclei keep emitting particles as stated above. This phenomenon is radioactivity.
Types of Radioactive decay Penetrating ability of particles

Particles Symbol Charge Mass


Alpha 4
 4
He +2 4
2 2
2p + 2n
Beta 0
 0
e -1 0 (1/1840)
1 1
e-
Positron 0
 0
e +1 0 (1/1840)
1 1
e+
Gamma ray 0γ 0 0
0

5. Penetrating ability of particles


Penetrating ability :  >  > . Neutral particle with less mass is more penetrating.
Energy:  ray > X ray > UV > visible light > IR > microwave
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6. Nuclear Transmutation = Nuclear reaction = One nucleus change to another


As stated above, one nuclei can change to another. This is transmutation.
220 216
1) Natural transmutations Fr  At  4 (If there is one reactant, it is natural)
87 85 2

2) Artificial Transmutation 7 N  2 He  8O  1H (If there are two reactants, it is artificial)


14 4 17 1

3) Mass, charge and energy are conserved in transmutation.


4) Einstein Mass-Energy Equation: E = mC2 Dduring which mass can convert to energy.

7. Detection of radioactivity
When radioactive nuclei emit particles, we can use some devices to detect them.
1) Photographic plate: based on AgBr + hv = Ag + Br (X-ray plate is an example)
2) Geiger counter: based on ionization caused by emitted particles.
3) Scintillation counter: based on phosphorescence produced by emitted particles.

8. Half Life of Radioactive nuclei T1/2 -How Fast Nuclei Decay


Radioactive nuclei keep emitting particle to change to other nuclei. For gold-198, it takes 3 days for half to decay.
Radioactive decay is the first order reaction.
3 day 3 day 3 day 3 day
Au-198 32g 16g 8g 4g 2g

Half-Life (T1/2): the time required for half nuclei to decay. Half-life of Au-198 is 3 days.

t /T 1/2 ln N0 =kt ln2 Nt = number at time t


Nt  No ( 1 ) Nt k=
T1/2 N0 = initial number
2

9. Nuclear Fission, Fusion, Mass-Energy Conversion


1) Fission is a nuclear reaction in which a large nucleus breaks into two or more nucleus. Fission is initiated by
neutron bombard and release huge amount of energy. Atomic bomb is an example of nuclear fission shown below.
Fission is extremely rapid chain reactions, in each of which 3 neutrons produced initiate the next 3 reactions and
then next 9 reactions and so on.
235
Fission U  01n  3691Kr  142
92
1
56 Ba  3 0 n  energy

2) Nuclear reactor is a device using nuclear fission to produce heat in nuclear power plants. The heat is used to
produce electricity by a steam turbine and an electric generator. Because the rate of fission increase exponentially,
it is controlled by control rods and moderators.
Control rods absorb neutrons to decrease the rate of fission. Control rods are composed of elements such as Cd,
B, In and Ag, all of which absorb neutrons.
Moderators slow neutrons to turn fast neutrons into slow neutrons to sustain fission chain reactions. Common
moderators include H2O, graphite, D2O (heavy water).
3) Nuclear fusion: Two nuclei combine into one nucleus. Fusion is initiated by very high temperature (10
million oC) and produces huge amount of energy. Hydrogen bomb and nuclear reaction in the Sun are two
examples.
Fusion 4 11H  24 He  2 10 e  energy reaction in the Sun
4) Einstein equation E = mC 2
In a nuclear reaction, some mass converts into energy.

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10. Usage of radioisotopes


C-14 Organism fossil dating Am-241 Smoke detector
I-131 Monitor thyroid activity Na-24 Monitor circulatory system
Co-60 Cancer treatment Fe-59 Monitor red blood cell activity
U-235 Fuel for nuclear fission reactors Pb-206/U-238 ratio Rocks age 1/7600 million per year
P-32 Tracer for Chemical reactions Tc-99 Monitor condition of heart, kidney, lung

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Chapter 15 Organic Chemistry

1. What is Organic Chemistry


Organic chemistry studies organic compounds. Organic means living. Organic compounds were compounds
produced by living things, this is old definition. Organic compounds are compounds containing carbon.
(Inorganic compounds are compounds that contain no carbon. However, carbon element, CO2, H2CO3 and its salts
are inorganic). Almost all organic compounds contain H. More than 50 million compounds have been discovered
or created. 95% of them are organic compounds. Why are there so many compounds containing carbon?

2. How carbon forms bonds


1) Carbon forms four bonds.
2) Carbon can forms single, double and triple bonds, such as CH3-CH3 , CH2 = CH2, CH  CH
3) Carbon can bond with C, H, N, O, F, Cl, Br, I, S, P, B, Si and metals.
4) Carbon can form chains and rings. Carbon chains can contain thousands of carbon atoms.

3. Carbon Orbital Hybridization SP, SP2, SP3 and Geometry


Bond type Hybrid orbital Geometry Bond angle
C-C SP3 Tetrahedron 109.5o
C= C SP2 Trigonal planar 120o
CC SP Linear 180o

4. General Difference between Organic and Inorganic Compounds


Properties Inorganic Organic
Bond ionic covalent
Melting point high (>500 oC) low (<300 oC)
Polarity polar nonpolar
Reaction rate fast slow

5. First Class of Organic Compounds - Hydrocarbon Containing only C and H


Alkane Alkene Alkyne Aromatic
Formula CnH2n+2 CnH2n CnH2n-2 CnH2n-6
Bonds C -C C=C CC Benzene ring
Example CH3 -CH3 CH2 = CH2 CH  CH
Reactivity Not active Addition, Oxidation Addition, Oxidation substitution
Name Ethane Ethene Ethyne benzene
Isomer lot lot lot
Distinguish: Still purple Purple disappear Purple disappear Still purple
add purple Br2
Homologs Molecules with the same general formula

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6. Organic Compounds Have Many Isomers


Isomers have the same formula but different structures. For example, molecule C5H12 has 3 isomers and
C20H42 has 366319 isomers.
CH3 Prefix for
H3C CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 H3C CH2 CH CH3 Number of
CH3 C CH3
carbon
CH3 CH3 1 meth
C5H12 pentane 2-methylbutane 2,2-dimethypropane 2 eth
3 prop
Formula C5H12 C6H14 C10H22 C20H42 4 but
Number of 5 pent
isomers 3 5 75 366319 6 hex
7 hept
8 oct
7. How to Name Alkane - name ended with “ane” 9 non
10 dec
Step 1 Choose the longest chain as the last name: prefix + ane
11 undeca
Step 2 Label carbons with 1, 2, 3, Starting from the end to give the first substitute smallest number. 12 dodeca
Step 3 Name substitutes. See right table. 13 trideca
14 tetradeca
Step 4 Name = Position + substitutes + last name ( substitutes follow alphabetical order)
Prefix for
Example: Name the compound below. Substitute Name number of
CH3- methyl substitutes
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 CH3CH2- ethyl 1 mono
H3C CH CH CH2 CH CH2 CH2 CH CH3 2 di
CH3CH2CH2- propyl
CH2 CH3 3 tri
CH3 CH3 H2C CH3
9 10
(CH3)2CH- isopropyl
4 tetra
5 - ethyl - 2,3,8 - trimethyl - decane CH3(CH2)2CH2- butyl 5 penta
6 hexa
Step 1: Longest chain has 10 carbons and it is alkane: dec + ane = decane 7 hepta
Step 2: Label carbons from left because the first substitute is at 2 position. 8 octa
Step 3: Substitutes are methyl and ethyl 9 nona
Step 4: Full name: 5 - ethyl - 2,3,8 - trimethyldecane.

8. How to Name Alkene or Alkyne - “ene” or “yne”


1) Choose the longest chain containing double bond or triple bond as the last name: prefix + ene or yne
2) Label carbons to give double bond or triple bond the smallest number
3) Full name = substitutes + last name see the examples below
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
H3C CH CH2 CH2 CH2 C CH2 CH3 C C CH3 HC C CH2 CH2 CH2 CH CH2
CH3 CH2 CH3
2 - ethyl - 7- methyl-1-hepene 2 - butyne Hept-1-en-6-yne

9. Other Classes of Organic Compounds


Function group: a group of atoms that determine the properties.

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Class Structure Functional Group Example Name


Alkane R-H none CH4 Methane
Alkene CR2 = CR2 double bond H3C CH2 CH CH2 1-butene
Alkyne RC  CR triple bond HC  CH ethyne /acetylene
Aromatic benzene ring benzene
R

Halide R-X X = F, Cl, Br, I CH3CH2Cl chloroethane


CH3CH2CHBrCH3 2-bromobutane
Alcohol R-OH hydroxyl group CH3(CH2)3CH2OH 1-pentanol
Ether R-O-R oxygen CH3OCH2CH3 Methyl ethyl ether
Aldehyde O carbonyl O thanal
R C H H3 C C H
Ketone O carbonyl O propanone / acetone
R C R CH3 C CH3
Carboxylic acid O carboxyl O ethanoic acid / acetic acid
R C OH H3C C OH
Ester O Ester O methyl propanoate
CH3CH 2 C O CH3
R C O R
Amine R-NH2 Amino CH3-NH2 methanamine
Amide O R Amide O propanamide
R C NH CH3CH2 C NH2
Amino acid NH2 O Amino and NH2 O 2-amino propanoic acid
R CH C OH carboxyl CH3 CH C OH

10. Polymers:
1) Polymer: a large molecule containing many repeated units.
2) Monomer: a small molecule used to synthesize a polymer. It is the repeated unit of a polymer.
3) Examples
Monomer Polymer Natural or Synthetic
Amino acids Protein natural
Nucleotides = deoxyribose, 4 bases, phosphate DNA natural
Nucleotides = ribose, 4 bases, phosphate RNA natural
α-glucose Starch natural
β -glucose Cellulose natural
α-glucose more branches Glucogen natural
CH2=CH2, CHCl=CHCl Plastic - PVC Synthetic
Rubber Synthetic

H2N(CH2)6NH2 Fibre - Nylon Synthetic


HO2C(CH2)4CO2H

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11. Organic Reactions


1) Substitution CH3-H + Cl2 + light = CH3-Cl + HCl
2) Addition CH2=CH2 + H2  CH3-CH3 ; CH2=CH2 + Br2  BrCH2CH2Br
3) Esterification acid + alcohol = ester and water CH3CO2H + CH3OH = CH3COOCH3 + H2O
4) Sponification fat + base = glycerin + soap
5) Fermentation C6H12O6 + enzyme = 2CH3CH2OH + CO2
6) Oxidation CH3CH2OH + KMnO4 = CH3COOH
7) Reduction CH3CHO + NaBH4 = CH3CH2OH
8) Polymerization: n(monomer)  (monomer)n = polymer n = 100-10000
Condensation polymerization: Form polymer by losing small molecules such as H2O
Addition polymerization: Form polymer by addition reactions (not lost H2O)

12. Benzene C6H6 and Aromatic Compounds


1) Compound containing benzene ring are called aromatic compounds
2) Benzene is a planar molecule. All 6C and 6H are on the same plan.
3) The bond order between two carbons is 1.5. It is not single, not double, it is the average of them.
4) It does not undergo addition reactions easily as alkene, because it has a “circlular”  bond of six carbon. The
common reactions of benzene is substitution.
5) It has two resonance structures-two writing for one structure.
H
H C H

=
C C
C6H6 C C
H C H
H

13. Aromatic : If a molecule has (4n + 2)  electrons, it is aromatic. n = 1, 2, 3 ...

Naphthalene C10H8 Anthracene C14H10


10 electrons, Aromatic, sublime 14 electrons, Aromatic

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Chapter 16 Coordination Chemistry

1. What is Coordination Chemistry


Coordination Chemistry: studies coordination compounds. H N H + Ag1+
Coordination compounds: consist of a complex ion and counterions.
H Coordinate bond
Complex ion: metal ion + ligands
Ligands: molecules or ions donating electron pairs to metal ions
Coordinate bond: covalent bond in which the shared electron pair are from one atom.
Ag+ Cl- + 2 NH3 = Ag(NH3)2+ Cl-
Metal ion ligand complex ion counterion

2. Examples of Complex Ions


Metal ion + Ligands Ion Name Valence bond theory
Coordination
= Complex ion Number Ion electron Hybrid geometry Unpaired
configuration orbital electrons
Ag+ + 2NH3 = Ag(NH3)2+ 2 Diaminesilver (I) 3d104s0 sp linear 0
Ag+ + 2Cl- = AgCl2- 2 Dichloroargentate (I) 3d104s0 sp linear 0
Ag+ + 2S2O33- = Ag(S2O3)23- 2 Dithiosulfatoargentate (I) 3d104s0 sp linear 0
Au+ + 2Cl- = AgCl2- 2 Dichloroaurate (I) 3d104s0 sp linear 0
Al3+ + 4OH- = Al(OH)4- 4 tetrahydroxoaluminate 3s03p0 sp3 tetrahedron 0
Zn2+ + 4OH- = Zn(OH)42- 4 tetrahydroxozincate 3d104s0 sp3 tetrahedron 0
Cd2+ + 4NH3 = Cd(NH3)42+ 4 Tetraaminedadmium (II) 3d104s0 sp3 tetrahedron 0
Hg2+ + 4I- = Hg2I42- 4 Tetraiodomercury (II) 5d106s0 sp3 tetrahedron 0
Co2+ + 4SCN- = Co(SCN)42- 4 Tetrathiocyanocobaltate (II) 3d74s0 sp3 tetrahedron 3
Ni + 4CO = Ni(CO)4 4 Tetracarbonylnickel 3d104s0 sp3 tetrahedron 0
Ni2+ + 4CN- = Ni(CN)42- 4 Tetracyanonickelate (II) 3d84s0 dsp2 square 0
Pd2+ + 4H2O = Pd(H2O)42+ 4 Tetrachloronickelate (II) 3d84s0 dsp2 square 0
Pt2+ + 4Cl- = Pt(Cl)42- 4 Tetrachloronickelate (II) 3d84s0 dsp2 square 0
Al3+ + 6 H2O = Al(H2O)63+ 6 Hexaaquaaluminum (III) 3s03p0 sp3d2 octahedron 0
Co3+ + 6 NH3 = Co(NH3)63+ 6 Hexacyanoferrate (III) 3d64s0 d2sp3 octahedron 0
Cu2+ + 6 H2O = Cu(H2O)62+ 6 Hexaaquacopper (II) 3d94s0 sp3d2 octahedron 1
Fe3+ + 6 CN- = Fe(CN)63- 6 Hexacyanoferrate (III) 3d54s0 d2sp3 octahedron 1
Fe3+ + 6 H2O = Fe(H2O)63+ 6 Hexaaquairon (III) 3d54s0 sp3d2 octahedron 5

Magnetic moment  n(n 2) , n = number of unpaired electrons

3. How do you know the number of ligands Ion Charge ligand

Just know it. But charge x 2 can give a good guess. Ag1+ 1 2
Zn2+ 2 4
Fe3+ 3 6

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4. Paramagnetic or dimagnetic depends on number of unpaired electrons


If a molecule or ion has unpaired electrons, it is paramagnetic (attractive to magnet);
If a molecule or ion has no unpaired electrons, it is diamagnetic ( not attractive to magnet);
Magnetic moment  n(n 2) where n = number of unpaired electrons

5. Name Coordination Compounds


1) Name = ligand + metal + counter ion
2) Examples
A. [Cu(H2O)6]Br2 hexaaquacopper (II) bromide
B. [Cr(NH3)4Cl2]Cl tetraamminedichlorochromium (III) chloride
C. K3[FeF6] potassium hexafluroferrate (III)
D. [Co(H2O)4Cl2]Cl tetraaquadichlorocobaltate (III) chloride
E. K2[SnCl6] potassium hexachlorostannate
F. [Pt(NH3)2Br4]Br2 diamminetetrabromoplatinum (VI) bromide
G. Na3Cu(CN)4 sodium tetracyanocuprate (I)
H. Ag4[Fe(CN)6] silver hexacyanoferrate (II)
I. [Co(NH2CH2CH2NH2)3]Cl tris(ethylenediamine)cobalt (III) chloride
3) Names of prefixes, ligands and metals
Prefixes for ligand Ligand Name Metal Cation Anion (-ate)
1 mono F- fluoro Zn zinc zincate
2 di/bis Cl- chloro Al aluminum aluminate
3 tri/tris O2- oxo Ni Nickel (II) Nickelate (II)
4 tetra/tetrakis OH- hydroxo Cr Chromium(III) Chromate (III)
5 penta/pentakis CN- cyano Co Cobalt (II) Cobaltate (II)
6 hex NO2- nitro Cu Copper (II) Cuprate (II)
7 hepta C2O42- oxalato Fe Iron (II) Ferrate (II)
8 octa CO3-2 carbonato Sn Tin (IV) Stannuate (IV)
Roman number for metal H2O aqua Pb Lead (II) Plumbate (II)
1 I NH3 ammine
Latin name of metal anions
2 II CO carbonyl
3 III NO nitrosyl Au = aurate Fe = Ferrate
4 IV SCN - thiocyano Ag = argentate Pb = plumbate
5 V Ligands are in alphabetical Cu = cuprate Sn = stannate
order (ignore prefixes)

Complex Ions Bonding Theories:


Bonding theories are to explain geometry, magnetic property and color of coordinate compounds
Valence Bond Theory: Easy to understand, it explains geometry and magnetic property but not color.
Crystal Field Theory: Explains geometry, magnetic property and color
Molecular Orbital Theory: a little complicated, it explains the spectra or color.

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6. Valence bond theory ( See examples in the first page of this chapter)
1) Ligands donate electron pairs to metal ions to form coordinate bonds.
2) Metal orbitals are hybridized to form bonds, which determine geometries.
Number of 2 3 4 5 6
ligands
Hybrid orbital sp sp2 sp3 (d10) dsp2 (d8) sp3d sp3d2
Linear Trigonal planar Tetrahedron Square planar Trigonal bipyramidal Octahedron

Geometry

Example Ag(NH3)2+ Zn(CN)42- Ni(CN)42- Fe(H2O)63+

3) How to know it is sp3 or dsp2 if there are 4 ligands


If it is d10 = sp3 = tetrahedron Zn(CN)42- Cd(NH3)42+ HgCl42- all are d10 and tetrahedron.
If it is d8 = dsp2.= square planarNi(CN)42- Pd(H2O)42+ Pt(Cl)42- are are d8 and .
7. Crystal Field Theory - Ionic Bond and Splitting Orbitals
When ligands approach d-orbitals, the five d-orbitals with same energy split into different energy levels. The
energy difference depends on the interaction of ligands and metals and can explain colors of complex ions.

1) Energy Splitting
A. Octahedron field: Two energy levels with oct
B. Tetrahedron field: Two energy levels with tet = 4/9 of oct
C. Square planar: Four four energy levels

2) Strength of ligands according to the values of splitting energy 


I- < Br- < Cl- < F- < OH- < H2O < NH3 < en < NO2- < CN- < CO

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3) Pairing Energy and Splitting Energy - Explain paramagnetic or diamagnetic


A. High Spin Complexes: If pairing energy > splitting energy, electrons will fill high energy orbitals.
B. Low Spin Complexes: If pairing energy < splitting energy, electrons will fill low energy orbitals.

If ligands are CN- and CO, complexes are more likely to be low spin. This explains paramagnetic or diamagnetic
properties.

CoF63- Co(NH3)63+
hexafluorochromium (III) ion hexaamminechromium (III) ion

High spin Low spin


4 unpaired electrons 0 unpaired electrons
Paramagnetic diamagnetic

4) Color and Splitting Energy - Explain color


If splitting energy is greater, complexes will absorb high frequency light and show different color.

5) Color and Wavelength

Absorbed Color Absorbed Wavelength (nm) Observed Color


Violet 410 Green Yellow
Violet Blue 430 Yellow
Blue 480 Orange
Blue Green 500 Red
Green 530 Purple
Green Yellow 560 Violet
Yellow 580 Violet Blue
Orange 610 Blue
Red 680 Blue Green
Purle Red 720 Green

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Chapter 17 Experimental Chemistry

1. Lab Safety - What you should do


1) Always wear goggles - protect your eye!
2) Handle organic solvents and reagents in ventilation hood
3) Close and put volatile solvents (ether!, methanol, ethanol) far away from open flame.
4) When you dilute acids: add concentrated acid (H2SO4, HNO3, HCl) into water.
5) Disposal acid/base/organic solvents properly.

2. Separation Methods and Chromatography


Separation Method Difference
1. Distillation Separate miscible liquids with different boiling points
Water/ethanol/methanol. Petrol Alkanes C8H18/C10H22
2. Filtration Separate solid and liquid. AgCl(s)/water

3. Separation funnel Separate two insoluble liquids. Water (top) /chloroform CHCl3 (bottom)

4. Chromatography Separate molecules with different polarity.


There are column, paper and thin layer chromatography.
5. Gel filtration Separate micro-molecules (protein) with different mass. MM 20000/30000

6. Electrophoresis Separate ions with different charges under electric field such as proteins with different
PI or DNA
7. Centrifugation Separate small particles in liquid by rapid rotation, such as blood cells from plasma

Filtration Separation funnel Distillation

Column chromatography Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) Electrophoresis Centrifugation

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3. Acid and Base Titration (see chapter of acids and bases also)

Burette for Titration 100 ml volumetric flask 25 ml volumetric pipette


Accurate to 0.01 mL 0.01 mL 0.01 mL

1) Three devices for measuring liquid at 0.01 ml accuracy: buret, volumetric flask, volumetric pipette.
2) Rinse buret with standard solution 3 times before titration.
Don’t rinse the beaker to hold acid or base to be titrated.
3) Titration curve of monoprotic and diprotic acids titrated by strong base.

Monoprotic Diprotic

4) Equivalent point: when the titration reaction is complete. MaVa = MbVb


5) End point: when indicator changes color. Ideally, end point is the equivalent point.
6) Indicators: change color at different pH. You need to remember two below:
Litmus red in acid and blue in base
Phenolphthalein colorless in acid and pink in base
How to chose indicator: pH at equivalent point is within pKa  1 of the indicator.
pH = pKa  1 is the color change range. If an indicator with Ka = 5, it change color from pH 4 to 6

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4. Spectrometer and application


1) Molecules can absorb light. Light has different frenquency, different energy and different color
2) Spectrometer: can determine how much light is absorbed when passing a solution.
3) Beer’s Law : A =  .L.C  = constant for a molecule, L = cm, C = concentration

A
Io I I
light solution log o = A (absorbance)
I 0.48
I
I < Io = T (transmittance)
Io

Spectrometer determines absorbance A


0.14 mM C
Calibration curve
4) Steps to determine concentration by spectrometer
Step 1: Make standard solutions of the molecule to be determined at five different concentration.
Step 2: Determine absorbance of standard solutions. Draw calibration curve as show above.
Step 3: Determine absorbance of the solution to be determined. Say A = 0.48, you get C = 0.14 mM.
5. Common Gas
Element gas H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, and noble gases
Air N2 78%; O2 21%; Ar 0.9%; CO2 , Ne etc 0.1%
Water soluble gas NH3, HCl, CO2, SO2, SO3, H2S, N2O5
Basic gas NH3
Acidic gas HCl, CO2, SO2, SO3, H2S, N2O5
Nature gas CH4 methane
Ozone O3 Absorb Ultravilet (UV) light to protect human on earth.
Odorous gas NH3, H2S, they smell bad and can be identified by their odor
Colorful gas NO2 brown, Cl2 yellow-green, I2 vapor, purple
Density of gas Air average molecular mass is 29. Density of CO2 (44) is heavier and NH3 (17) is lighter than air.
Lab synthesis O2 2KClO3 (heat) = 3O2 + 2KCl
Lab synthesis H2 Zn + 2HCl = H2 + ZnCl2 (lab) 2H2O + electricity = 2H2 + O2 (industry)
Synthesis NH3 3H2 + N2 = 2NH3 This is Haber process
Very toxic gas CO, colorless, odorless. CO bind with hemoglobin to prevent it from bonding with O2.

6. H2O: sp3, two electron pair, bent, polar solvent, hydrogen bonding, pH = 7
1) Polar dissolve polar. H2O can dissolve polar molecules such as sugar, NaCl, proteins.
3) React with group 1 and 2 to produce H2 and base such as NaOH, Ca(OH)2

7. NH3: sp3, one electron pair, trigonal pymidal, polar, weak base, hydrogen bonding
1) Reaction as a base: NH3 + HCl = NH4Cl
3) Reaction as Lewis base: NH3 + BF3 = NH3BF3
8. Solubility
Always soluble Precipitates
Positive ion Na , K ,
+ +
NH4+ and group 1 cations. AgCl BaSO4 CaCO3 Fe(OH)3 FeS black
Negative ion - -
NO3 , CH3COO , HCO3 , ClO3 , ClO4 - - - PbCl2 CaSO4 Ca3(PO4)2 Al(OH)3 CuS black
Hg2Cl2 PbSO4 PbI2 yellow ZnS white HgS black
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9. Sublimation Solids: 1) Dry ice CO2 2) I2 3) Naphthalene

10. Color You need to remember the following colors for SAT and AP

Red Purple Green Orange yellow Blue brown


Sr , Li
2+ +
K+ Ba , Cu
2+ 2+
Ca2+
Na +
Cu 2+
NO2
flame flame flame flame flame solution gas
Fe(NCS)2+ MnO4- CrO42- S Cl2
solution solution solution solid yellow-
greenish gas
Br2 I2 Cr2O72-
liquid Solid solution

You just need to know that transition metal ions are colorful. (Zn2+ has no color)

11. A simple set up to determine the ratio of H and O in water


1) Explain the function of each part.

2) Describe the procedure to determine


the ratio of H and O in water.

12. Calculate the pressure of H2 gas

Reaction Zn + HCl = H2 + ZnCl2 PH2 = 730 - 30 - 40.8/13.6 = 697 mmHg

13. Dates analysis


1) Use excel to graph dates.
2) Use calculators to do linear, quadratic and exponential regression.

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14. Accuracy, Precision and Significant figures


1) Precision: the closeness of results of the repeated experiments.
2) Accuracy: the closeness of experimental results to accepted value.
High accuracy requires high precision.
3) Absolute error = measured value - accepted value.
measured value - accepted value 8.8 - 9.0
4) Percent error =   2.2 %
accepted value 9.0
5) Number of significant figures depends on measuring devices; the result of operation of SF is consistent with
the least SF; (3.9)(1.455) = 5.7
15. Heating and Cooling method
1) Liquid N2: As low as to -196 oC
2) Dry ice-acetone bath: As low as to -78 oC
3) Salt ice water: As low as to -20 oC
4) Ice water bath: As low as to 0 oC
5) Air bath: Room temperature 25 oC
6) Hot water bath: 25 to 100 oC.
7) Hot oil bath: Up to 300 oC
8) Flame: 300-1000 oC.
16. Observe Experimental Phenomena
1) Precipitate 2) Color 3) Gas 4) Smell 5) Temperature

17. Experiments recommended by College Board for AP chemistry


1) Determination of the formula of a compound
2) Determination of the percentage of water in a hydrate
3) Determination of molar mass by vapor density
4) Determination of the molar by freezing-point depression
5) Determination of the molar volume of a gas
6) Standardization of a solution using a primary standard
7) Standardization of concentration by acid-base titration, including a weak acid or weak base
8) Determination of concentration by oxidation-reduction titration
9) Determination of mass and mole relationship in a chemical reaction
10) Determination of equilibrium constant for a chemical reaction
11) Determination of appropriate indicators for various acid-base titrations. Determining pH
12) Determination of the rate of a reaction and its order
13) Determination of enthalpy change associate with a reaction
14) Separation and qualitative analysis of anions and cations
15) Synthesis of a coordination compound and its chemical analysis
16) Analytical gravimetric determination
17) Colorimetric or spectrophotometric analysis
18) Separation by chromatography
19) Preparation and properties of buffer solutions
20) Determination of electrochemical series
21) Measurements using electrochemical cells and electroplating
22) synthesis, purification and analysis of an organic compound

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Chapter 18 Units and Significant Figures

1. Units
Pressure Length Volume Gas constant Electric charge
1 atm = 760 mmHg mm = 10 m-3
Liter = 1000 mL R = 0.082 atm.L/mol.K Faraday = 96500 Coulomb
= 760 torr nm = 10-9 m m3 = 1000 L = 8.31 J/mol.K e = 1.6 x 10-19 Coulomb
= 101.3 kPa pm = 10-12 m
Temperature Energy/work Mole Mass
K = C + 273
o
calorie = 4.18 Joule 1 mole = 6.02 x 1023
gram = 6.02x1023 amu
1 mole O2 = 32 g Kg = 1000 gram

2. Conversion Factors
7 day 24 h 3600 s
A. how many seconds in 8 weeks? 8 week  4838400 s 3 conversion factors
week day h
6.02 x1023 molecule  3.01x1023 molecules
B. how many molecules in 9g water? 9 g mole
18 g mole
2 conversion factors

3. Measurement Uncertainty, Error and Significant Figure


1) Measurement: Chemistry is experimental science. When you measure mass, length, time, volume, pressure etc,
there is always uncertainty in measurement, which depends on used instruments.
2) Uncertainty: the rule to record data is that last digit is uncertain. For example, 18.25g means 5 is uncertain.
3) Significant figures: The last digit is uncertain. For example, you can write
3.42 cm using the bottom ruler, but you can only write 3.4 cm by the top ruler.
4) Precision: is the closeness of results of the repeated experiment.
5) Accuracy: is the closeness of experimental results to accepted value.
High accuracy must have high precision.
6) Absolute error = measured value - accepted value.
measured value - accepted value 8.8 - 9.0
7) Percent error =   2.2 % Top one has less SF
accepted value 9.0

4. Scientific Notation and How Many Significant Figures (SF)


Number Number of SF Note
0.0023 2 0 on left side of digit is not significant figure
0.02030 4 0 on right side of and between digits are significant figure
400 1 0 on right side in integer is not SF
400. 3 0 on right side with decimal is SF
6.02 x 1023 3 This is scientific notation: it always has only one integer digit.
2.300 x 10-2 4 This is scientific notation: it always has only one integer digit.
651.3 + 4.37 = 655.6 4 the answer round to the least number of decimal place.
2.6 x 7.13= 19 2 The answer round to the least significant figure. 2.6 has 2 SF.
2 students Infinite Counting number has infinite SF
1h = 60 min Infinite Unit conversion has infinite SF

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Chapter 19 Concepts Chemicals and Overview

1. Twenty Five Concepts


Concept Meaning
1. Chemistry study of the composition, structures and reactions of matters
2. Matter anything that have mass
3. Molecule smallest unit of a substance made from atoms, such as H2O
4. Atom basic unit to compose molecules. There are three atoms in H2O.
5. Atomic mass number a whole number = proton + neutron
6. Element all atoms with the same number of protons. O2 is an element.
7. Compounds molecules containing 2 or more elements. CO2 is a compound.
8. Pure substance contains only one kind of compound or element
9. Mixture contains two or more kind of compound or element
10. Chemical bond force to attract atoms to form molecules. NaCl, H-H
11. Intermolecular force attractive force between molecules
12. charge Proton is positive and electron is negative. Like repel and unlike attract.
13. Mass conservation total mass remains the same during chemical reactions.
14. Energy conservation total energy remains the same during chemical reactions
15. Charge conservatio total charge remains the same during chemical reactions
16. Exothermic release heat
17. Endothermic absorb heat
18. Homogenous all parts are uniform
19. Heterogeneous you can see the difference between parts; not uniformly.
20. Chemical changes molecular structures have changed.
21. Physical changes phases have changed but molecules remain the same. Such as Melting of ice.
22. Kinetic energy energy of movement. KE = mv2/2
23. Potential energy Stored energy. It related to distance or position.
24. Forms of Energy heat, light, electrical and mechanical energy
25. Temperature measure of movement of particles. O2 moves faster at 60 oC than at 50 oC

2. Examples of physical and Chemical changes


Physical Changes Chemical Changes
Molecules do not change Molecules change
1. Solid melts into liquid Burning of paper
2. Liquid evaporate to gas Iron rusts
3. Break a glass Put metal into water to produce gas
4. Cut a paper Metal reacts with acid
5. Dissolve salt into water Color is changed

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3. Thirty Six Chemicals


Name Note
1. Table salt NaCl, sodium chloride, its solution can conduct electricity
2. Diamond Carbon, covalent network solid, hard, not conduct electricity. Carbon is 4 bonds.
3. Graphite Carbon, covalent network solid, soft, conduct electricity, it is “lead” in pencil. 3 bonds.
4. Vinegar acetic acid 5% water solution
5. White Sugar sucrose C12H22O11, sweet, its solution does not conduct electricity.
6. Glucose C6H12O6, its solution does not conduct electricity.
7. Natural gas CH4, methane, covalent bond, nonpolar, CH4+O2 = CO2 + H2O + heat
8. Water H2O, polar, hydrogen bonding, bent shape, oxygen is sp3 hybrid orbital
9. Ammonia NH3, polar, hydrogen bonding, pyramidal, nitrogen is sp3
10. Starch Plolymer of α-Glucose, can be digested by human enzyme
11. Cellulose Polymer of β-Glucose, can not be digested by human enzyme, but cow can digest it.
12. Protein Polymer of amino acids (20),
13. DNA Polymer of nucleotides = deoxyribose, 4 bases, phosphate, carry genetic information
14. RNA Polymer of nucleotides = ribose, 4 bases, phosphate
15. Plastic polymer of CH2 = CH2
16. Acid rain SO2 SO2 + H2O = H2SO3 acid
17. Air N2 78%, O2 21%, Ar 0.9% , 0.1% others such as CO2
18. Bleach NaClO, an oxidizing agent
19. Gasoline C8H18, hydrocarbon, nonpolar, insoluble in water
20. Fire high temperature gas of CO2 and H2O
21. Stainless steel Fe 78%, C 2%, Cr 15%, Ni 5%
22. Mercury Hg, only liquid metal, used in thermometer, density = 13.6 g/ml, 1atm = 760 mmHg
23. Soda Na2CO3, NaHCO3
24. Sand SiO2 major component
25. Glass,Quartz SiO2 major component
26. Fertilizer NH4NO3, Ca(H2PO4)2 , CO(NH2)2, KNO3
27. Computer chips Si Metalloid
28. Co-60 Cancer treatment
29. I-131 Thyroid diagnosis
30. Sucrose Glucose + Fructose disaccharide
31. Maltose Glucose + Glucose
32. Aqua Regina HNO3 : HCl (1:3) can dissolve gold.
33. Bleach NaClO
34. Detergent CH3(CH2)16SO3Na
35. Soap CH3(CH2)16CO2Na
36. paper cellulose (Glucose)n

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4. Overview of Chemistry

energy reaction rate


periodic electronic heat
table structure light
equilibrium

synthesis
proton
atoms bonding molecules decomposition
neutron reactions single replacement
element compound
electron double relacement

acid-base reaction
intermolecular force
solid stoichiometry
nuclear change liquid
mole redox reaction
gas
phase change
Dr. Sun solution
organic reaction

Chemistry is well organized central science. You should be able to study more advanced chemistry after
understanding this summary. Good luck in your chemistry SAT and AP tests ! Feel free to write me at
gsun98@yahoo.com if you have any suggestions. Dr. Sun in New York 2019.

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