APPENDIX

Fundamental Physical Constants

CONSTANT SYMBOL VALUE
Speed of light in vacuum c 2.998 ×108 m/s
Permittivity of free space εo 8.854 × 10-12 F/m
Permeability of free space µo 4π × 10-7 H/m
Intrinsic impedance of free space ηo 120π Ω

Maxwell’s Equations
Time-domain form Time-harmonic form
r r r r
∇ × E = − ∂B ∇ × E = − j ωB
∂t
r r ∂Dr r r r
∇×H = J + ∇ × H = J + j ωD
∂t
r r
∇ ⋅ D = ρv ∇ ⋅ D = ρv
r r
∇⋅B =0 ∇⋅B =0
r r r r
For linear medium: D = ε r ε o E and B = µ r µ o H

Retarded vector potential and electromagnetic fields

r r
A(R ) = 4µπ ∫∫∫ J (rr ' )e − jkr dv'
V'
where R = distance from origin to observation point.
r = distance from origin to source.
r’ = distance from source to observation point.

In terms of A:
r r r r r r r
H = µ1 ∇ × A and E = − jω
k 2 ( )
∇ ∇ ⋅ A − jωA or ∇ × E = − jωµH for linear medium.

For spherical coordinate system, the divergence and curl operations are given below:
∂  R 2 AR 
1 ∂ ( Aθ sin θ ) + 1 ∂Aφ
r 1  
∇⋅ A= +
R2 ∂R R sin θ ∂θ R sin θ ∂φ
r 1  ∂ (Aφ sin θ ) ∂Aθ  ˆ 1  1 ∂AR ∂ (RAφ ) ˆ 1  ∂ (RAθ ) ∂AR 
∇ × A = rˆ  − +θ  − +φ  −
R sin θ  ∂θ ∂φ  R  sin θ ∂φ ∂R  R  ∂R ∂θ 

For Antenna
Radiated power density
r r r2
{ }
S = 12 Re E × H * ⋅ rˆ or S ≅ 1
2η E for plane wave assumption.

Continued…
FK/GV/DK/MS/LHS 2
Radiation intensity
U = r 2S

Total radiated power

2π π 2π π
Prad = ∫ ∫ Sr 2 sin θdθdφ = ∫ ∫ U sin θdθdφ
0 0 0 0

Directivity and Gain

D = 4π PUrad G = 4π U
Prad + Ploss ≅D

Relation between effective area and directivity

Ae λ2
D = 4π

Miscellaneous expressions for plane wave

2π Eθ Eφ
k= λ v p = fλ Hφ
= Hθ
=η

Short electric dipole

Far-fields (Assume the conductor is oriented along z-axis and center at the origin):
r
E (r ) ≅ − 4o π ηk 2 sin θ jkr
I ∆z 1
[ ]
e − jkrθˆ where ∆z is the length, Io is the current magnitude.
Eθ
Also Hφ
=η .

Dipole antenna (Under half-wave mode)

Far-fields (Assume the conductors are oriented along z-axis and centered at the origin):
r cos ( π cos θ )
E (r ) ≅ − 2jIπor ηe − jkr  sin2 θ θˆ where Io is the current magnitude at feed point.
 
Eθ
Also Hφ
=η .
Maximum directivity: Do ≅ 1.64
Input impedance: Z A ≅ 73 + j 42.5

Rectangular microstrip patch antenna

First resonance frequency:
L ≅ 0.49 λε where o

L = length of the patch (assume length is greater than width).

λo = wavelength in free space corresponding to the first resonance frequency, and
εr is the dielectric constant of the substrate.

Horn antenna
Assume an E-plane horn with the EM fields at the aperture is approximated by TE10
pattern, and a > b.

Continued…
FK/GV/DK/MS/LHS 3
U max = 4π
λ2
( )
8 ab
π2

Friis transmission formula

Assume antenna 1 is transmitting with directivity D1 and antenna 2 is receiving with
directivity D2. R is the separation distance between antennas and λ is the operating
wavelength.
D1 D2 λ2
PRX = ( 4πR )2
PTX
Note: If loss in the antenna is ignored, the directivity D can be replaced with gain G.

Antenna array

Consider N identical antenna as shown above, each driven with current of magnitude Im and
progressive phase shift ξ. Let ψ = kd sin θ + ξ with φ = 0 (In general with non-zero φ the
expression is ψ = kd sin θ cos φ + ξ ). The array factor (AF) is given by:
N −1
AF = ∑ I m e jnψ
n =0

Continued…
FK/GV/DK/MS/LHS 4