BUILDINGS

Building is any structure usually enclosed by walls and roof,

constructed to provide support or shelter for intended use or occupancy. Occupancy
is the purpose for which a building or other structures or part thereof, is used or
intended to be used, (NSCP, 2015).
The aim of a building is giving shelter along with security. Other purposes
such as buildings serve several needs of society primarily as shelter from the
weather, security, living space, privacy, to store belongings, supplied electricity and
to comfortably live and work. Buildings are produced by the coordination of the
inputs of a group of people, under the provisions of a guiding law called the building
regulations.
A building is broadly divided into two parts: (1) substructure, (2)
superstructure. The portion of the building below the ground is the substructure and
the portion above it is the superstructure. The components of a building can be
broadly summarized as follows:

 Foundations
 Columns
 Beam
 Walls
 Floors
 Doors and windows
 Stairs
 Roof

Foundations
Foundation is the most critical work of building construction. A load of
buildings depends on the foundation which is the strength of buildings. It is one kind
of substructure. Foundations can be divided into two categories such as Shallow and
Deep Foundations. The words shallow and deep indicate as the depth of foundation
in the soil. Shallow foundations used for small and light buildings for e.g. a small or
medium size houses, small shopping centers, etc. and deep foundations used for
heavy and large buildings for e.g. tall buildings, huge shopping malls, large hospitals,
and universities, etc. Generally, shallow foundations can be made in depth of as little
as 3ft (1m) and deep foundations made at depth of 60-200ft (20-65m).

Functions of Foundations:

 Load distribution
 Provide firm and level surface
 Protection against soil movement
 Reduction of load intensity
 Reduction of differential settlement
 Safety against sliding and overturning
  Safety against undermining

Columns
Column is a vertical structural member that carry loads mainly in compression. It
might transfer loads from a ceiling, floor slab, roof slab, or from a beam, to a floor or
foundations. Commonly, columns also carry bending moments about one or both of
the cross-section axes. In this article, different types of columns used in building
construction will be discussed.
Types of Columns in Building Construction
Columns are classified based on the several conditions which include:

 Based on Types of Reinforcement

 Based on Types of Loading
 Based on Slenderness Ratio
 Based on Shape
 Based on Construction Material

Beams
These are horizontal structural element that withstand vertical loads, shear
forces and bending moments. Beams transfer loads imposed along their length to
their end points to walls, columns, foundations, etc.
Types of Beams in Constructions
There are different types of beams which are classified based on the following
conditions:

 Based on Support Conditions

 Based on Construction Materials
 Based on Cross-Section Shapes
 Based on Geometry
 Based on Equilibrium Condition
 Based on Method of Construction
 Based on Support Conditions

Walls
Load Bearing Wall
It carries loads imposed on it from beams and slabs above including its own
weight and transfer it to the foundation. These walls supports structural members
such as beams, slabs and walls on above floors above. It can be exterior wall or
interior wall. It braces from the roof to the floor.
Non Load Bearing Wall
Non-load bearing walls only carry their own weight and does not support any
structural members such as beams and slabs. These walls are just used as partition
walls or to separate rooms from outside. It is known as interior wall (doesn’t carry
other load than its own load.
Cavity Walls
It is a wall constructed in 2 leaves / skins with a space / cavity between them.
A type of building wall construction consisting of an outer wall fastened to inner wall
separated by an air space. Cavity walls helps to prevent the penetration of rain to the
internal surface of the wall.
Shear Wall
Shear walls are a framed wall designed to resist lateral forces. It is a vertical
elements of the horizontal force resisting system. It is used to resist wind and
earthquake loading on a building. It is typically a wood frame stud walls covered with
a structural sheathing material like plywood.
Partition Wall
Partition wall is an interior non-load bearing wall to divide the larger space into
smaller spaces. The heights of a partition wall depends on the use which may be
one storey or part of one storey. These walls are made up of glass, fibre boards or
brick masonry.
Panel Wall
Panel wall is generally made of wood and is an exterior non-load bearing wall
in framed construction. It is used for aesthetics of the buildings both inside and
outside. It remains totally supported at each storey but subjected to lateral loads.
Veneered Walls
Masonry veneer walls is a single non-structural external masonry wall made
of brick, stone or manufactured stone. It has an air space behind and is called as
anchored veneer.
Faced Wall
Faced walls has the facing and backing of two different materials are bonded
together to ensure common action under load.

Floor
A floor in building construction is a leveled surface which can support the objects,
occupants etc. Different flooring types are there based on different factors. The flooring
material is chosen as per requirement of the user and based on applications which provides
the most satisfying results for objective, either it may be economically or durability wise.

Types of Flooring Materials and Applications in Building Construction

 Following are the different types of flooring materials generally used in building
construction works:

 Cement or lime concrete

 Bricks
 Flagstones
 Marble
 Glass
 Ceramic
 Plastic
 Mud and murram
 Wood
 Cork
 Linoleum
 Asphalt
 Rubber


Roof
A roof is an essential covering that is placed on houses and buildings and even such
items as automobiles. For homes and buildings especially, a roof performs multiple
functions, all of which are tied into providing protection. Different elements and parts of the
roof provide protection to the structure's interior and exterior.

TYPES OF BUILDINGS
Buildings may be load bearing masonry buildings or steel framed structure
buildings. There are many different types of Buildings. Such as,

 Residential houses,
 Schools, Colleges & Universities,
 Hospitals,
 Factories, Workshops,
 Mosques, Churches, Temples,
 Malls etc.
FUNCTIONS OF BUILDING COMPONENTS
To build means making use of solid materials to create a space that will fulfil a
particular function. The building as a structure must fulfil the following conditions:
• Satisfy the need for which it was built (function).
• Must resist the loads coming to it (must be stable).
• Must continue to fulfil its function (durability).
• Must be achieved with the minimum use of resources. (Economy).

Section 103 (NSCP, 2015) - Classification of Structures

103.1 Nature of Occupancy
Buildings and other structures shall be classified, based on the nature of
occupancy, according to Table 103-1 for purpose of applying wind and earthquake
loads in Chapter 2. Each building or other structures shall be assigned to the
highest applicable occupancy category or categories. Assignment of the same
structure to multiple occupancy categories based on use and the type of loading
condition being evaluated (e.g. wind or seismic) shall be permissible.
When buildings or other structures have multiple uses (occupancies), the
relationship between the uses of various parts of the building or other structure and
the independent structural system for those various parts shall be examined. The
classification for each independent structure shall be that of highest usage group in
any part of the building or other structure that is dependent on that basic structure
system.

Table 103-1 Occupancy Category

OCCUPANCY CATEGORY OCCUPANCY OR FUNCTION OF

STRUCTURE
Occupancies having surgery and
emergency treatment areas

Fire and police stations

Garage and shelters for emergency
vehicles and emergency aircrafts
Structures and shelters in emergency
preparedness centers

Aviation control towers

I. Essential Facilities
Structures and equipment in
communication centers and other
facilities required for emergency
response

Facilities for standby power generating

equipment for Category 1 structures

Tanks or other structures containing

housing or supporting water or other fire
suppression material or equipment
required for protection of Category I, II,
or III, IV and V structures

Public school buildings

Hospitals
 Designated evacuation centers and

Power and communication transmission

lines.

Occupancies and structures housing or

supporting toxic or explosive chemicals
II. Hazardous Facilities or substances

Non building structures storing,

supporting or containing quantities of
toxic or explosive substances.

Building with an assembly room with an

occupant capacity of 1,000 or more

Educational buildings such as museum,

libraries, auditorium with capacity of
3000or more occupants

Building used for college or adult

education with capacity of 500 or more
III. Special Occupancy Structures occupants

Institutional buildings with 50 or more

incapacitated patients, but not included
in Category 1

Mental hospitals, sanatoriums, jails,

prisons and other buildings where
personal liberties of inmates are
similarly restrained

Churches, Mosques, and other Religion

Facilities

All structures with an occupancy of

5,000 or more persons

Structures and equipment in power

generating stations and other utility
facilities not include in Category 1 or
Category II, and required for continued
operation

IV. Standard Occupancy Structures All structures housing occupancies or

having functions not listed in Category I,
II, or III and Category V.
V. Miscellaneous Structures Private garages, carports, shed sand
fences over 1.5m high.

Section 104 – Design Requirements

104.1 Strength Requirement
Buildings, towers and other vertical structures and all portions thereof shall be
designed and constructed to sustain, within the limitations specified in this code, all
loads set forth in Chapter 2 and elsewhere in this code, combined in accordance with
Section 203.
Design shall be in accordance with Strength Design, Load and Resistance
Factor Design and Allowable Strength Design methods, as permitted by the
applicable material chapters.
104.2 Serviceability Requirement
104.4.2.1 General
Structural system and members thereof shall be designed to have adequate
stiffness to limit deflections, lateral drifts, vibration, or any other deformations that
adversely affect the intended use and performance of buildings, towers, and other
vertical structures. The design shall also consider durability, resistance to exposure
to weather or aggressive environment, crack control, and conditions that affect the
intended use and performance of buildings, towers, and other vertical structures.
104.3 Analysis
Any system or method of construction to be used shall be based on a rational
analysis in accordance with well-established principles of mechanics that take into
account equilibrium, general stability, geometric compatibility and both short term
and long term material properties. Members that tend to accumulate residual
deformations under repeated service loads shall have included in their analysis the
added eccentricities expected to occur during their service life.
104.3.1 Stability against Overturning
Every structure shall be designed to resist overturning effects caused by
lateral forces specified with adequate Factor of Safety (FOS). See Section 206.6 for
retaining walls, Section 207 for wind loading and Section 208 for earthquake loading.
104.3.2 Self-Straining Forces
Provisions shall be made for anticipated self-straining forces arising from
differential settlement of foundations and from restrained dimensional changes due
to temperature, moisture, shrinkage, heave, creep and several effects.
104.4 Anchorage
Anchorage of the roof to walls and columns, and of walls and columns to
foundations shall be provided and adequately detailed to resist the uplift and sliding
forces that result from the application of the prescribe forces.
Concrete and masonry shall be anchored to all floors, roofs and other
structure elements that provide lateral support for the wall. Such anchorage shall
provide a positive direct connection capable of resisting the horizontal forces
specified in Chapter 2 but not less than the minimum forces in Section 206.4.
104.4 Foundation Investigation
Soil explorations shall be required for buildings, towers, and other vertical
structures falling under categories I, II, III, and IV in accordance in the table 103-1 or
as required by the Building Official or if the site specific conditions make the
foundation investigation necessary.
Detailed requirements for foundation investigations shall be in accordance
with Chapter 3 of this code.
104.5 Design Review
The design calculations, drawings, specifications and. The design
calculations, drawings, specifications and other design-related documents for
buildings, towers and ther vertical structures with irregular configuration in
occupancy Categories I, II or III within Seismic Zone 4, Structures under Alternative
Systems in Section 101.4, and undefined Structural Systems not listed in Table 208-
11, shall be subject to a review by an independent recognized structural engineer or
engineers to be employed by the owner in accordance with the ASEP Design Peer
Review Guidelines. The structural engineer or structural engineers performing the
review shall have comparable qualifications and experience as the structural
engineer responsible for the design. The reviewer or reviewers shall obtain a
professional waiver from the engineer-of-record who shall be expected to grant such
waiver in keeping with ethical standards of the profession as adopted in ASEP
guidelines for peer review (Appendix 1-A).
The design review shall, as a minimum, verify the general compliance with
this code which shall include, but not be limited to, the review of the design load
criteria, the design concept, mathematical model and techniques.
The following may also be verified, that there are no major errors in pertinent
calculations, drawings and specifications and may also ensure that the structure as
reviewed, meet minimum standards for safety, adequacy and acceptable standard
design practice.
The engineer-of-record shall submit the plans and specifications, a signed
and sealed statement by the structural engineer doing the review that the above
review has been performed and that minimum standards have been met.
 See Section 208.5.3.6.5.2 for design review requirements when nonlinear
time-history analysis is used for earthquake design
In keeping with the ethical standards for the profession, the reviewer or
reviewers shall not supplant the engineer-of-record for the project. The design review
shall not in any way transfer or diminish the responsibility of the engineer of record.

Tributary Area in Column

Tributary area is the area surrounding the column that is bounded by a panel
centerline. In order to calculate the forces and static loads transferred from floor
slabs to the columns tributary area method is used.
The area surrounding the column bounded by the centerline of the panel is
the tributary area on which loads are supported by the column at the center of the
area, as shown in Fig. 1. The dead load supported by the column is equal to the
dead load per unit area times the tributary are

Fig. 1: Tributary Area in Columns

In Fig. 2, tributary areas for column Z (corner column), Column Y (edge
column), and Column X (center column) are shown. If the spans between columns
are nearly equal, then loads on the corner column are quarter and half of the center
column and edge column, respectively.
Tributary Area in Columns at the Corner, Edge, and Center of Floor Slab
Fig. 2: Tributary Area in Columns at the Corner, Edge, and Center of Floor Slab

When the tributary area is used, the position of floor beams is not taken into
consideration, but an allowance for their weight is included. Designers can use the
tributary area to calculate live loads, given that the design codes specify the
percentage of live loads transmitted to a column is an inverse function of the tributary
areas; that is, as the tributary areas increase, the live load reduction increases. That
is why this method of load transfer in columns is favoured by designers. The live
loads reduction details can be found in ASCE7 standard.