JOURNAL OF

1,I,I
ELSEVIER Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 177 (1994) 363-371

An integrated mathematical model of float process

T. Kamihori *, M. Iga, S. Kakihara, H. Mase
Research Center, Asahi Glass Co., Ltd., 1150Hazawa-cho, Kanagawa-ku, Yokohama, Japan

Abstract

An integrated mathematical model of the float process has been developed. This integrated model consists of a
glass ribbon forming model, a float bath heat transfer model and a molten tin flow model. In the float process, glass
ribbon forming and heat transfer in the bath influence each other. That is, the viscosity of the glass ribbon depends
strongly on its temperature. Also, molten tin flow, which plays an important role in the bath heat transfer, is caused
by glass ribbon traction and buoyancy convection. Therefore these three models are linked with one another. In the
first model, the molten glass flow on the molten tin is simulated as viscous fluid flow. In the second model,
three-dimensional radiative heat transfer is simulated. In the third model, three-dimensional turbulent flow of the
molten tin is simulated. It is found that the simulated results are in good agreement with the measurements in the
actual process. This integrated model can be used to study the mechanism in the float process, and moreover to
optimize the operating conditions and to design float baths.

I. Introduction glass ribbon in the forming area using edge rolls

In manufacturing of flat glass, the float process
is the most popular method. The float process
ensures high quality and high productivity. The
molten glass is poured onto the molten tin and
spreads out and thins to the point where the
surface tension and gravitational forces are in
equilibrium. Then the glass ribbon is stretched by
pairs of top rolls and lehr rolls at the exit until
the glass thickness reaches the required thickness
in the forming area.
A mathematical model of forming float glass
has been studied by Narayanaswamy [1,2]. Al-
though it is possible to simulate the flow of the
* Corresponding author. Tel: +481-45 334 6112 Telefax:
+481-45 334 6190.
in this model, it is difficult to analyze the flow in
the hot area where the glass ribbon spreads and
the glass edge contacts with a no-slip wall (re-
strictor tile).
To overcome this difficulty, a glass ribbon
forming model has been developed by Iga and
Mase [3]. The governing equations of this model
are expressed as a two-dimensional problem by
means of the shallow water approximation. A
numerical simulation is performed by means of
the finite-element method. In this model, the
viscous fluid flow of the glass ribbon in the entire
bath including the bath entrance is calculated.
Since the viscosity of the glass ribbon depends
strongly on the temperature distribution, the tem-
perature distribution must be specified in this
model. However, it is difficult to obtain the tem-
perature distribution over the glass ribbon.

0022-3093/94/$07.00 © 1994 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved

SSDI 0 0 2 2 - 3 0 9 3 ( 9 4 ) 0 0 2 8 4 - T
364 T. Kamihori et aL /Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 177 (1994) 363-371
In order to obtain the temperature distribu-
tion, it is necessary to understand radiative heat
transfer and molten tin flow in the bath. This is
because radiative heat transfer is dominant in the
bath in which the temperature is > 600°C, and
molten tin flow plays an important role in heat
transfer in the bath because of its high heat
capacity and low viscosity. To meet this necessity,
a float bath heat transfer model and a molten tin
flow model have been developed. In the float
bath heat transfer model, three-dimensional ra-
diative heat transfer including convective heat
transfer of the glass ribbon is simulated. In the
molten tin flow model, three-dimensional turbu-
lent flow and heat transfer are simulated using
the k - e mathematical turbulent model [4,5]. The
difficulties in large-scale turbulent flow simula-
tion have been overcome by GSMAC 3D (gener-
alized simplified marker and cell method for
three-dimensional analysis) [6-11].
Uooer Gas Section
Fig. 1. (a) Sketch of a bath on the vertical plane along the centerline of the bath. (b) Sketch of a bath on the horizontal plane.
In the float process, glass ribbon forming and
heat transfer in the bath influence each other.
Molten tin flow is caused by glass ribbon traction
and buoyancy convection. That is, glass ribbon
forming, heat transfer in the bath and molten tin
flow affect one another. Taking account of this
fact, an integrated model has been developed. In
this integrated model, these three models are
linked with one another. A numerical simulation
of this integrated model is performed for the
actual process and compared with the measure-
ments.
2. Modeling
2.1. Float bath heat transfer model
A sketch of a float bath is shown in Fig. 1. The
float bath is a large unit enclosed by a steel shell
Gas Steel Shell Refractory
 T. Kamihoriet al. /Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 177 (1994) 363-371
which is refractory-lined, holding a pool of molten
tin. N i t r o g e n / h y d r o g e n gas is supplied to the
bath to prevent oxidation of the molten tin.
Heaters coolers, top rolls and other devices are
provided in the bath.
Considering the structure of the bath and these
devices, three-dimensional radiative heat transfer
including convective heat transfer of the glass
ribbon is simulated in a float bath heat transfer
model. The gas supplied to the upper gas section
flows to the space below the heaters through the
refractories. A lower gas section is defined as a
space right beneath an upper gas section as shown
in Fig. 1. It is supposed that all of the gas in the
lower gas section flows to the outside of the bath
without interacting with the gas in the neighbour-
ing lower gas section. It is also supposed that the
inside of every gas section is isothermal, because
the gas is fully mixed in every gas section. So each
gas section is treated as an isothermal block ele-
ment, and the gas is treated as transparent against
radiation. On the other hand, every surface of the
enclosure is divided into small isothermal surface
elements. All surfaces are treated as gray. It is
supposed that the glass is isothermal in the verti-
cal direction. Then the energy balance equation
for the ith surface element except the ribbon
surface and the bare surface of the molten tin,
which is not covered by the glass ribbon, is
QRi + QHi + QAi = 0,
where ORi is the radiative heat energy on the ith
surface element, QHi is the heat energy from the
gas by heat convection and aAi is the overall
heat transmission from the atmosphere [12]. QRi
is given by
QRi = A i ( 4 - Gi),
N Vi~ is calculated using the velocity distribution
Ji= E Gj,
J a glass ribbon forming model. The energy balance
G i = ,io-Ti4 + (1 - e,) Ji,
where T/ is the temperature of the ith element, cr
is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, •i is the emis-
sivity of the ith element, F/: is the view factor
from the ith element to the jth element, Ji is the
365
incident energy and G i is the radiosity. Qm and
QA~ a r e given by
QHi = hgmo)Ai( Tgm,) - Ti ), (5)
QAi = hAAi(T. - T,). (6)
where A i is the area of the ith element, hgm(i)
and Tgm(i) are the heat transfer coefficient and
the temperature of the mth gas block element
interacting with the ith element, respectively, and
Ta is the temperature of the atmosphere, h A is
the overall coefficient of heat transmission. Fij is
calculated taking account of the shading caused
by the heaters, coolers, top rolls and other de-
vices [13]. The emissivity of each surface element
of the glass ribbon is calculated using the temper-
ature and the thickness of the glass [14]. The
emissivity of the molten tin is assumed to be 0.2
on the analogy between the solid metal and the
liquid metal [15]. hgm(i) is calculated using the
velocity of the glass ribbon which mainly forces
the convection of the gas [16]. The energy balance
equation for the ith surface element on the glass
ribbon surface or on the bare surface of the
molten tin is
QRi + OHi + QBCi + QGi = 0, (7)
where Q~ci is the heat energy from the molten
tin which is calculated in a molten tin flow model;
(1) QGi is the convective heat energy by glass flow,
given by
N,
Q o , = Epc( - (8)
k
where p is the density of glass, c is its specific
heat, Vik is the volume flow rate from the kth
(2)
surface element contacting with the ith element.
(3) and thickness distribution which are calculated in
equation for the mth gas block element is
(4)
OHm q- QMm = O, (9)
where QHm is the heat energy from all the sur-
face elements contacting with the ruth gas block
element by heat convection; QMm is the convec-
366 T. Kamihori et al. /Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 177 (1994) 363-371

tive heat energy by gas flow. QHm and QM,, are (ii) Momentum equation:
given by
aUi aUi a
Nml at axy aX i
OHm = E hgm(l)Zl(Tl - Tgm(l)), (10)
l
+
I "i u,I
vtt-~xi+~xi] + g f l ( T - T0)6i3 , (13)
lyre
QMm = Y'.pgCg(Tgn - Tgm)Vmn, (11)
n (iii) Energy equation:
where pg, and cg are the density and specific heat aT aT ~--- a ( --Pt aT] , (14)
of the gas, V,,n is the volume flow rate from the at +ujoxj axi
nth gas block element contacting with the mth
element, which should be specified. where u i are the time-averaged velocity compo-
The computing procedure consists of two steps. nents in Cartesian coordinates xi, and x 3 is in
In the first step, the radiative heat energy, (QRi), the upward vertical direction; T is the time-aver-
is calculated under a given temperature distribu- aged temperature; TO is the reference tempera-
tion in Eqs. (2)-(4). In the second step, the ture; P is the pressure; g and/3 are the accelera-
temperature distribution (T,., Tgm) is calculated tion of gravity and coefficient of cubical expan-
under the given radiative heat energy distribu- sion, respectively; 3u is the Kronecker delta; tr3
tion. First, T~ of the surface except the glass is a constant of the model;/~t is the eddy viscosity,
surface and the bare surface of the molten tin is which is given by
calculated explicitly under the given Tgm(i) in Eqs.
(1), (5) and (6). Second, T/ of the glass surface or
1.,t = CD( k2/e ), (15)
the bare surface of the molten tin is calculated where Co is a constant of the model, k is the
explicitly under the given Tgm~i) and Tk in Eqs. turbulent kinetic energy and e is its dissipation
(7), (5) and (8). Last, Tgm is calculated explicitly rate. The differential equations for k and • are
under the given Tl and Tgn in Eqs. (9)-(11). Since described as follows:
the radiative heat energy is non-linear in temper-
Ok Ok a(vtak )
ature, it is probable that the calculation becomes --+Uy ---- +(ek+Gk)--•,
unstable. Thus the newly calculated temperature at axj aXj k 0"1 aXj
is relaxed by the previous value. These two steps (16)
are iterated until the error of the temperature
distribution becomes less than the predetermined
= - -- -Jr - - ~ ( C I P k -~- C 3 G k )
value. Oxj o'2
E2
2. 2. Molten tin flow model - C2--~-, (17)

Molten tin flow in the float bath is fully devel- where Pk is a production term of k and G k is a
oped turbulent flow because of its low viscosity. production term of k caused by buoyancy, and Pg
In this model, the k - • mathematical turbulent and G k are given by
model is applied [4,5]. The governing equations
for turbulent viscous incompressible fluid flow (~Ui~Uj) aui (18)
Pk = Ut OX---yq- aX---7 aXj '
are described in tensor notation as follows.
(i) Continuity equation: 1Jt aT
Oui G k = -gfl-~3 -~xi 6i3" (19)
-- = 0, (12)
ax i The various constants in the foregoing equations
 T. Kamihori et aL / Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 177 (1994) 363-371 367

are assigned the following values: C o = 0.09, C t
= 1.44, C 2 = 1.92, C 3 = C 1 ( G k > 0), = 0 ( G k <_ 0),
o-t = 1.0, o"2 = 1.3, o"3 = 1.0.
For the boundary condition in the momentum
equation, a power law is applied on all walls
including a moving wall such as the glass ribbon.
For the boundary condition in the energy equa-
tion, the temperature distribution is given to the
top surface of the molten tin, which is calculated
in a heat transfer model, and overall heat trans-
mission to the atmosphere is applied on the other
surfaces.
The float bath has a very thin configuration.
That is, the molten tin depth is so small by
contrast with the width and length that a great
many elements are required in order to keep
every element's aspect ratio less than a reason-
able value. It is difficult to perform such a large-
scale turbulent flow simulation by means of ordi-
nary numerical computational methods. Thus
GSMAC 3D is selected as the computational
scheme in this model [6-11]. GSMAC 3D is ex-
cellent in speed and storage consumption espe-
cially.
2.3. Integrated model
This integrated model consists of three mod-
els; the glass ribbon forming model [3], the float
bath heat transfer model and the molten tin flow
model. Linkage among these three models is
shown in Fig. 2. First, calculation of the glass
ribbon forming model is performed under a given
glass ribbon temperature distribution. Second,
calculation of the molten tin flow model is per-
formed under the given glass ribbon temperature
distribution. The velocity distribution and the
shape of the glass ribbon, which are calculated in
the glass ribbon forming model, are also used as
the boundary condition. Third, calculation of the
float bath heat transfer model is performed. The
velocity distribution, the thickness distribution
and the shape of the glass ribbon, which are
calculated in the glass ribbon forming model, are

Ribbon Forming Model

glass ribbon glassribbon glass ribbon

temperature//~hape' k hape'
velocitydistribution, velocity
distribution thicknessdistribution distribution

heatflux
on the top surface
of moltentin
iFIoat Bath ,~,~,~,~,~4s~s,~s Molten Tin
Heat Transfer Model
glassribbon
......................... temperature
distribution
Fig. 2. Linkage among the glass ribbon forming model, the float bath heat transfer model and the molten tin flow model in the
integrated model.
368 T. Kamihori et aL /Journal of Non-CrystaUine Solids 177 (1994) 363-371

used; the heat flux distribution on the top surface Shape of the glass ribbon
of the molten tin, which is calculated in the

I
molten tin flow model, is also used. The above
procedures are iterated until the error of the
glass ribbon temperature distribution becomes
less than the predetermined value.

3. Results
An actual process producing glass of 2 mm
thickness is simulated by this integrated model.
Figs. 3(a) and (b) show the molten tin flow in a
downstream part of the forming area. Velocity
vectors on two horizontal planes are shown; one
is a plane near the top surface of the molten tin
and the other is a plane near the bottom surface
of the molten tin. It is shown that the molten tin
under the glass ribbon flows downstream by trac-
tion of the ribbon. On the other hand, the other
part of the molten tin, which is not covered by
the ribbon, flows upstream and gradually flows
Centedine
Fig. 4. Calculated temperature contour over the glass ribbon.
The temperature is normalized. The glass ribbon passes from
left to right.
into the area covered by the ribbon. Figs. 3(a)
and (b) also show the influence of the tin barrier,
which is one of the devices usually used to control
the molten tin flow and is the boundary between
the forming area and the cooling area. The tin
barrier blocks the molten tin flow effectively and
the molten tin forms a large eddy behind the
barrier. In this calculation, about 120000 eight-
node hexahedral finite elements are used. The

i i i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ i Centerline

I
Outline of the molten tin pool
b Tin barrier

Forming area I Coolingarea

Fig. 3. Velocity vectors of the molten tin flow in a downstream part of the forming area (a) on a horizontal plane near the top
surface of the molten tin, (b) on a horizontal plane near the bottom surface of the molten tin. An arrow indicates the velocity
direction and the velocity magnitude. The glass ribbon passes from left to right.
 T. Kamihon et aL / Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 177 (1994) 363-371 369

0.41 , , i , , , i , , , i , , , i , , , i , ' ' I ' '

assrbb°n
0.40 ~ ~ Calculated
ed
0.39

0.38
E
~- 0.37
Centerline
0.36
Fig. 5. Calculated thickness contour over the glass ribbon. The
glass ribbon passes from left to right. 0.35 ,, ,,,, i ~ , i,, i,,. ,,,,1,,
-0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Distance from the centerline
Fig. 8. Lateral temperature distribution of the glass ribbon at
1.0 , , , i , , ~ i , ~ , i ~ ~ , i , ,
longitudinal position: 0.56. The temperature and lateral dis-
tance are normalized.
0.8 ~ Calculated

calculated t e m p e r a t u r e c o n t o u r and the thickness

0.6 c o n t o u r over the glass ribbon are shown in Figs. 4
and 5, respectively. It is shown that the glass
E 0.4 ribbon is cooled and f o r m e d as it passes down the
bath.
0.2 T h e calculated longitudinal t e m p e r a t u r e distri-
bution of the glass ribbon along the centerline,
0 . 0 , t , I , , , I , , , I , , , I , , , the longitudinal t e m p e r a t u r e distribution of the
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 molten tin beside the ribbon, the lateral t e m p e r a -
Distance from the entrance ture distribution of the glass ribbon, the shape of
Fig. 6. Longitudinal temperature distribution of the glass the glass ribbon and the lateral thickness distribu-
ribbon along the centerline. The temperature and longitudinal tion at the exit are c o m p a r e d with the measure-
distance are normalized.
ments in Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10, respectively. T h e
t e m p e r a t u r e of the glass ribbon was m e a s u r e d by
a radiation pyrometer, and the t e m p e r a t u r e of

1 . 0 , , , i , , , i ' ' ' I ' ' ' I ' ' '

Calculated 2.0 ''' ~''' ~''' ~ ' ' ' ~ ' ' ' .I
0.8 • • Measured ~ - Calculated

~ 0.6 ~$ 1.5 • iMeasured 1

~ 0.4 1.0

0.2
0.5

" 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 . 0 , i , , ,

Distance from the entrance 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Fig. 7. Longitudinal temperature distribution of the molten Distance from the entrance
tin beside the glass ribbon. The temperature and longitudinal Fig. 9. Shape of the glass ribbon. The longitudinal distance
distance are normalized, and lateral distance are normalized.
370 T. Kamihori et al. /Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 177 (1994) 363-371

3 . 5 ' ~ ' I ' ' ' I ' ' ' I ' ' ' I ' " '
Gas t

Calculated
3.0
• Measured
v
E

2.s
.IP

~ w w w w w w w w g ; I
2.0

"1.5 i i i i i I i i i , , i , i , i , , ,

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 Cenl

Distance from the centerline
Fig. 10. Lateral thickness distribution at the bath exit. The Fig. 11. Heat transfer on a cross-section in the forming area.
lateral distance is normalized. An arrow indicates the direction of heat transfer. An under-
lined number indicates the convectiveheat in the longitudinal
direction. A number indicates the magnitude of the heat
the molten tin was measured by a thermocouple. energy per unit longitudinal length. The magnitude of the
In these figures the t e m p e r a t u r e is normalized by heat energy is normalized, and is expressed in a percentage.
the maximum and the minimum t e m p e r a t u r e in
the bath, the longitudinal distance is normalized
by the bath length and the lateral distance is amount of convective heat is carried by the flow
normalized by the ribbon width at the exit. The of the molten tin under the ribbon in the longitu-
computed results are in good agreement with the dinal direction. On the other hand, beside the
measurements. glass ribbon, the colder molten tin flows up-
stream, and a larger amount of negative convec-
tive heat is carried to this section. Since the
4. Discussion colder molten tin beside the ribbon flows into the
area covered by the ribbon as shown in Figs. 3(a)
The validity of this integrated model is con- and 3(b), most of the convective heat energy of
firmed on comparing the computed results with the glass and the molten tin under the ribbon is
the measurements in the actual process. This transferred to the colder molten tin. As a result a
integrated model can be used to understand the convex lateral t e m p e r a t u r e distribution is estab-
mechanism in the float process. As an example, lished on the glass ribbon as shown in Fig. 8, and
the heat transfer on a cross-section in the form- the t e m p e r a t u r e of the ribbon edge is lower than
ing area is shown in Fig. 11. In this figure, an that of the ribbon center, although the heaters
arrow indicates the direction of the heat transfer, work above the ribbon edge. It is also made clear
an underlined number indicates the convective that more than half of the heat energy from the
heat in the longitudinal direction and a n u m b e r heaters is transferred to the atmosphere, the top
indicates the magnitude of the heat energy per rolls and gas, and the rest is transferred to the
unit longitudinal length. The magnitude is nor- glass ribbon.
malized by the convective heat energy of the glass
ribbon, and expressed in a percentage. This result
has made it clear that the colder molten tin 5. Conclusions
beside the glass ribbon, which is not covered by
the ribbon, plays an important role in the heat A float bath heat transfer model and a molten
transfer in the forming area. That is, a large tin flow model have been developed. Combining
amount of convective heat is carried to this sec- these two models and the glass ribbon forming
tion by the glass flow, and almost the same model, an integrated mathematical model of the
 T. Kamihori et al. / Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 177 (1994) 363-371
float process has been developed. It enables a
simulation of all phenomena in the float bath. A
numerical simulation is performed, and the calcu-
lated results are in good agreement with the
measurements in the actual process. Moreover,
heat transfer in the float bath is shown in detail.
This integrated model can be used to study the
mechanism in the float process, and moreover to
optimize operating conditions and to design float
baths.
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