D4

Frequency and Load Shedding

Network Protection & Automation Guide

Network Protection & Automation Guide

Chapter

Frequency and Load Shedding

D4
1. Introduction 485

2. Frequency protection 486

3. Load shedding 488

4. Load restoration 490

5. Turbine abnormal 491

6. References 492

D4 1. Introduction
Generation plant normally operates reliably within a defined
frequency band around nominal frequency. However, it can
only tolerate short time operation at frequencies outside the
nominal range without sustaining damage. This consideration
also applies to some types of load. Conditions which can
affect the generation frequency include overloads caused by
a sudden increase in load (e.g. switching on a motor) or loss
of a generator set or sudden loss of load due to a downstream
fault. Frequency protection is generally used to protect against
the overload conditions in generator protection as described
in the Generator Protection part of this manual. Fast-acting
current-based protection is generally used to clear short
circuit faults.
Generation and utilisation need to be well balanced in any
industrial, distribution or transmission network. As load
increases, the generation needs to be correspondingly
increased to maintain the frequency of the supply because
there are many types of frequency-sensitive electrical
apparatus that can be damaged when network frequency
departs from the allowed band for safe operation. At times,
when sudden overloads occur, the frequency drops at a rate
decided by the system inertia constant, magnitude of overload,
system damping constant and various other parameters.
Unless corrective measures are taken at the appropriate time,
frequency decay can go beyond the point of no return and
cause widespread network collapse. In a wider scenario, this
can result in “Blackouts”.
To put the network back into a healthy state, considerable
amount of time and effort is required to re-synchronise and
re-energise the system, potentially involving an expert team
of power system protection and control engineers. If recovering
from a blackout also “black start capable” power plants might
be needed (e.g. pump storage).
Protective relays that can detect a low frequency condition
are generally used in such cases to automatically disconnect
unimportant loads (also called loadshedding) in order to save
the network, by re-establishing the balance of the “generation-
load equation”. However, with such devices, the action is
485
Frequency and Load Shedding
initiated only after the event and whilst some salvaging of the
situation can be achieved, this form of corrective action may
not be effective enough and cannot cope with sudden load
increases, causing large frequency decays in very short times.
In such cases a device that can anticipate the severity of
frequency decay and act to disconnect loads before the
frequency actually reaches dangerously low levels, can
become very effective in containing damage.
During severe disturbances, the frequency of the power
system oscillates as various generators try to synchronise on
to a common frequency. The measurement of instantaneous
rate of change of frequency can be misleading during such
a disturbance. The frequency decay needs to be monitored
over a longer period of time to make the correct decision for
load shedding.
Normally, generators are rated for a lifetime operation in a
particular band of frequency and operation outside this band
can cause mechanical damage to the turbine blades.
Protection against such out-of-band operation is required
when the frequency does not improve, even after load shedding
measures have been taken, to trip the turbine. Faster turbine
trip clearance times are required for lower system frequency,
as in case of severe frequency decay.
Whilst load shedding leads to an improvement in the system
frequency, the disconnected loads do need to be reconnected
after the system has become stable again. Loads should only
be restored if the frequency remains stable, above a defined
restoration level, for a set period of time. Minor frequency
excursions below the restoration level, of short time duration,
can be tolerated during the restoration process, but longer
term excursions will cause restoration to be abandoned. The
number of load restoration steps is normally less than the
number of load shedding steps to reduce repeated
disturbances while restoring load.
The amount of load to be shed in such emergency situations
is typically defined in Grid Codes [Ref D4.1: Continental
Europe Operational Handbook Appendix].
Schneider Electric - Network Protection & Automation Guide
Frequency and Load Shedding
Protective relays that provide frequency protection require a
voltage input in order to provide accurate voltage and
frequency measurements. Additionally, accurate rate of
change of frequency measurement is required for advanced
types of frequency protection. The ability of the frequency
and df/dt measurements to track with real power system
frequency profiles (e.g. in frequency decay or oscillating
scenarios) is required to ensure correct operation of the
protection. Also, these measurements should be immune to
harmonics or noise spikes on the voltage inputs which can
cause problems with zero-crossing based techniques.
Generally all types of frequency protection include the
capability of being optionally blocked by an undervoltage
condition. This ensures that the voltage has not collapsed
due to a fault condition and avoids unnecessary load shedding
actions.
2.1 Underfrequency 81U
Frequency variations on a power system are an indication that
the power balance between generation and load has been
lost. In particular, an under-frequency condition implies that
the net load is in excess of the available generation. Such a
condition can arise, when an interconnected system splits,
and the load left connected to one of the subsystems is in
excess of the capacity of the generators in that particular
subsystem. Industrial plants that are dependent on utilities
to supply part of their loads will experience under-frequency
conditions when the incoming lines are lost.
An under-frequency condition at nominal voltage can result
in over-fluxing of generators and transformers and many types
of industrial loads have limited tolerances on the operating
frequency and running speeds e.g. synchronous motors.
Sustained under-frequency has implications on the stability
of the system, whereby any subsequent disturbance may
lead to damage to frequency sensitive equipment and even
blackouts, if the under-frequency condition is not corrected
sufficiently quickly.
Under-frequency protection operates if the input frequency
is less than a set underfrequency threshold and usually
includes a definite time operate delay. It is often used as a
basis for initiating load shedding.
2.2 Overfrequency 81O
Over-frequency running of a generator arises when the
mechanical power input to the machine exceeds the electrical
output. This could happen, for instance, when there is a
sudden loss of load due to tripping of an outgoing feeder
from the plant to a load centre. Under such overspeed
conditions, the governor should respond quickly so as to
obtain a balance between the mechanical input and electrical
output, thereby restoring normal frequency. Over-frequency
protection is required as a back-up to cater for slow response
of frequency control equipment.
Schneider Electric - Network Protection & Automation Guide
2. Frequency protection D4
Over-frequency protection operates if the input frequency is
greater than a set overfrequency threshold and usually includes
a definite time operate delay. It is often used as a basis for
initiating load restoration.
2.3 ROCOF 81R
As mentioned in earlier sections, conditions involving very large
load - generation imbalances may occur, accompanied by rapid
decline in system frequency. This corresponds to a high negative
rate of change of frequency where the df/dt value provides
indication of the mismatch between generation and load, i.e.
how much load should be shed. If the discrepancy is large, then
shedding of one or two stages of load may be insufficient to
stop the decline in frequency. In such a situation, it is advantageous
to have an element that identifies the high rate of decline of
frequency, and adapts the load shedding scheme accordingly.
Since the rate of change monitoring is independent of
frequency, the element can identify frequency variations
occurring close to nominal frequency and thus provide early
warning to the operator on a developing frequency problem.
Additionally, the element could also be used as an alarm to
warn operators of unusually high system frequency variations.
Rate of change of frequency (ROCOF) protection often has
different operating modes where it can be set to operate for
only negative rate of change, or positive rate of change, or
either. It usually includes a definite time operate delay.
In load shedding applications, it is usually set for negative df/
dt operation. It is often used in conjunction with under-
frequency protection in these applications to provide extra
flexibility in dealing with severe load to generation imbalances.
In a Chinese application, df/dt is used to block 81U if df/dt
exceeds the related setting. This is done to differentiate
between system faults and the deficit of active power. Typically,
2 stages of 81U are employed, one set to 49.25 Hz with time
delay 20 s and one set to 48.5 Hz with time delay 0.1 s with
a df/dt> inhibit set to 5 Hz/s. The df/dt> inhibit of 5 Hz/s is
typical for large power systems, however, no df/dt inhibit is
used for small systems (such as DG).
Considerable care should be taken when setting this element
because it is not supervised by a frequency setting. Setting
of the time delay or increasing the number of df/dt averaging
cycles will lead to a more stable element, but this should be
considered against the loss of fast tripping capability as the
tripping time is extended. Stability under oscillating frequency
conditions should also be considered, for instance when
generators are synchronising or power swings occur.
2.4 Supervised ROCOF 81RF
Conditions may arise in an electrical network where the load
to generation imbalance is considerable and this may result
in relatively rapid changes of the system frequency. In such
a case, maintaining the system stability is an onerous task,
and calls for quick corrective action.
486

D4 2. Frequency protection
High speed load shedding cannot be achieved by monitoring
the system frequency alone and the rate of change of system
frequency becomes an equally critical parameter to use.
In the load shedding scheme as shown in Figure D4.1, it is
assumed under falling frequency conditions that by shedding
a stage of load, the system can be stabilised at frequency
f2. For slow rates of decay, this can be achieved using the
under-frequency protection element set at frequency f1 with
a suitable time delay. However, if the generation deficit is
substantial, the frequency will rapidly decrease and it is
possible that the time delay imposed by the under-frequency
protection will not allow for frequency stabilisation. In this
case, the chance of system recovery will be enhanced by
disconnecting the load stage based upon a measurement of
rate of change of frequency and bypassing the time delay.
Frequency supervised rate of change of frequency protection
operates when the frequency is below a set value and the
rate of change of frequency exceeds a set value and usually
includes a define time operate delay. It is often used in
conjunction with under-frequency protection in load shedding
applications.
Frequency
fn
f1
Slow decay
f2
Rapid decay
Time
Figure D4.1:
Frequency supervised ROCOF protection
487
Frequency and Load Shedding
2.5 Average ROCOF 81RAV
Owing to the complex dynamics of power systems, variations
in frequency during times of generation - load imbalance do
not follow any regular patterns and are highly non-linear.
Oscillations will occur as the system seeks to address the
imbalance, resulting in frequency oscillations typically in the
order of 0.1 Hz (inter area oscillations) to 1 Hz (local
generators), in addition to the basic change in frequency. Due
to the oscillatory nature of frequency excursions, the
instantaneous measurement value for df/dt can sometimes
be misleading, either causing unexpected operation or
excessive stability.
For this reason, some relays also provide an element for
monitoring the longer term frequency trend, thereby reducing
the effects of non-linearities in the system and providing
increased security to the rate of change of frequency decision.
The average rate of change of frequency element is initiated
when the measured frequency crosses the supervising
frequency threshold and a timer is started. As shown in Figure
D4.2, at the end of the set time period ∆t, the frequency
difference ∆F, is evaluated and if this exceeds the setting,
a trip output is given.
Supervising frequency
f
True slope for the time ∆t
∆F
f
∆t
Rapid decay
t
Figure D4.2:
Average rate of change of frequency protection
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Frequency and Load Shedding

3. Load shedding D4

Automatic under-frequency load shedding may be used in 3.2 Frequency-based theory

extreme conditions to stabilise the balance between generation
In the event of severe system overload or loss of generation
and load after an electrical island has been formed, dropping
conditions, the system frequency will decline exponentially
enough load to allow the frequency to stabilise in the island.
to a new reduced value below the nominal frequency. The
The required amount of load to be shed is usually defined in time constant of the exponential decay as well as the new
grid codes [Ref D4.1: Continental Europe Operational frequency level is governed by certain parameters such as
Handbook Appendix]. For entso-e grid Figure D4.3 applies. the system inertia constant, system damping constant, etc.
The following formula gives the rate of change of frequency
for a particular system contingency.
Load
shedding
amount
Assuming that the standing load and generation remain
50%
45%
constant as the frequency changes, the instantaneous rate
40% of change of frequency at the time of an overload is given
35%
30%
by:
ΔP x fn
Instantaneous rate of change of frequency, df
25% Not
20% needed =-
15%
Minimum
dt 2H
10% Load shedding
Where:
5% recommended
∆P = overload in per unit
49.4 49.2 48.8 48.6 48.4 48.2 47.8 47.6 47.4 Frequency
(Hz) Connected load - Available generation
=
Available generation
Figure D4.3:
Recommended load shedding according to entso-e
fn = nominal system frequency (in Hz)
H = combined inertia constant of the power system
(MWsec/MVA)
Automatic undervoltage load shedding responds directly to
voltage conditions in a local area. Load is shed in stages to  H 1 MVA 1 + ... + H n MVA n 
restore reactive power relative to demand in order to contain =  
a voltage collapse problem.  MVA 1 + ... + MVA n 

Load shedding could be initiated in situations where two
transformers are normally connected in parallel, but one is lost
due to a fault. Here the transformer protection or supervision
device can detect a transformer overload condition and initiate
an Overload Alarm which then results in load shedding.
3.1 Frequency-based
Frequency-based load shedding is usually applied as a
number of stages or levels where each level corresponds to
a frequency value below nominal and is associated with a
certain value of load. The levels are organised into a series
of descending frequency steps. Usually, the loads which are
shed are prioritised, such that non-essential loads will be
shed first. The loads associated with loadshed levels can be
modified by the user to take account of factors such as night
or day or summer or winter or tariff-based peak lopping.
Several protection functions may be associated with each
loadshed level, such as time delayed underfrequency
protection and frequency supervised rate of change protection.
The actual suite of protections used will depend on analysis
of the given network to be protected to ensure that damage
does not occur to generation and load. Also, if there is
embedded generation associated with the load, it is
recommended that active power protection is used to take
account of the direction of flow of active power, since the
embedded generation will be supporting the overall generation.
where n subscripts 1, 2, ..., n refer to individual generating
units
The inertia constant H used in the formula above is essentially
a measure of the kinetic energy in a generator rotor. For some
types of large steam generator sets, the inertia constant can
be as high as 10, however, a value below 5 is more typical
especially when considering other types of generator. Lower
values tend to dominate with smaller rotor masses e.g. wind
turbines, and can make the power system more prone to
serious frequency disturbances for sudden load changes.
Typically, values between 2 and 5 may be used as defaults
if no other knowledge is available.
Real loads, particularly motor loads, do vary with frequency
and have a tendency to decrease as frequency reduces. This
will have some beneficial effect on system stability and will
reduce the effects of the overload condition. Taking this load
reduction factor into account, the frequency deviation from
nominal is given by:
ΔP x fn  - td 

1-e  2H 

Frequency deviation from nominal, Δf =
d  
where:
d = load reduction (or damping) factor
= Percentage change in load
Percentage change in frequency

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D4 3. Load shedding
The above equations are a result of vast simplifications. The
actual frequency change will be influenced by governor droop
characteristics, load dynamics, interconnections between
various generators, system stabilisers etc. However, the
frequency deviations calculated in the formulae described
may be a good measure of the rate of change of frequency
for the purpose of setting the relay.
3.3 Active power dependent
Due to the increasing distributed generation in distribution
networks, see Chapter [C8: Generator and Generator-Transformer
Protection, Section 20], it is necessary to distinguish between
pure load feeders and feeders with generation (and loads)
connected. It is advantageous not to disconnect feeders with
active power feed to the electrical network in case of
underfrequency events.
By evaluating the direction of active power flow the blocking
area of UFLS is determined (Figure D4.4).
Q / Snom
HV MV 1.0
P P
G
Q Q
0.5
Block UFLS
-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0
P / Snom
-0.5
P P
G sometimes less than 50 ms. The majority of this time is taken
Q Q
-1.0
Figure D4.4:
Blocking area for UFLS in the generator reference arrow
system (GRAS)
For equal treatment of all customers connected to an electrical
grid using underfrequency load shedding, the relay should
be able to switch between the predefined frequency levels
on request. This can be done locally (e.g. binary inputs,
function keys) or by communication protocols.
3.4 Undervoltage-based
Some load shedding schemes are based on undervoltage
protection, for instance, in applications where there are small
air conditioning motor loads which are susceptible to stalling
when subjected to voltage dips. Motor loads are essentially
constant kVA devices, which means that a voltage dip causes
a corresponding increase in current which increases the need
for local reactive power support.
489
Frequency and Load Shedding
Loadshed levels correspond to voltage levels below nominal,
prioritised in a set of descending steps.
Where there is embedded generation associated with the
load, it is recommended that reactive power protection is
used to take account of the direction of flow of reactive power
since the embedded generation will be supporting the overall
generation.
3.5 Fast load shedding
Most power systems run on an N-1 basis for the majority of
the network to ensure the loss of any plant will not affect the
generation/load balance. This rule can be ignored if the loss
of plant will have no impact on the system stability, for example,
where the plant is only a few percent of the total system. N-1
may still be employed for small plant but this is done for
reliability rather than stability.
There are, however, situations where the system is run without
N-1 for major items of plant. This allows a greater utilisation
of assets but means that the loss of generation, lines or load
could cause a system blackout. In this situation a fast load
shedding (FLS) or special protection scheme is employed.
These schemes rebalance the system before the critical
clearance time is exceeded, ensuring the system remains
stable.
A FLS scheme constantly monitors the generation/load balance
and, considering the system topology, continuously determines
what balancing action would be required for any loss of plant.
A typical critical clearance time for such a system would be
a few hundred milliseconds. Since this includes breaker
operating time and, in the worst case CB fail operating time,
the FLS operating time is typically less than 100 ms and
transferring the trip information to remote plant.
Considering acquisition and processing times it is not possible
to collect and process this data in real time and respond
within the required time to a loss of plant. Instead FLS schemes
consider the current generation, load, spinning reserve and
system topology and pre-determine the required trip response
to any loss. This is typically refreshed every few seconds. The
response needs to consider priorities of different loads when
load shedding. Since there is very little commonality between
such applications the FLS is usually custom engineered.
These schemes can become very complex with thousands
of loads, user prioritising and operational restrictions
complicating the solutions. Therefore they are only applied
when N-1 is prohibitively expensive.
A typical FLS has the following components:
Acquisition
The system needs to know the system power flow and
sometimes the reactive power flow as well as equipment
status. There is a trade-off between data volume and usability.
For example acquiring the power from the substation incomer
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Frequency and Load Shedding

3. Load shedding D4

allows less data to be used but limits all feeders within that Tripping
substation to the same priority. Accessing data from further
A network must be provided to convert the trip information
into the system will be more costly since either more acquisition
provided by the FLS computer to the breakers required to
units will be needed or data accessed from more IEDs. These
trip. This network may consist of fibre optics, microwave, radio
IEDs may not have the same communications protocols
or PLC to transmit this information to remote sites. To meet
requiring more integration engineering. Once the acquisition
the low clearance times a dedicated network is usually
points have been determined the data needs to be sent to
provided which will have a dedicated receiver for each breaker
the main FLS computer. For power flow this transfer needs to
which requires tripping. A balance between cost and flexibility
occur within a few seconds and therefore may travel by a
must be achieved. This is usually done by providing tripping
traditional SCADA network providing it has adequate
for generators individually and loads in groups. The grouping
performance. Alternatively it can travel via a dedicated FLS
of loads reduces the cost of tripping equipment but impacts
network. Loss of generation or load is detected by plant status
on the FLS Computer engineering as it affects priorities.
and therefore this information needs to be transferred very
quickly which is usually done via a dedicated FLS network. Fast load shedding of specific equipment is required when
it becomes faulty. This can be achieved by the equipment
Computation
providing a status output which is detected by a supervisory
Due to the volume of information that needs consideration, a system to initiate fast load shedding.
centralised computer is normally used to perform the FLS
The main consideration of these schemes is security. Since
calculations. In some applications such as parallel line
their main function is to trip plant, any maloperation could
overrating the operation is fixed and does not require any
lead to false trips, risking system blackouts and negating the
user inputs. Other applications such as isolated oil and gas
value of the system. To improve system security critical parts
networks may require operator inputs to adjust load shed
of the FLS are often measured independently (such as breaker
priorities. In these cases the centralised computer will need
status) to avoid reliance on existing plant and ensure secure
to either provide a dedicated HMI or interface with the normal
acquisition. The FLS computer is often duplicated and used
SCADA. The role of the centralised computer is to transfer
with 2 of 2 logic. For the tripping equipment high reliability
the power and plant status information into trip commands.
equipment with added message security is also used. These
These trip commands can take the form of contact outputs
measures obviously increase the cost of FLS schemes.
or communications signals.

4. Load restoration

Following a load shed event, measures should be taken to

reinstate load following system recovery, which may be Frequency
facilitated by providing additional generation. Dependent
upon the severity of the load shed event, an expert team may fnom

be involved with restoration in accordance with an agreed fLR

recovery plan. Recovery is then based on manual (local and
fLS
remote) reconnection and synchronisation of items of plant
in the network.
4.1 Automatic restoration F< S tr
t F< Op

Following a small scale underfrequency-based load shed F< Op

event, typically in an industrial application, it may be acceptable F> S tr

t F> Op
to automatically restore loads. The load shed event will initiate F> Op
a time window during which the system frequency should 200ms
LR Op
recover to a level that restoration can be undertaken, otherwise
Time
restoration is abandoned. The monitoring of the power system
frequency is performed by an overfrequency protection
element, where the restoration delay is given by the set operate
delay (see Figure D4.5). Operation of the protection results Figure D4.5:
in a pulse output used to reconnect the load. Automatic restoration based on overfrequency

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 Frequency and Load Shedding

D4 4. Load restoration

The restoration function will tolerate short term frequency

excursions below the restoration level, however, longer term
excursions will result in the automatic restoration attempt
being abandoned (see Figure D4.6).

Frequency

fnom

fLR

fLS
t< t F> R s

F< S tr
t F< Op

F< Op

F> S tr
t F> Op

F> Op

200ms
LR Op

Time

Figure D4.6:
Automatic restoration with short term frequency excursion

5. Turbine abnormal

Turbine abnormal frequency protection 81AB is provided to

Frequency
protect the turbine blade from potential damage due to
prolonged under/overfrequency operation of the generator. band 1
Typically there are up to six frequency bands which can be
Normal frequency
programmed, each having an integrating timer to record the fn Time
time spent within the band as shown in Figure D4.7. Each
band 2
frequency band includes a user settable operate time setting
and provides start and operate digital outputs.
band 3
It is recommended that this protection is in service when the
generator is synchronised to the system or when separated band 4

from the system but supplying auxiliary load.

band 1

band 2

band 3

band 4

Figure D4.7: Band timer profiles

Generator turbine abnormal frequency protection

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Frequency and Load Shedding

6. References D4

[D4.1] Continental Europe Operational Handbook Appendix

- Policy 5: Emergency Operations. entso-e, 2010

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