TIME BEGINNING PART TEACHING LEARNING ACTIVITY

INTRODUCTION:-
Epidemiology is the basic science of preventive and social medicine. Modern epidemiology has
entered the most exciting phase of its evolution. By identifying risk factors of chronic disease,
evaluating treatment modalities and health services, it has provided new opportunities for
prevention, treatment, planning and improving the effectiveness and efficiency of health services.

ANNOUNCEMENT OF THE TOPIC

Today I am going to discuss about measurements of epidemiology

TIME SPECIFIC CONTENT TEACHING LEARNING A.V AIDS EVALUATION

OBJECTIVE ACTIVITY ACTIVITY

DEFINITION:-
Epidemiology has been defined by John M. Last in 1988 as:-
"The study of the distribution and determinants of health
related states or events in specified population and the
application of this study to the control of health problems.”
Although there is no single definition to which all
epidemiologists subscribe, three components are common to
most of them. First, studies of disease frequency; second,
studies of the distribution; and third, studies of the
determinants. Each of these components confers an important
message.
1. Disease frequency
2.Distribution of disease
3.Determinants of disease

AIMS IN EPIDEMIOLOGY:-
According to the International Epidemiological Association,
epidemiology has three main aims:
A. to describe the distribution and magnitude of health and
disease problems in human populations
B. to identify aetiological factors (risk factors} in the
pathogenesis of disease;
C. to provide the data essential to the planning, implementation
and evaluation of services for the prevention, control and
treatment of disease and to the setting up of priorities among
those services.
in order to fulfil these aims, three rather different classes of
epidemiological studies may be mentioned:
1. Descriptive studies,
2. Analytical studies,
3. Experimental or intervention studies.
The ultimate aim of epidemiology is to lead to effective action:
A. to eliminate or reduce the health problem or its
consequences;
B. to promote the health and well-being of society as a whole.

BASIC MEASUREMENTS IN EPIDEMIOLOGY

Epidemiology focuses, on measurement of mortality and
morbidity in human populations.
Measurements in Epidemiology
The scope of measurements in epidemiology is very broad and
unlimited and includes the following:
a. Measurement of mortality
b. Measurement of morbidity
c. Measurement of disability
d. Measurement of natality
e. Measurement of the presence, absence or distribution of the
characteristic or attributes of the disease
f. Measurement of medical needs, health care facilities,
utilization of health services and other health-related events.
g. Measurement of the presence, absence or distribution of the
environmental and other factors suspected of causing the
disease
h. Measurement of demographic variables.

Tools of measurement
The epidemiologist usually expresses disease magnitude as a
rate, ratio or proportion. A clear understanding of the term is

required for proper interpretation of epidemiological data. The

basic tools of measurement in epidemiology are..
1. Rates
2. Ratios, and
3. Proportions

1. RATE:-
A rate measures the occurrence of some particular event
(development of disease or the occurrence of death) in a
population during a given time period. An example of a typical
rate is the death rate.
A rate comprises the following elements - numerator,
denominator, time specification and multiplier.
The various categories of rates are:
(1) Crude rates
(2) Specific rates
(3) Standardized rates

2. RATIO:-
Another measure of disease frequency is a ratio. It expresses a
relation in size between two random quantities. The numerator
is not a component of the denominator.

3. PROPORTION
A proportion is a ratio which indicates the relation in magnitude
of a part of the whole. The numerator is always included in the
denominator. A proportion is usually expressed as a
percentage.
MEASUREMENT OF MORTALITY

Mortality data are relatively easy to obtain, and, in many

countries, reasonably accurate. Many countries have routine
systems for collecting mortality data. Each year, information on
deaths is analysed and the resulting tabulations are made
available by each government

Uses of mortality data

Statistics on causes of death are important and widely used for
a number of purposes. They may be employed in explaining
trends and differentials in overall mortality, indicating priorities
for health action and the allocation of resources, in designing
intervention programmes, and in the assessment and
monitoring of public health problems and programmes -
moreover, they give important clues for epidemiological
research.

Limitations of mortality data

Mortality data are not without limitations. Problems are posed
by
(a) Incomplete reporting of deaths
(b) Lack of accuracy
(c) Lack of uniformity
(d) Choosing a single cause of death
(e) Changing
(f) Diseases with low fatality

MORTALITY RATES AND RATIO

The commonly used measures are described below:
1. Crude death rate
2. Specific death rates
TIME SPECIFIC CONTENT TEACHING LEARNING A.V AIDS EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE ACTIVITY ACTIVITY

3.Case fatality rate (Ratio)

4. Proportional mortality rate (Ratio)
5. Survival rate
6. Adjusted or standardized rates

MEASUREMENT OF MORBIDITY
Morbidity has been defined as "any departure, subjective or
objective, from a state of physiological well-being"
The WHO Expert Committee on Health Statistics noted in its 6th
Report (17) that morbidity could be measured in terms of 3
units (a) persons who were ill; (b) the illnesses (periods or spells
of illness) that these persons experienced; and (c) the duration
(days, weeks, etc.) of these illnesses.

The value of morbidity data may be summarized as

follows:
a. they describe the extent and nature of the disease load in the
community, and thus assist in the establishment of priorities.
b. they usually provide more comprehensive and more accurate
and clinically relevant information on patient characteristics,
than can be obtained from mortality data, and are therefore
essential for basic research.
c. they serve as starting point for aetiological studies, and thus
play a crucial role in disease prevention.
d. they are needed for monitoring and evaluation of disease
control activities.
TIME SPECIFIC CONTENT TEACHING LEARNING A.V AIDS EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE ACTIVITY ACTIVITY

INCIDENCE
Incidence rate is defined as "the number of NEW cases
occurring in a defined population during a specified period of
time".
USES OF INCIDENCE RATE
The incidence rate, as a health status indicator, is useful for
taking action
(a) To control disease, and
(b) For research into aetiology and pathogenesis, distribution of
diseases, and efficacy of preventive and therapeutic measures.
PREVALENCE
The term "disease prevalence" refers specifically to all current
cases (old and new) existing at a given point in time, or over a
period of time in a given population. A broader definition of
prevalence is as follows: "the total number of all individuals
who have an attribute or disease at a particular time (or during
a particular period) divided by the population at risk of having
the attribute or disease at this point in time or midway through
the period". Although referred to as a rate, prevalence rate is
really a ratio.
Prevalence is of two types:
(a) Point prevalence
(b) Period prevalence

Uses of prevalence
(a) Prevalence helps to estimate the magnitude of health/
disease problems in the community, and identify potential high-
risk populations
(b) Prevalence rates are especially useful for administrative and
planning purposes, e.g., hospital beds, manpower needs,
rehabilitation facilities, etc.
TIME CONTENT
SUMMERIZATION:
 Definition
 Location
 Structure
 Blood supply
 Nerve Supply
 Bile production
 Function of liver

CONCLUSION:
Liver is the organ of most importance in our body. It involves in many important functions of our body which are essential for our living.