Chapter 3

Hardware and Instrumentation

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 Contents

 P&ID Symbols and Diagrams

 Sensor
 Actuator

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 3.1 P&ID Symbols and Diagrams
Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&IDs) are the
“schematics” used in the field of instrumentation and
process control.
The P&ID is used to by field technicians, engineers, and
operators to better understand the process and how the
instrumentation is inter connected
Most industries have standardized the symbols
according to the ISA Standard
 Piping & Instrumentation Drawing (original)
 Process & Instrumentation Diagram (also used)
 Process Flow Diagram – PFD (simplified version
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 3.1 P&ID Symbols and Diagrams

Temperature controller
and recorder
Temperature
Transmitter

Temperature
Sensor

Water
Steam
Control
Valve Heat
Exchanger
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 3.1 P&ID Symbols and Diagrams
The P&ID will use symbols and circles to represent each
instrument and how they are inter-connected in the
process.
Temperature controller
and recorder

Temperature
Thermometer Transmitter

Temperature
Sensor

Control
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Exchanger
 3.1 P&ID Symbols and Diagrams
Tag numbers are letters and numbers placed within or
near the instrument to identify the type and function of
the device. Temperature Recording Controller

Temperature Transmitter

Temperature Indicator

Flow Control Valve

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 3.1 P&ID Symbols and Diagrams

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 3.1 P&ID Symbols and Diagrams
ISA (S5.1) Identification Letters

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 Example

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 Instrument Type and Location

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 Piping and Connection Symbols

 These symbols are used

to identify how the
instruments in the process
connect to each other.
 And what type of signal
is being used (electrical,
pneumatic, data,…)

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 Valve Symbols

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 Equipment Symbols

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 Equipment Symbols

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 Example

Temperature controller
and recorder
Temperature
Transmitter

Temperature
Sensor
Water
Steam
Control
Valve Heat
Exchanger

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 Exercise 1

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 Exercise 2

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 Homework

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 3.2 Sensors

Controller Actuator Process

Sensor

 Different types of sensors

 Principles of sensors
 Selection of sensors
 Noise filter
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 3.2.1 Introduction to Sensor
 What is sensor?
 Sensor converts the physical quantity to signal that
can be recognized by other components such as
display, transmitter…
Physical variables Measurement
Sensor
L, P, F, T, x,… V, mA,…
 Sensor types
 Temperature: thermocouple, RTD, thermistor
 Pressure: bellows, bourdon tube, diaphragm
 Flow rate: orifice, venturi, magnetic, ultrasonic,
Coriolis effect
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 3.2.1 Introduction to Sensor

 Liquid level: float, differential pressure

 pH: pH electrode
 Viscosity: pressure drop across venturi or vane
deflection
 Composition: density, conductivity, GC, IR,
NIR, UV

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 3.2.2 Measurement Device
 Transducer: Sensor + Transmitter
Measurement Device
Physical variables Standardized output
Sensor Transmitter
L, P, F, T, x,… 4-20 (mA); 0-10 (VDC)…

Transducer Indicator

 Transmitter generates an industrial standard signal from

the sensor output.
 Standard instrumentation signal levels
• Voltage: 1~5 VDC, 0~5 VDC, -10~+10 VDC,…
• Current: 4~20 mA (long range transmission with
driver)
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• Pneumatic: 3-15 psig
 3.2.2 Measurement Device
 Signal conversion
• I/P or P/I transducer
• I/V (I/E) or V/I
• P/E or E/P
 Analog-to-Digital (A/D) converter
 Continuous signal converted to digital signal after
sampling
 Specification: sample rate, resolution (8 bit, 12 bit,
16 bit)
 Transmitter Gain (𝑲𝒎 ): adjustable
 Amplification ratio: (output span)/(input span)
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 3.2.2 Measurement Device
 Dynamic model:
Most measurement device can be expressed by a first-order
transfer function
Measurement Device

Input Sensor Transmitter Output

U(s) Y(s)

Indicator

Y (s) Km
G (s)  
U (s)  m s  1
 𝐾𝑚 : the gain of device
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 3.2.3 Temperature Measurement
 Thermocouple
Thermocouple basically consist of two junctions of dissimilar
metals, such as copper and constantan that are welded or crimped
together.
 One junction is kept at a constant temperature called the
reference (Cold) junction,
 While the other is the measuring (Hot) junction.
When the two junctions are at different temperatures, a voltage is
developed across the junction which is used to measure the
temperature.

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 3.2.3 Temperature Measurement
Seebeck effect
 If two wires of dissimilar metals are joined at both
ends and one end is heated, current will flow.
 If the circuit is broken, there will be an open circuit
voltage across the wires.
 Voltage is a function of temperature and metal types.
 For small ∆𝑇 (s), the relationship with temperature is
linear
∆𝑉 = 𝛼∆𝑇
where, 𝛼: Seebeck coefficient
 For larger ∆𝑇 (s), non-linearity may occur.

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 3.2.3 Temperature Measurement
Thermocouple types

 K-type: most popularly used

 J-type: higher electromotive
force (EMF)
 E-type: cryogenic temperature
 R-type: high temperature (> 900
ºC)

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 3.2.3 Temperature Measurement
Thermocouple types

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 3.2.3 Temperature Measurement
 RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector)
Most RTDs consist of a length of fine coiled
wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core.
The RTD element is made from a pure
material, typically platinum, nickel or
copper.

Platinum often is used since it can be used for a wide

temperature range and has excellent stability
RTDs have positive temperature coefficients (PTC). However,
they have very poor thermal sensitivity.

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 3.2.3 Temperature Measurement

Based on the principle that the material resistance is a

function of its temperature
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝐴𝑇 + 𝐵𝑇 2 )
Where, 𝑅𝑇 : resistance of sensor at T (0C)
𝑅0 : resistance of sensor at 0 (0C)
A, B: temperature coefficients (A>0)
Type A.10-3/0C B.10-6/0C
Pt 3,85 0,59
Ni 6,17
Cu 4,27
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 3.2.3 Temperature Measurement
Note:
 RTD Cu (Copper) is used in low temperature
measurement (below 100 0C) to avoid oxidizing.
 RTD Ni (Nickel) that has high non-linearity is usually
used to measure at higher temperature (below 300 0C)
 RTD Pt (Platinum) is commonly used with R0=100,
200, 500, 1000 (Ohm) corresponding to Pt 100, Pt 200,
Pt 500, Pt 1000.

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 3.2.3 Temperature Measurement
Wire Configuration

The simplest configuration uses two wires.

(ignoring the resistance of wires). It is only
used when high accuracy is not required

Adding the lead resistance to minimize the

effects of wire resistances
Four-wire configuration

ADC
Eliminating voltages drop in the
measuring leads as a contribution to
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error by using an additional current Process Control
source
 3.2.3 Temperature Measurement
 Thermistor
 Thermistors which made of ceramic semiconductor
material measure the change in resistance w.r.t
temperature.
 Thermistors are very sensitive (up to 100 times more
than RTDs and 1000 times more than thermocouples)
and can detect very small changes in temperature.
 Thermistors are very sensitive (up to 100 times more
than RTDs and 1000 times more than thermocouples)
and can detect very small changes in temperature.

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 3.2.3 Temperature Measurement

 Due to their speed, they are used for precision

temperature control and very small temperature
differences.
 The change in thermistor resistance with temperature
is very non-linear.

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 3.2.4 Pressure Measurement

 Fluid pressure can be defined as the measure of force

per-unit-area exerted by a fluid, acting perpendicularly
to any surface it contacts
𝑑𝐹
𝑃=
𝑑𝑠
The standard SI unit for pressure measurement is the
Pascal (Pa) (~ N/m2). In the English system, pressure is
usually expressed in pounds per square inch (psi)
Pressure measurements can be divided into three
different categories: absolute pressure, gauge
pressure and differential pressure.
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 3.2.4 Pressure Measurement
 Absolute pressure is the difference between the
pressure at a given point in a fluid and the absolute
zero of pressure or a perfect vacuum.
 Gauge pressure is the measurement of the difference
between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric
pressure (depending on ambient temperature, altitude
and local weather conditions)
 Differential pressure is simply the measurement of
one unknown pressure with reference to another
unknown pressure. The pressure measured is the
difference between the two unknown pressures.
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 3.2.4 Pressure Measurement
 There are different types of fluid systems and fluid
pressures. There are two types of fluid systems: static
systems and dynamic systems. As the names imply, a
static system is one in which the fluid is at rest and a
dynamic system is on in which the fluid is moving.

Table 3.1 Conversion table for common units of pressure

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 3.2.4 Pressure Measurement

Fig 3.1: Pressure terms relationship

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 3.2.4 Pressure Measurement
 Static Pressure.
The absolute pressure at a depth H in a liquid is defined:
Pabs  P0   gH
where, 𝑃0 : the atmospheric pressure
𝜌: the density of the fluid
g: the acceleration due to gravity
H: the depth at which the pressure is measured
 Dynamic Pressure.
P  Ps  Pd
where, 𝑃𝑠 : the static pressure
2 /2
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𝑃 𝑑 = ρ𝑣
 3.2.4 Pressure Measurement

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 3.2.5 Level Measurement
There are plenty of methods to measure level for both
point level detection and continuous level monitoring
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level_sensor

 Level gauge.

Observe directly Tank

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 3.2.5 Level Measurement
 Magnetic level indicator
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Inside the stand pipe, a float containing
a permanent magnet moves up and
down following the change of liquid
level.
On the outside of the stand pipe, a
transparent rail with indicator flaps are
mounted. The small flaps hold small
permanent magnets. The flaps are bi-
color with colors red and white. When
the float passes the flaps, the flaps are
rotated 180° by the magnetic field in
the float.
The indicator shows the red color up to
the liquid level. Above the color is
white.
 3.2.5 Level Measurement
 Float type detectors (Magnetic level switch)

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 3.2.5 Level Measurement
 Based on differential pressure

DP  h( 1  2 ) g
where, DP: difference pressure
𝜌1 : the density of the heavier fluid
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𝜌2 : the density of the lighter fluid Process Control
 3.2.5 Level Measurement
 Based on time-of-light

Animation

D = (transmission velocity x time)/2

Level: H = L - D
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 3.2.5 Level Measurement
 Based on capacitance

2 r  0 h
C
ln( D / d )
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 3.2.5 Flow Measurement
 Flow measurement is the quantification of bulk fluid
movement (wiki)
 Volumetric flow rate, Q, [m3/s], [m3/min],…
 Mass flow rate, 𝑚, [kg/s], [kg/min],…
 The most common principles for fluid flow metering
are:
 Differential Pressure Flow meters
 Velocity Flow meters
 Positive Displacement Flow meters
 Mass Flow meters
 Open Channel Flow meters Process Control
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 3.2.5 Flow Measurement
 Differential Pressure Flowmeters
The flow is calculated by measuring the pressure drop
over an obstructions inserted in the flow.
Its principle is based on the Bernoullis Equation, where
the pressure drop and the further measured signal is a
function of the square flow speed.

1 2 P
D1 V1 Dt V D2 mv  mgh  mg  cont
2 g
2

1 2
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 3.2.5 Flow Measurement

1 2 P
mv  mgh  mg  cont
D1 V1 Dt V D2 2 g
2

1 2
Applying Bernoullis equation at position (1) and (2)
1 P1 1 P2
mV1  mgh1  mg  mV2  mgh2  mg
2 2

2 g 2 g
Assuming: h1 = h2
2
 V1  V2  ( P1  P2 )
2 2


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 3.2.5 Flow Measurement
The mass flow rate at position (1) and (2) are the same:
 2  V1 A1  V2 A2
1  m
m
 V1 A1  V2 A2
The velocity at (2):
2  p1  p 2 
V2 
 [1   A2 A1  ]
2

A2
mtheory  V2 A2  2   p1  p2 
[1   A2 A1  ]
2 12

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 3.2.5 Flow Measurement
Cd . A t
mactual  2   p1  p2 
[1   A t A1  ]
2 12

where, 𝐶𝑑 : coefficient constant

Given  = Dt /D1, then (At / A1)2 = (Dt /D1)4 = 4
Cd . A t
mactual  2   p1  p2  AB
[1   4 ]1 2

This equation is applied to many flow measurement device

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 3.2.5 Flow Measurement
 Orifice Plate

Cd At
mactual  2   p1  p2 
[1   ]
4 12

F o r 0 .2    0 .7 5 a n d 1 0 4  R e  1 0 7
91 . 71 2 . 5
C d  0 . 5959  0 . 0312  2 .1
 0 . 184  
8
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 3.2.5 Flow Measurement
 The Flow Nozzle

Cd At
mactual  2   p1  p2 
[1   ]
4 12

6 . 53  0 .5
C d  0 . 9975 
R e0 .5
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 3.2.5 Flow Measurement
 Venturi Tube

Cd At
mactual  2   p1  p2 
[1   ]
4 12

0.98 <= Cd <= 0.995

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 3.2.5 Flow Measurement
 Pitot tubes

1 P2 2
P1,V V2=0
1

2  P2  P1 
 V1 


mactual  Cd A t 2   p1  p2 
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 3.3. Actuator
Controller Actuator Process

Sensor
What is actuator?
Actuator converts the command signal from controllers into
physical adjustment in adjustable process variable (MV). It
is normally valve opening, power level or displacement.
Actuator types
 Control valve: pneumatic, electric, hydraulic
 Electric heater output: SCR, thyristor
 Pump/Motor speed: inverter
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 3.3. Actuator
 Control valve
Control input

Valve actuator

Stem

Valve body
Inlet stream Outlet stream

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 3.3. Actuator
 Valve types
 Globe valve: rugged, usually the most expensive,
particularly in the larger sizes, accurate and repeatable
control, high pressure drop.
 Gate valve: sliding disc (gate), ideal for high pressure and
high temperature applications where operation is infrequent,
multi-turn or long stroke pneumatic and electro-hydraulic
actuators are needed, poor control.
 Ball valve: tight shutoff, high capacity with just a quarter-
turn to operate.
 Butterfly valve: damper valve, most economical valves,
high torque required
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 3.3. Actuator
 Valve characteristic
Pv
 Basic equation q ( )  Cv f ( )
gs
where, is the valve stem position, 0   1
𝐶𝑣 : valve coefficient, decided by valve size
 Valve trim type for different plug
• Linear: f( )
• Square Root (Quick Opening): f ( ) 
1
• Equal Percentage: f ( )  R
where, R: range ability (ratio between minimum flow
and maximum flow)
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 3.3. Actuator

 Linear: used where fairly

constant pressure drop is
expected, used for liquid level or
flow loop.
 Quick Opening: used for
frequently on-off service or where
instantly large flow is needed
 Equal Percentage: most
commonly used, used where
large pressure drop is expected

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