430
Journal of Food Protetcion, Vol. 53, No. 5, Pages 430-440 (May 1990)
Copyright© International Association of Milk, Food and Environmental Sanitarians
Light Effects on Food
MIRAY BEKBOLET
Tiibitak-Marmara Research Center, Department of Nutrition and Food Technology, P.O. Box 21, 41401, Gebze-Kocaeli-Turkey
(Received for publication February 20, 1989)
ABSTRACT
Current research studies carried out on light-induced changes
in dairy products, fats and oils, and meat products are reviewed.
General factors affecting thus formed off-flavors in these food
groups are the intensity of light, exposure interval, type of
packaging, and some specific nutritive constituents. In dairy
products, riboflavin degradation, losses of vitamin A and C are
the major effects, whereas in fats and oils the effective constitu-
ents are B-carotene, tocopherols, the undesirable flavors being
related mainly to photosensitized oxidation. In case of meat
products, the visual appearance seems to be the most important
effect due to the formation of oxidized pigment metmyoglobin
from oxymyoglobin upon light exposure. The effects of packag-
ing materials and types on photooxidation are also being dis-
cussed for each of the above three food commodity groups.
Light exposure may lead to some adverse effects on
foods. The light catalyzed reactions are considered to be
complex in nature and the most-pronounced effects are
observed with light of the highest quantum energy, i.e.
light in the lower wavelengths of the visible spectrum and
in the ultra violet (UV) spectrum. The deleterious effects
may be summarized as the oxidation of fats and oils, the
formation of unpleasant off-flavors, losses of vitamins A,
B,, C and the discoloration of pigments such as myoglobin
in meats. Some specific reactions may occur through
photosensitization processes in the presence of chromo-
phore impurities such as chlorophyll, porphyrins, myog-
lobins, and phaeophytins. The photosensitized generation
of activated oxygen species, namely singlet oxygen, hydroxyl
radical, ozone, and superoxide anion lead to various
undesirable chemical changes in food constituents (96).
The protective mechanisms already present in food sys-
tems include singlet oxygen quenchers (B-carotene, toco-
pherols and synthetic antioxidants) and scavengers, such
as tocopherols. Besides the above mentioned light-induced
chemical changes in foods, the effects of display lighting
and packaging materials must also be considered from the
consumer's point of view.
The purpose of this article is to discuss the light action
on certain foods that are known to be mostly affected.
Milk and dairy products are viewed for off-flavor forma-
tion and riboflavin degradation. Oils and fats are discussed
from the photooxidation point of view. Meat and meat
JOURNAL OF FOOD PROTECTION, VOL. 53, MAY 1990
products are considered for the discoloration problem. Recent
developments in these fields have been specially consid-
ered.
Dairy Products
The effects of light exposure on milk, cheese, and
butter are discussed separately. Special attention is paid
upon the formation of off-flavors and riboflavin photode-
gradation.
Milk
Flavor deterioration. The deleterious effect of light
on both the sensory properties and nutritional qualities of
milk has been studied extensively (2,3,9,18,36,140,149,
162,173). Milk producers and processors place major
emphasis on quality assurance of milk. This assurance was
relatively easy when milk was purchased within 24 h after
processing. Formerly the effective light source on light-
induced off-flavor of milk was only sunlight since the
milk was left on doorsteps. Modern marketing conditions
brought fluorescent lighting systems which have led to
more intense exposure (34).
General information on the consumer acceptance of
fluid milk was given by Dimick (36). The effective factors
were the quality measures of flavor, shelf-life, and nutri-
tional value. Extended exposure to fluorescent light which
is used to illuminate the display cases was the main reason
for flavor defects and nutrient losses. There are many terms
used to describe this flavor defect, namely "sunlight",
"oxidized", and "activated" flavors (154). The term " light-
induced off-flavor" will also be used synonymously in this
review. Consumer response to this defect was determined
by numerous studies. Bray et al. (20) surveyed 2000
consumers to evaluate the detection of light-induced off-
flavor in milk. More than 73% of the consumers preferred
the good sample and it was found that more females than
males could differentiate the difference. 20.3% of all the
consumers preferred the light-induced sample. Coleman et
al. (31) suggested that paperboard packages would be
preferable for greater protection when compared with blow-
molded plastic containers. The results were evaluated
organoleptically by an untrained panel.
Photochemically induced changes are directly related
to the light-source, wavelength intensity, exposure time
 LIGHT EFFECTS ON FOOD
and temperature, as well as the container material charac-
teristics. Chemical constituents responsible for off-flavor
formation are proteins, amino acids (methionine), ribofla-
vin, vitamin C, and added vitamin A (6). The contribution
of the liquid constituents to the overall off-flavor forma-
tion should also be considered. The reaction mechanism is
ascribed to the oxidation of unsaturated fatty-acids. The
presence of inorganic ions such as copper or iron catalyze
the oxidation reaction (146,147). Schroder explained that
an oxygen concentration below 1 ppm was sufficient for
the development of oxidation flavor catalyzed by Cu at
0.6 ppm level (147). Organoleptic differentiation between
light-induced off-flavor and copper-induced off-flavor is
somewhat difficult. Moreover, the volatile flavor constitu-
ents of milk was studied intensively (7,11,12,13,55,105).
Evidence was given on the production of acetaldehyde,
methylsulfide, n-pentanal, and n-hexanal from GLC analy-
sis of the headspace vapors of steam distillates of pasteur-
ized and homogenized milk upon exposure to fluorescent
light and direct sunlight (11). Mehta and Basette (116)
also showed that an increase in the concentrations of ac-
etaldehyde, propanal, pentanal, and hexanal was observed
when UHT-sterilized milk was exposed to fluorescent light
for 30 d at 22°C.
Effect of milk container on flavor deterioration. The
role of packaging material and the type of container must
be considered together with the degradation of nutrients
and the formation of off-flavors (46,69,86,87, 139,148).
Container type:
Barnard and Foley (10) examined the milk samples
packaged in plastic purchased from stores, and 39.9% of
the samples showed light-induced off-flavors. Hansen et
al. (74) studied the effect of 40 watt cool white fluorescent
light on homogenized milk in polyethylene containers in
terms of flavor and vitamin deterioration. Sunlight flavor
was detected after 2 to 4 h. Yellow or green filters were
recommended. White and Bulthaus (171) analyzed the
samples in plastic jugs taken from grocery stores. The
results of the triangle tests showed that 59% reflected
moderate to strong light activated flavor, and 19% re-
flected very slight to slight light activated flavor. Olsen
and Ashoor (121) analyzed skim and whole milk samples
in non-returnable high density polyethylene and fiberboard
containers displayed under normal fluorescent light. The
results of the sensory tests indicated that fat content, the
season of production, and size of container had no major
adverse effects on flavor, appearance, and odor. Bradley
(19) proposed a modification to polyethylene packaging.
The energy blocking agent Ti0 2 had the property of inhib-
iting the development of light activated oxidized flavor if
incorporated into the matrix of the blow-molded polyeth-
ylene container. However, deMan (34) showed that the
blocking effect of Ti0 2 in polyethylene matrix should be
considered as negligible. Fanelli et al. (46) studied the
effect of commercial UV absorbers incorporated into high
density polyethylene. Vitamin A, riboflavin, and ascorbic
JOURNAL OF FOOD PROTECTION, VOL. 53, MAY 1990
431
acid contents were determined after 16 and 24 h 0.3% FD
& C Yellow No.5 gave the best protection for vitamin A
and riboflavin, while Cyosorb 531, Tinuvin 326 afforded
protection for only vitamin A. Nelson and Cathcart (120)
measured the light transmission through white and yellow
pigmented polyethylene milk bottles in the 350-800 nm
region. It was found that the harmful 400-500 nm region
was not entirely blocked by the pigmented bottles.
Riboflavin degradation. Photodegradation of ribofla-
vin in milk was found to be dependent upon the wave-
length and intensity of light, exposure time, the protective
effect of the packaging material, and on temperature
(40,76,77,140,160). Light-transmission at wavelengths of
about 450 nm was found to be effective in riboflavin
destruction. Riboflavin is destroyed by light of the same
wavelength as that produces light-induced off-flavor, and
there is a singular coincidence between the disappearance
of the yellow color in whey and the appearance of the off-
flavor (173). Maniere and Dimick (114,115) studied the
localization and distribution of riboflavin in homogenized,
pasteurized cow's milk and in the fat, casein, and serum.
Following ultracentrifugation and acid precipitation of the
remaining casein, riboflavin was determined fluorometri-
cally. Fifteen percent of the total riboflavin was found to
be associated with the casein phase and about 4% with the
fat. The acid whey fraction contained 81% of total ribo-
flavin. The riboflavin destruction due to light exposure
2150 lx for 48 h at 7°C was greatest in whey fraction
associated with immunoglobulin. The free riboflavin was
most labile to light exposure. Parks and Allen (125)
developed a simple, qualitative procedure for the detection
of the photodegradation of riboflavin upon exposure to
sunlight. Pasteurized skim milk was taken into pyrex tubes
and exposed to sunlight for 0, 5, 10, and 20 min. The deg-
radation of riboflavin was determined via thin layer chro-
matography under UV light for fluorescing compounds.
Lumichrome (7, 8-dimethylalloxazine) was identified as
the major product of the photodegradation.
Singh et al. (155) investigated the riboflavin loss in
whole milk packaged in blow-molded polyethylene, gold
pigmented blow-molded polyethylene, paperboard, and glass
containers. The milk samples were stored in controlled
temperature rooms. The light sources were fluorescent tubes
(GE, 90 watt, cool white) of intensities 1614 lx, 3228 lx,
and 4842 lx. The kinetic analysis indicated that the ribo-
flavin degradation could be described by a first-order reaction.
The riboflavin loss after 48 h of exposure to 3228 lx light-
intensity and at 4°C storage was found to be 11 % in glass
and blow-molded polyethylene containers, and only 3% in
paperboard and gold pigmented blow-molded polyethyl-
ene containers. Later, Allen and Parks (2) studied the rate
of photodegradation of riboflavin of fluid milks exposed
to fluorescent light (2690 lx), which consisted of two 15
watt cool white fluorescent bulbs. The degradation fol-
lowed first-order reaction kinetics and the reaction rate (s)
averages 1.86 x 10 5 in skim milk and 1.47 x 10 5 in whole
milk. It was concluded that the photodegradation of ribo-
432 BEKBOLET
flavin proceeds prior to the appearance of the light-in-
duced off-flavor. Toyosaki et al. (167) studied the mecha-
nism of riboflavin photolysis in cow's milk by monitoring
the reactions by HPLC. Hoskin and Dimick (81) demon-
strated that the packaging material was a key to the pro-
tection of nutritional quality of fluid market milk. The
containers were clear polycarbonate, tinted polycarbonate,
high density polyethylene, glass, and non-returnable un-
printed fiberboard. Samples were exposed to fluorescent
light (1076 lx) at 7 ± 1°C for 72 h. Sensory evaluation
was carried out and riboflavin contents were determined
by the fluorometric method. Hoskin (80) performed a study
to evaluate the effects of aluminum and oriented polypro-
pylene film to protect milk in half-gallon polyethylene
containers. Both films were found to be effective in the
prevention of off-flavor and riboflavin degradation. The
effect of filters was studied by Fukumoto and Nakashima
(62). Sixty percent destruction in riboflavin content was
observed in liquid milk samples placed in petri dishes.
The light source was a white-fluorescent bulb. With a blue
filter (400-560 nm) 20%; with a brown filter (500 nm)
30%, and with a red filter (>550 nm) 10% destruction was
recorded. Red glass bottles were recommended. Paik and
Kim (123) investigated the riboflavin destruction in liquid
milk and chocolate milk in clear glass and polyethylene
bottles. Plain milk retained only 25% of its initial ribofla-
vin content after 1 h exposure to direct sunlight. Chocolate
milk retained 65 and 55% of its riboflavin content after 1
and 2 h exposures respectively. Glass bottles and polyeth-
ylene containers were found to be equally affected by
sunlight.
Vitamin A and Vitamin C. Senyk and Shipe (150,151)
observed the loss of vitamin A in low-fat milk exposed to
fluorescent light. The samples with whole-fat, 2% fat, 1%
fat, and skim milk in polyethylene containers were ex-
posed to 200 lx for 4 h. Added vitamin A was destroyed
at 37, 44, 49 and 57% levels respectively related to the fat
content. Fiber and gold tinted containers were found to
provide the best protection in vitamin A content. deMan
(35) performed a similar study by taking whole-fat, 2% fat
added skim milk, and skim milk samples packaged in plastic
pouches. The samples were exposed to fluorescent light
(2200 lx) for 48 h at refrigerator temperature. The vitamin
A content of whole-milk decreases to 67.7% of its initial
value after 30 h, and remained constant for a further 18 h.
In 2% milk 23.6% and in skim milk 4.2% drops in vitamin
A value were recorded. The initial vitamin A content of
skim milk was about twice that of the others due to for-
tification. The results indicated that added vitamin A was
more susceptible to light destruction than native vitamin A
was. Goussault et al. (66) studied the fate of some vita-
mins in relation to packaging and storage. The packaging
materials were polyethylene/cardboard and translucent
polyethylene. Samples were stored at 6°C for 3 to 6 d in
darkness or exposed to artificial light for 10 h/d. Vitamin
C contents remained unchanged in the dark after 3 d for
both types of containers, but a reduction was observed
JOURNAL OF FOOD PROTECTION, VOL. 53, MAY 1990
under simulated retail conditions. The vitamin A content
of milk was unchanged after storage of 3 d at 6°C for both
types of containers, either in darkness or exposed to arti-
ficial light.
Amino-acids and proteins. It was shown that essential
amino-acid methionine was responsible for the activated
flavor in milk (128,137). Allen and Parks (7) showed that
methionine was oxidized to methional in pasteurized skim
milk when exposed to direct sunlight in glass containers.
The photoreduction of methionine to methional was achieved
by 100% yield, at pH 7 (30). The threshold limit for the
perception of methional was found to be 50 ppm (126).
The degradation of tryptophan and tyrosine in milk pro-
teins might lead to discoloration upon exposure to various
light sources (766). The experimental conditions that were
applied in the study were sunlight for 1 to 2 h, cool white
fluorescent light (20 watt), and ultraviolet light (14 watt)
for 4 to 5 h. Dimick and Kilara (37) discussed the influ-
ence of light in free amino-acids in model systems and
intact proteins (such as native proteins) and peptides. Photo
aggregation and hydrolysis of whey proteins exposed to
sunlight or fluorescent light was demonstrated (170). The
effects of different light sources (incandescent and metal
halide lamps) on milk proteins and the development of
light-induced off-flavors were also considered in this study.
Gilmore (64) investigated the effect of light on the
major whey proteins of cow's milk. Acid whey and solu-
tions of alpha-lactalbumin and beta-lactoglobulin were
exposed to fluorescent light and direct sunlight. Polymeri-
zation of proteins was observed by disc-gel electrophoresis
and gel-filtration. The photocatalyst riboflavin caused the
cleavage of peptide bonds. New low molecular weight
fractions and an increase in amino groups were observed.
Gilmore and Dimick (65) studied the catalytic photoaggre-
gation and photodegradation of protein fractions of ho-
mogenized milk and milk whey. Fluorescent light and
sunlight exposed alpha-lactalbumin and beta-lactoglobulin
changed to a high molecular weight protein fraction. Light
exposed whey had diminished intensities in all the bands
evaluated by disc-gel electrophoresis. Riboflavin was found
to be essential as a catalyst.
Upon illumination of bovine milk serum proteins with
fluorescent light and in the presence of riboflavin, photo-
generation of superoxide anion was investigated by Ko-
rycka-Dahl and Richardson (97). At pH 6.7 and in the
presence of 3.2 |j.M riboflavin, three proteins of bovine
milk serum served as oxidizable substrates for the photo-
generation of superoxide anion. Beta-lactoglobulin, alpha-
lactoglobin, and albumin yielded 6.3, 1.6, and 1.6 |xM
superoxide anion respectively in 1 h.
Lipid oxidation. Riboflavin could also generate singlet
oxygen that could react with polyunsaturated fatty acids
promoting light-induced lipid oxidation (5,6,95,98,168).
The oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids yielded peroxides
which in turn degraded to carbonyl compounds. Milk
tocopherols posses the ability to resist the oxidized flavor
 LIGHT EFFECTS ON FOOD
development. In the presence of light, tocopherols may
also act as free radical scavengers (97).
Cheese
Although cheese is a major dairy product, little infor-
mation is available on light-induced changes in cheese
either under controlled laboratory conditions or in the market
place. A study was conducted by Grigorov and Chebo-
tarev (70) on the effect of visible light and supplementary
addition of bivalent ions on lactic acid bacteria Leuconos-
toc cremoris and Streptococcus cremoris. Fourfold increase
was observed in the colony count of these bacteria upon
addition of Mn and Mg ions, but exposure to visible light
showed no significant effect. Sweetsur and White (163)
studied the effect of light exposure in the heat stability of
milk protein. The increase in heat stability, thus the co-
agulation that occurs upon exposure to light, was not caused
by changes in pH. The presence of riboflavin in milk and
02 in the headspace atmosphere during storage were found
to be the necessary conditions for milk lability. Riboflavin
content and oxygen in the headspace atmosphere have similar
influences on rennet coagulation time. The causative reaction
was the stabilization of the heat and rennin sensitive
methionine-phenylalanine bond in kappa-casein by the
photooxidation of methionine to methionine sulfoxide.
In a study conducted by Deger and Ashoor (33), the
light-induced changes in taste, appearance, odor, and
riboflavin content of common cheeses stored under con-
trolled laboratory conditions, and in the dairy cases of four
local grocery stores were examined. The light sources were
white fluorescent bulbs; 538, 1614, 5380 lx; the cheese
samples were Colby, Mozzarella, and Cheddar in transpar-
ent polyethylene wrapping. Sensory evaluation was car-
ried out with 25 untrained panelists. Data were obtained
for 12 d of controlled storage period; light intensity, type
of packaging paper, and piece thickness affected ribofla-
vin retention and color. Under display conditions, retail
cheese retained its riboflavin after a display time of 14 d,
with no significant change in taste, appearance, or odor.
Bojkow and Foissy (17) investigated the keeping quality
under retail conditions of Gervais cheese. Samples were
stored for 1 week and 4°C and in a display cabinet at 7°C;
samples reached the acceptability limit for sale after 1.5
weeks when not protected against exposure to fluorescent
light for 11.5 h daily. If protected, the period for reaching
acceptability limit was 4.5 weeks. Shiler and Volodin (153)
evaluated the effect of UV light applied for the purpose of
surface sterilization in cheeses packaged in plastic films.
DS, SKF-15, and VIM-ID polymer/paraffin coatings did
not transmit light due to their thickness (210-250 \im),
color, and structural characteristics. Italian Saran 12 |J.m,
thick 79 37 |^m, thick 50, red 24, milky modified Ti0 2 3
showed the transmission of light at 310 nm wavelength.
Butter
Light-induced oxidation of butter may occur when it
is inadequately protected under illumination. The degree
of deterioration depends upon factors such as light source,
JOURNAL OF FOOD PROTECT/ON, VOL. 53, MAY 1990
433
wavelength of light, exposure time, distance of butter from
light source, and B-carotene contents of butter. Butter is
exposed to fluorescent light during its production and in
retail display cabinets.
Photocatalytic oxidation of butter could be followed
by peroxide values (39). The photocatalysed oxidation was
studied as a function of butter composition. Butter samples
were stored in vegetable parchment and subjected to fluo-
rescent light at 5°C. Peroxide values showed a decrease
from surface to interior. Subsurface oxidation was explained
by the absence of a dispersed aqueous phase and the reflection
and scattering of light (51). Grishchenko and Nakapyuk
(71) studied the photocatalytic oxidation of butter. Sweet
cream butter packaged in vegetable parchment were kept
under illumination of 360±15 lx at 6±1°C for <120 h. The
light sources were daylight (UV and short-wave visible
light) and a white-light fluorescent lamp (560-650 nm).
Peroxide values were found to be 2 and 1.3 times higher
(respectively to the light source) than those of the control
samples. The deterioration of organoleptic quality occurred
after 72 and 96 h respectively for the two illuminated
samples. Emmons et al. (44), studied the influence of light
on butter wrapped with various materials (5 polyethylene-
based plastics, 2 parchment papers, 2 metallized Al-pa-
pers and A1-foil paper laminate). Oxidation was observed
in the surfaces of all of the light-exposed butters. Yellow
plastic transmitted very little light, below 500 nm. Oxida-
tion was greater at lower intensities of light. Downey et al.
(38), studied the effect of fluorescent light on packaged
butter at 4°C upon exposure for one week. The photooxi-
dation at surface layers was found to be evident. A1-foil
laminate metallized cellophane, paperboard tub+foil over-
lay, and black flofoil provided complete protection, but
vegetable parchment and plastic tubs failed. Harwalker et
al. (75), evaluated the influence of light on the flavor of
butter oil, stored in high density polyethylene containers
via organoleptic tests. Light-induced flavor changes under
conditions of an exposure interval longer than 2 weeks and
at 5-10°C were found to be significant. Bakri (8) described
a respirometer that could be used to measure the photooxi-
dation of butter fat by the uptake of oxygen. Radema (132)
performed various experiments to determine the effect of
light in butter under different conditions. It was found that
the effects of light exposure were less severe if the butter
portions were large. Increasing the dimension of portions
(lxlxlm) affected the peroxide value insignificantly. It
was concluded that the windows of the processing room
should be covered with foil. Emmons et al. (45) gave the
result of a survey of butter from "top of the pile" showing
that 11 % of the samples were more oxidized than butter
receiving 200 lx for 2 d. It was concluded that wrappers
should transmit less than 1% of the illuminating light for
adequate protection of butter from light under Canadian
retail conditions.
Cholesterol oxidation was found to be a light-induced
surface phenomenon occurring via singlet oxygen attack
(108). Al-foil laminated packaging material was found to
be effective on the oxidative stability of cholesterol (109).
434 BEKBOLET
Also, daylight appeared to be more detrimental to butter
lipids than fluorescent light. The photo-product of choles-
terol, cholesterol a-oxide, is reported to show weak car-
cinogenic activity and was suggested as a proximate car-
cinogen in the process of photocarcinogenesis (107). From
the public health point of view the subject needs to be
further investigated.
Fats and Oils
The deteriorative effect of light on oils, fats, and fat
containing products has been known since 1899. Oils and
fats can become rancid as a result of oxidation. The oxidation
process may be affected by energy in the form of light,
heat, ionizing radiation, enzymes, or catalysis by metals
(72,102,107,141,156). The autoxidation of unsaturated
components of fats and oils proceeds via a free-radical
chain mechanism which consists of hydroperoxide forma-
tion and decomposition reactions (110,159). Unsaturated
pure fatty acids and their esters absorb UV radiations at
wavelengths between 184 and 192 nm (174). Thus they
are quite stable in the presence of visible light. However,
it was found that the stability of oils did not correlate well
with the degree of unsaturation (88). But photooxidative
rancidity is accelerated by the unsaturated fatty acids upon
exposure to artificial light or daylight (27,134).
Wavelength dependence of photooxidation
The question of which wavelengths of light cause the
damaging effects was investigated thoroughly by many
researchers (24,124,129,130,131). The visible region of the
spectrum (325 - 460 nm) was found to be effective (124).
Koo and Kim (94) have studied the effect of sunlight,
incandescent, and fluorescent lights on the oxidation of
edible soybean oil. Sunlight showed the strongest prooxi-
dant activity, whereas incandescent light showed the weak-
est activity. Peroxide value of 15 was chosen as the limit
for indicating oxidation. Fluorescent light was also found
to be effective in oxidation of corn oil (39). The photo-
chemical oxidation of refined soybean oil was explained
to be wavelength-dependent (133). Decrease in the rate of
oxidation with increasing wavelength was observed in soy-
bean, sunflower, and peanut oils. The light of shorter
wavelengths was completely absorbed. Quantum yields
increased with increasing wavelength. It was evident that
the oxidation of oils was catalyzed most strongly by short
wavelengths of light (131). In a study, rapeseed, corn,
soybean, coconut oils, and milk fat were subjected to
fluorescent light (350 - 750 nm). The rate of the oxidation
was followed by peroxide values. The wavelength depend-
ence of oxidation rate was again proved. The photooxida-
tive effect per unit of radiant energy intensity in relation
to wavelength varied and was a characteristic of each oil
and fat. It was concluded that the degree of unsaturation
was not the only cause of photooxidation (142,143). The
amount of light absorbed was found to be proportional to
the quantity of hydroperoxides formed (110).
JOURNAL OF FOOD PROTECTION, VOL. 53, MAY 1990
Photosensitized oxidations
The presence of a sensitizer in the foodstuff initiates
the photooxidation of unsaturated fatty acids and their esters
(22,58,134,136). The products of photosensitized oxida-
tion are hydroperoxides that can decompose to give radi-
cals responsible for the free-radical autoxidation of the
unsaturated lipids (102,164), Pigments in foods namely
chlorophyll, hematoporphyrins, flavins such as riboflavins,
and also synthetic colorants are known to act as photosen-
sitizers (25). Through absorption of near UV-light or visible
light, the sensitizers become electronically excited and
possess two excited states; the singlet ('Sens) and the triplet
(3Sens). The longer lifetime of the triplet state makes the
initiation of the photosensitized oxidation more possible
(52). The formation of a radical after the absorption of
light by the sensitizer indicates the free-radical autoxida-
tion called type 1 by Gollnick. In the type II reaction
singlet oxygen is formed ('0 2 ) via energy transfer from the
sensitizer to oxygen. The formation of monohydroperox-
ide (MH) isomers may be an indicator for the type of
reaction (29,145). Using this indicative isomer, research
was carried out to compare the sensitizers. Phaeophytins
a and b were found to be more effective than chlorophylls
a and b in producing hydroperoxides. Riboflavin in metha-
nol was identified as a type II sensitizer. Methyloleate and
oleic acid were used for comparison of the sensitizers. The
formation of phaeophytins was achieved by the removal of
Mg ions from the chlorophylls during the storage of oils
(32). Kiritsakis and Dugan (90) used bleached olive oil to
remove most nonglyceride components. Chlorophyll acted
as a photo sensitizer, phaeophytin a and b acted as oxida-
tion promoters, and carotene acted as singlet oxygen
quencher, d and a tocopherol showed no effect on oxida-
tion rate. It was evident that carotenes and tocopherols
were destroyed in the presence of chlorophyll. Terao and
Matsushita (164) evaluated the photosensitized oxidation
of methyl oleate, methyl linolexate, and methyl linolenate
using methylene blue as the sensitizer. The kinetic data
revealed that the relative rates were 1.0:1.7:2.3 respec-
tively. Methyl oleate gave the 9- and 10-isomers; methyl
linolexate gave 9-, 10-, 12-, and 13-isomers, and methyl
linolenate gave the 9-, 10-, 12-, 13-, 15-, and 16-isomers
via singlet oxygen reaction. Further, the authors conducted
a research to clarify the photosensitized oxidation prod-
ucts of triglycerides. The results indicated that the reactiv-
ity of each fatty acid methyl ester and triglyceride was not
proportional to the number of olefinic double bonds, but
may be related to the number of allylic and doubly allylic
hydrogen in their olefinic double bonds (165). The pho-
tooxidations can be retarded by 'O, quenchers. Tocophe-
rols and carotene may prevent singlet oxygen addition to
allylic double bonds (22,28,53,175). a-tocopherol is known
to be the most reactive compound as singlet oxygen
quenchers (67). Yamauchi and Matsushita (175) studied
the quenching effect a, 6 and y tocopherols on methylene
blue-sensitized photooxidation of methyl linoleate. The rate
constants for the chemical reaction of each tocopherol and
the singlet oxygen were 6.6xl0 6 M's ', 2.6xl06M_1s_1 and
 LIGHT EFFECTS ON FOOD
0.7xl06M ' s ' respectively for a, B, y tocopherols, indicat-
ing that a-tocopherol (vitamin E) was the most effective.
The photo oxidation mechanism of these tocopherols was
assumed to be different from that of autoxidation. The rate
of ' 0 2 quenching of tocopherols was much slower than
that of B-carotene. Naturally occurring metal chelates (eg.
chlorophyll and protoporphyrin) are known as ' 0 2 scaven-
gers rather than ' 0 2 quenchers (14). Ni (II) chelates were
investigated as singlet oxygen quenchers by Carlssen et al.
(22). The study was carried out with soybean, peanut, olive,
and corn oils. Oils were oxidized over a 60 min period
when exposed to radiation exceeding 340 nm, and the
formation of hydroperoxides were followed. The oxida-
tions of oils were retarded by singlet oxygen quenchers
but not by free radical scavengers. The ' 0 2 quenching
effect of a-tocopherol was found to be inefficient due to
the self oxidation of the vitamin. All of the Ni II Chelates
[Ni((2,2'-thiobis(4-tert-octyl phenolate))-n-butylamine), Ni
bis (2-hydroxy-5-methoxyphenyl-N-n-butylaldimine), and
Ni bis (di-n-butyl x dithiocarbamate)] retarded the light-
initiated oxidation. The quenching effect of B-carotene was
achieved through energy transfer from singlet oxygen to
B-carotene, forming ground state oxygen. Carotenes with
11 through 19 conjugated double bonds from C14 to C18
were found to be efficient ' 0 2 quenchers (52,53). The rate
of quenching as a sensitive function of the conjugated
polyene chain was reported by Foote et al. (53). Removal
of naturally occurring pigments and peroxides during the
refining process may prevent deterioration due to singlet
oxygen. Partial removal of B-carotene was observed dur-
ing the refining process of vegetable oils (56). Carnavale
et al. (23) performed a study on the fluorescent light catalyzed
autoxidation of B-carotene. Bleaching of B-carotene with
lipoxidase-catalyzed autoxidation of oils was found to be
due to the attack of intermediates of the oxidation process.
The decoloration problem was interpreted to be due to the
oxidation of B-carotene (138). Exposure to UV radiation
or day-light of vegetable oils caused bleaching. Oils would
become opaque if refined since the oxidation products of
triglycerides and contaminants would shift the absorption
maximum towards shorter wavelengths. A recent study
carried out by Faria and Mukai (47) revealed the use of a
GC reactor to follow lipid photooxidation.
Packaging material
Packaging materials that transmitted wavelengths
between 490 nm and 589.5 nm could prevent oils from de-
veloping rancidity. Lee and Kim (103) studied the effects
of transparent cellophane films, both colored and color-
less, coated with material containing pyridine, benzophe-
none, or p-aminobenzoic acid. The peroxide values of edible
soybean oils were determined and used to evaluate rancid-
ity. It was concluded that the retarding effects of films on
peroxide values were in decreasing order respectively for
red, green, p-aminobenzoic acid-coated, control, pyridine -
coated, and benzophenone-coated. Transparent glass and
polyethylene plastic bottles were used as packaging mate-
rial in studies on olive oil carried out by Kiritsakis and
JOURNAL OF FOOD PROTECTION. VOL. 53, MAY 1990
435
Dugan (89,90). Glass packaging was found to be better
than polyethylene plastics with respect to slowing down
the oxidation of oil. Fedeli (48,49) determined chlorophyll
sensitized oxidation rates in the presence of light and in
the dark. Canned oil had longer storage life than glass
bottled oil. Glass, tin, polyethylene, and polyvinylchloride
containers for olive oil were compared with each other.
Peroxide values were evaluated at the end of the storage
period in a constant temperature room at 28±1°C at a light
intensity of 1050 lx or in darkness. Significant changes
occurred only in the samples stored in polyethylene (73).
Flavor and odor
The development of objectionable flavors and odors
by oxidation has obvious detrimental effects on food quality
and consumer acceptability. The volatile odor and flavor
compounds derived from lipids have been studied
(54,84,127). Although fat hydroperoxides are generally
tasteless and odorless, their decomposition products con-
tribute to the flavor. Volatile aldehyde cleavage products
can affect the flavor of vegetable oils. Photosensitized
oxidation products from oleate hydroperoxides were found
to be a mixture of two trans allylic 9- and 10- hydroper-
oxides. Photosensitized oxidation products from linoleate
were cis, trans-conjugated hydroperoxides together with
cis, trans-unconjugated hydroperoxides. Photosensitized
oxidation products of linolenate produced cis, trans-un-
conjugated triene 10- and 15- hydroperoxides, and a mixture
of 8 isomers of cis, trans and trans, trans-conjugated diene-
triene 9-, 12-, 13-, and 16- hydroperoxides (26,29,57,59,61,
119,164). Major volatile products were identified from the
hydroperoxides of methyloleate, lineleate, and linolenate
by GC/MS analysis. The major volatiles produced from
methyloleate hydroperoxides were octane, nonanal, methyl
octanoate, 2 decenal, and methyl 9-oxononanoate. The major
volatiles produced from methyl linoleate hydroperoxides
were hexanal, 2-heptanal, methyl 9-oxononanoate, and
methyl 10-oxo-8-decenoate. The major volatiles produced
from methyl linoleate hydroperoxides were 2-butenal,
methyloctanoate, methyl 9-oxononanoate, and methyl 10-
oxo-8-decenoate (60). Soybean oil containing a mixture of
oleate, linoleate, and linoleate formed 14 positional iso-
metric hydroperoxides (57,59). Durance et al. (43) per-
formed a study to reduce the linoleate content of canola-
oil blending it with sunflower oil and cottonseed oil. The
oil was stored under fluorescent light (2690 lx) at 40°C
for up to 4 d. TBA values showed a rate of oxidation upon
blending with sunflower oil.
The flavor scores of oxidized fats showed excellent
correlation with oxygen absorption and peroxide values
(50). Recently much attention has been given to the rela-
tion of sensory evaluation and volatile constituents by gas
chromatography (41,42,83,85,117,118,169,172). Flavor
stabilities of different vegetable oils to light were also
investigated. The use of filters that cut light below 500 nm
significantly improved the stability. Thus removal of chlo-
rophylls and/or the use of yellow filters may be solutions
to the deterioration problem.
436 BEKBOLET
Meat and Meat Products
Fresh Meat. Visual appearance is one of the major
criteria used by consumers to assess the quality and pal-
atability of a meat cut (21,93,100). The appearance of the
meat surface depends on the type of pigment molecule, on
its chemical state, and on the quantity of the pigment.
Most of the color differences on meat surfaces are due to
the chemical states of myoglobin molecules. The pigments
responsible for the color of meat is the haem protein
myoglobin with small amounts of haemoglobin {113). Haem
pigments possess an intense absorption band in the blue
region of the spectrum (410 - 430 nm-Soret band) (63,106).
A freshly cut beef surface rapidly changes in color from
the purple of ferrous myoglobin to the bright cherry red of
oxymyoglobin as air penetrates to a depth of about 2 mm
in less that 1 h. Metmyoglobin is the most commonly oc-
curring undesirable pigment on meat surfaces. Relative
amounts of myoglobin (mb), oxymyoglobin (MbO), and
metmyoglobin (MMb) determine the color of fresh and
frozen meat (101). The formation of the oxidized pigment
MMb from MbO on the surface of the meat leads to the
undesired brown color (79). The reaction is accepted to be
occurring in thermal and photochemical pathways. The
hues of red oxymyoglobin and brown metmyoglobin from
beef and pork are different. The percentage of metmyog-
lobin was found to be a useful objective measurement of
color in raw meat (68). It is recognized that incident light
can be an effective factor in color deterioration. The extent
of effect is dependent upon the wavelength and the inten-
sity of the light, duration of the exposure, temperature,
oxygen pressure, pH of the meat, and the presence of free
transition metal ions (4,82,122,135,144,152,157,176).
Sollberg and Franke (158) explained that a significant effect
was observed on the oxidation of intact beef muscle at 1
and 5°C upon exposure to visible fluorescent illumination.
Photosensitive compounds such as riboflavin may react
with oxygenated haem pigments. Setser et al. (152) found
that upon exposure of intact beef samples to illumination
of wavelengths in the region between 405 nm to 685 nm,
UV (254 nm) and low wavelength visible light (405 - 507
nm), there was a significant increase in metmyoglobin
content. These results were found to be in good agreement
with the results obtained by Lynch et al. (777). Whether
bacteria, light or both were the contributing factors in the
discoloration of fresh intact meat has been researched for
many years. Recent research revealed that light via en-
hancement of bacterial growth affected color deteriora-
tion. The effect of UV light on fresh meat color was found
to be significantly effective (78). Besides, UV light with
principal energy at a wavelength at 253.7 nm was effec-
tive in destroying surface bacteria of the fresh meat (161).
Sattarlee and Hansmeyer (144) investigated the role of
light and surface bacteria on prepackaged beef. The light
sources were pink and soft white fluorescent and incandes-
cent lamps. Soft white source emitted light primarily in
the region of 500 nm-590 nm, the pink fluorescent in the
region of 540 nm-565 nm, and incandescent lamps in the
region of 800 nm-1000 nm. Meat samples were stored in
JOURNAL OF FOOD PROTECTION, VOL. 53, MAY 1990
a cold room at 5°C. Total bacteria counts on the surface of
the samples were determined. Electrophoresis was used to
determine the partial destruction of the pigment molecules
by proteolytic enzymes after prolonged storage. Both
incandescent and fluorescent lamps of 2690 lx enhanced
the destruction of surface oxymyoglobin of beef. The soft
white fluorescent lamp was the most detrimental, incan-
descent was the least detrimental. Very little proteolytic
destruction of the surface pigments occurred at 5°C under
storage up to a period of 18 d, and surface bacteria counts
were in excess of 108 organisms per cm2. The effects of
retail lighting type on fresh pork color were investigated
by Calkins et al. (21). Light sources were delux cool white
(DCW), cool white, Surlyn coated (CWSC), or warm white
(WW) fluorescent or cool flood (CF) incandescent lights.
Hunter colorimeter values were recorded and percentages
of myoglobin, oxymyoglobin, and metmyoglobin were de-
termined over 5 d of display. The most desirable color re-
tention was provided by CF and DCW lights. Color dark-
ening was observed for CF lighting and greater myoglobin
and less oxymyoglobin percentages were evaluated. Eleva-
tion of surface temperature caused an increase in microbial
growth. Therefore, precautions against temperature eleva-
tion were recommended. The wavelength dependence of
quantum yields in relation to light discoloration of meat
was researched by Bertelsen and Skibsted (16). Irradiation
was carried out in the UV-visible region and the extent of
photooxidation was followed by spectrophotometric meas-
urements. Less significant wavelength dependence was
observed in the visible region. Relative rates of MMb
formation could be estimated from quantum yields evalu-
ated for two different wavelengths. The effect of fluores-
cent light on the discoloration of fresh beef was at a level
of only about 6% MMb. The effect was found to be of
little practical importance in relation to temperature changes
and differences due to intermuscular variability under normal
display conditions.
Frozen meat. Frozen meat under retail conditions suf-
fers discoloration due to light-induced reaction
(15,99,104,113). Soft-white fluorescent or yellow light of
214 lx intensity was more detrimental than red or green
fluorescent light on the oxidation of myoglobin in frozen
bovine muscle. The oxidation proceeds from the surface
inwards. The rate is found to be temperature dependent
and affected by illumination intensity and the type of muscle
(176). Lentz (104) also showed that the color of frozen
beef retains the acceptability only for 3 d in the light, and
for 3 months under dark conditions. The effect of factors
in showcase color stability of frozen lamb was researched
by Hunt et al. (82). Besides the effect of lighting, the
effects of freezing temperature, display temperature, and
packaging film were also investigated. The light-intensity
was 1070 lx at product level, the visual color of meat was
evaluated by two panelists. Chops displayed under incan-
descent lighting had more desirable visual scores but higher
metmyoglobin contents. Visual scores might have masked
the color deterioration, The color stability of retail packed
 LIGHT EFFECTS ON FOOD
frozen ground beef was investigated by Bertelson (75).
Samples were stored at -24°C, surface color was measured
with a Hunter color difference meter. Unacceptable color
was obtained after 6 to 12 d for samples with polyethylene
packaging. Vacuum packaging had no significant improve-
ment upon color stability.
Cured meat products. The nitric oxide myoglobin is
the pigment responsible for the color of uncooked cured
meat and nitric oxide myoglobin is known to be photola-
bile, Upon exposure to light it rapidly dissociates and the
formed nitric oxide reacts with oxygen if present (112).
Vacuum packaging may be helpful in improving the color
retention (113). Visual assessment of redness was found to
agree well with spectral measurements (91,92). Samples
that were studied were raw fermented sausage, Bruhwurst
sausage, and boiled ham. Sensory evaluation of the samples
revealed that illumination caused deterioration of quality.
Klettner (93) discussed the factors influencing the color
and color retention of sliced bruhwurst sausage on retail
display. Color loss was observed with respect to an in-
crease in the intensity of illumination and the type of lamp.
CONCLUSION
The studies referred to in this review clearly indicate
the deteriorative effect of light on some food groups. Recent
studies have centered on investigations of off-flavor for-
mation and packaging materials. The obvious solution of
excluding light is often not recommended for marketing
reasons. Relatively simple and inexpensive changes in
packaging materials may bring greatly reduced light-trans-
mittance that can ensure flavor quality and retention of
light-sensitive vitamins. Inclusion of a nontoxic, effective
singlet oxygen quencher in food containing unsaturated
oils may improve their shelf-life. The visual color problem
of meat and meat products can be eliminated by using
suitable light sources. Precautions like increased distance
between the light-source and the meat, reduced intensity
should be taken.
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