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Function y=f(x)
Examples:
The temperature T of this room changes with time t,
T=2t+1, T=f(t)
Classification of functions:
Algebraic functions:
Polynomial function y=x2
x2 1
Rational function y= x 1
Irrational function y= x2 1
y=x
y=-x
o x
Fig1
2
Lt f ( x) l
xa
This means that f(x) is very close to the fixed number l whenever
x is very close to a
Meaning of x a
When x approaches a but always remains less than a we say that x
approaches a from the left and we write x a or x a-0
x=1.5 x= 2.5
x=1.7 x= 2.7
x=1.9 x= 2.1
x=1.99 x= 2.01
x=1.999 x=2.001
x=1.9999 x= 2.0001
………. ………..
………. ……..…
x 2- x 2+
Meaning of Lt f ( x) l
xa
Lt x 2 4
x2
x x x2 x x x2
2- 2+
1.5 2.25 2.5 6.25
1.7 2.89 2.3 5.29
3
1.9 3.61 2.1 4.41
1.99 3.9601 2.01 4.0401
1.999 3.996001 2.001 4.004001
1.9999 3.99960001 2.0001 4.00040001
1.99999 3.9999600001 2.00001 4.0000400001
………. …………… ……. ………. …………….
y
y=x2
4
o x
1 2
Fig2
Lt x 2 4
x 2
Lt x 2 4
x2
Lt x 2 4
x2
Lt f ( x) l
xa
Lt f ( x) l
xa
Lt f ( x) l
xa
1) Polynomial function Lt x 2 3 7
x2
1
2) Lt
x2 x 2
sin x 0
3) Lt
x0 x 0
indeterminate forms
4
4) Interval wise defined functions
Ex. A function f(x) is defined as follows:
x x 0
f ( x) 0 x 0
x x 0
Find Lt f ( x )
x0
Lf (0) = Lt f ( x) = Lt ( x ) =0
x 0 x 0
Rf (0) = Lt f ( x) = Lt x =0
x 0 x 0
Lf (0) = Rf (0) =0 x
Lt f ( x ) =0
0
y=x
y=-x
o x
Fig3
Find xLt f ( x)
1
2
Lf (1) = Lt f ( x) = Lt x =1
x 1 x 1
Rf (1) = Lt f ( x) = Lt x 2 2 =3
x 1 x 1
Lf (1) Rf (1) x
Lt f ( x) does not exist
1
5
y
o 1 x
Fig4
or, Lf(a)=Rf(a)=f(a)
y
y=f(x)
o x
6
y
y=f(x)
o x
Fig5
1
2. Test the continuity of the curve y= x 1 at x=1.
1 1
Lf(1)= xLt
1
x 1
= Rf(1)= Lt
x 1 x 1
= f(1)=
Limit does not exist at x=1 The function is not continuous at x=1
Lf (0) = Lt f ( x) = Lt ( x ) =0
x 0 x 0
Rf (0) = Lt f ( x) = x 0
Lt x =0 f (0) =0
x 0
Lf(0)=Rf(0)=f(0)
y=x
y=-x
7
o x
Fig6
o 1 x
Fig7
8
Differentiability of a function y=f(x)
y f ( x h) f ( x) f ( x h) f ( x)
x xhx h
dy y f ( x h) f ( x )
Lt Lt
dx h0 x h0 h
f ( x h) f ( x )
Rf (x ) = Lt
h 0 h
y
(x+ x ,y+ y
(x,y) )y
x
f(x) f(x+h)
o x =h x
Fig8
y f ( x ) f ( x h) f ( x h) f ( x )
x x ( x h) h
dy y f ( x h) f ( x )
Lt Lt
dx h0 x h0 h
f ( x h) f ( x )
Lf (x) = Lt
h 0 h
y
(x,y)
(x- x ,y- y ) y
x
f(x-h) f(x)
o x =h x
Fig9
9
For any point x=a
dy f ( a h) f ( a )
Lf (a ) = Lt
dx h0 h
dy f ( a h) f ( a )
Rf (a ) = Lt
dx h0 h
f (0 h) f (0) f ( h ) f ( 0) ( h) 0
Lf (0) = Lt = Lt = =-1
h 0 h h 0 h h
f (0 h) f (0) f ( h ) f ( 0) h 0
Rf (0) = Lt = Lt = h =1
h 0 h h 0 h
y=x
y=-x
o x
Fig10
10
x 0 x 1
f ( x) 2 x 1 x 2
1
x x 2
x 2
2
at x=1
f (1 h) f (1) 1 h 1 Lt h =1
Lf (1) = Lt = Lt =
h 0 h h 0 h h 0 h
f (1 h) f (1) 2 (1 h) 1 Lt h
Rf (1) = Lt = Lt = h0 h =-1
h0 h h 0 h
Lf (1) Rf (1) f (1) does not exist The function is not
differentiable at x=1
at x=2
f (2 h) f (2) 2 ( 2 h) 0 h
Lf ( 2) = Lt = hLt0 = =-1
h 0 h
h h
1 1
f ( 2 h ) f ( 2) 2 h ( 2 h ) 2
0 Lt h h2
Rf (2) = Lt = Lt 2 = h0 2 =
h 0 h h
h0
h
Lt 1
h 0
-1- 2 h =-1
y=x
o x
1 2
Fig11
11
3. Test the differentiability of the function y=f(x) at x=1 where
x 2 x 1
f ( x) 2.5 x 1
x
2
2 x 1
f (1 h) f (1) (1 h) 2 2.5
Lf (1) = Lt = h0
Lt
h 0 h h
Lt 1.5 2h h 1 .5
2
= Lt (
= h0
2 h )=
h 0 h h
f (1 h) f (1) (1 h) 2 2 2.5
Rf (1) = Lt = Lt
h0 h h 0 h
0.5 2h h 2 0.5
Lt
= h0
Lt (
= h0
2 h )=
h h
Rf (1) and Lf (1)
do not exist therefore f (1) does not exist. The
function is not differentiable at x=1
o 1 x
Fig12
1. Find the limit and test the continuity and differentiability of the
function at x=0.
Give a rough sketch of the curve
12
x x 0
f ( x) 0 x 0
x x 0
Find Lt f ( x)
x 0
Lf (0) = Lt f ( x) = Lt ( x ) =0
x 0 x 0
Rf (0) = Lt f ( x) = Lt x =0
x 0 x 0
Lf (0) = Rf (0) =0 x
Lt f ( x ) =0
0
Rf (0) = Lt f ( x ) Lt x =0
= x0
x 0
f (0) =0
y=x
y=-x
o x
13
Fig13
2. Find the limit and test the continuity and differentiability of the
function at the given point. Give a rough sketch of the curve.
, at x=0 and 1
x x 0
f ( x) x 0 x 1
2
1
x 2 x
1 x 0
at x=0,1
f ( x) 1 sin x 0 x
2
2 (x
2
) x
2 2
at 0,
3
f ( x) 3 2x 0 x
2
3 2x
x
3
2
2
(vii) at x=-1,0 (viii)
1 x 4 x 1
f ( x) 4 1 x 0
4
2
x 0 x 4
at x=-1,2
x 0 x 1
f ( x) x
2
1 x 2
x
3
2 x 3
Lt f (a h) f (a )
h 0
Lt f ( x) f (a)
xa
Lt f (x) = Lt f ( x) f (a)
xa xa
14
The converse is not true which is shown by an example
x x 0
f ( x) 0 x 0
x x 0
Continuity at x=0
Lf (0) = Lt f ( x ) = Lt ( x ) =0
x 0 x 0
Rf (0) = Lt f ( x) = x 0
Lt x =0
x 0
f (0) =0
Differentiability at x=0
f (0 h) f (0) f ( h ) f ( 0) ( h) 0
Lf (0) = Lt = Lt = =-1
h 0 h h 0 h h
f (0 h) f (0) f ( h ) f ( 0) h 0
Rf (0) = Lt = Lt = h =1
h 0 h h 0 h
dy
Meaning of dx
1. Geometrical meaning
dy
dx
=tan =slope of the tangent to the curve y=f(x) at any point
(x,y) where is the angle made by the tangent with the positive x-
axis
2. Mathematical meaning
y f (x ) y y f ( x x) y f ( x x) f ( x)
dy y f ( x x) f ( x)
Lt Lt
dx x 0 x x 0 x
dy f ( x h) f ( x )
Lt
dx h 0 h
, h x
15
dy
If y=x2 find dx
dy ( x h) 2 x 2 Lt
Lt
dx h0 h
= h 0 2x+h=2x
dy dy dy
If y=x2 find dx
at x=3, dx
=2x, at x=3, dx
=6
dy
dx
=instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x
y
x
=average rate of change of y with respect to x
at x=3, y=9
at x=3.5, y=12.25
y 3.25 x 0.5
y 3.25
x
= 0 .5
=6.5
at x=3, y=9
at x=3.1, y=9.61
y 0.61 x 0.1
y 0.61
x
= 0.1 =6.1
at x=3, y=9
at x=3.01, y=9.0601
y 0.0601 x 0.01
y 0.0601
x
= 0.01
=6.01
at x=3, y=9
at x=3.001, y=9.006001
y 0.006001 x 0.001
y 0.006001
x
= 0.001
=6.001
at x=3, y=9
at x=3.0001, y=9.00060001
y 0.00060001 x 0.0001
16
y 0.00060001
x
= 0.0001
=6.0001
at x=3, y=9
at x=3.00001, y=9.0000600001
y 0.0000600001 x 0.00001
y 0.0000600001
x
= 0.00001
=6.00001
at x=3, y=9
at x=3.000001, y=9.000006000001
y 0.000006000001 x 0.000001
y 0.000006000001
x
= 0.000001
=6.000001
y dy
Lt
x 0 x
=6 dx
=6
3. Physical meaning
1
s=ut+ 2 ft2 s=16t2
ds ds dy
If s=16t2 find dt
at t=3, dt
=32t, at t=3, dx
=96
ds
dt
=instantaneous rate of change of s with respect to t=
instantaneous velocity
s
t
=average rate of change of s with respect to t = average velocity
s=16t2
t=1 s=16
17
t=2 s=64
t=3 s=144
t=3.01 s=144.9616
t=3.1 s=153.76
fig14
at t=3, s=144
at t=3.5, s=196
s 52 t 0.5
s 52
t
= 0.5 =104
at t=3, s=144
at t=3.1, s=153.76
s 9.6 t 0.1
s 9.76
t
= 0.1
=97.6
at t=3, s=144
at t=3.01, s=144.9616
s 0.9616 t 0.01
s 0.9616
t
= 0.01
=96.16
at t=3, s=144
at t=3.001, s=144.096016
s 0.096016 t 0.001
s 0.096016
t
= 0.001
=96.016
at t=3, s=144
18
at t=3.0001, s=144.00960016
s 0.00960016 t 0.0001
s 0.00960016
t
= 0.0001
=96.0016
at t=3, s=144
at t=3.00001, s=144.0009600016
s 0.0009600016 t 0.00001
s 0.0009600016
t
= 0.00001
=96.00016
s ds
Lt
t 0 t
=96 dt
=96
s 144 s s
Average vel.= t
= 3
=48 t
104
t
97.6 ................
ds
Instantaneous vel. at t=3 is dt
=96
If functions are the flesh and blood of calculus then limit is its
life
19