A computer network is a group of interconnected computers.

Local Area Network (LAN)

A network covering a small geographic area, like a home, office, or building. Current LANs are most likely
to be based on Ethernet technology. For example, a library may have a wired or wireless LAN for users to
interconnect local devices (e.g., printers and servers) and to connect to the internet. On a wired LAN, PCs in
the library are typically connected by category 5 (Cat5) cable, running the IEEE 802.3 protocol through a
system of interconnection devices and eventually connect to the internet. The cables to the servers are
typically on Cat 5e enhanced cable, which will support IEEE 802.3 at 1 Gbit/s. A wireless LAN may exist
using a different IEEE protocol, 802.11b or 802.11g. The staff computers (bright green in the figure) can get
to the color printer, checkout records, and the academic network and the Internet. All user computers can get
to the Internet and the card catalog. Each workgroup can get to its local printer. Note that the printers are not
accessible from outside their workgroup.

Typical library network, in a branching tree topology and controlled access to resources

All interconnected devices must understand the network layer (layer 3), because they are handling multiple
subnets (the different colors). Those inside the library, which have only 10/100 Mbit/s Ethernet connections
to the user device and a Gigabit Ethernet connection to the central router, could be called "layer 3 switches"
because they only have Ethernet interfaces and must understand IP. It would be more correct to call them
access routers, where the router at the top is a distribution router that connects to the Internet and academic
networks' customer access routers.

The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to WANs (wide area networks), include their higher data
transfer rates, smaller geographic range, and lack of a need for leased telecommunication lines. Current
Ethernet or other IEEE 802.3 LAN technologies operate at speeds up to 10 Gbit/s. This is the data transfer
rate. IEEE has projects investigating the standardization of 100 Gbit/s, and possibly 40 Gbit/s.
Metropolitan area network
Metropolitan area networks, or MANs, are large computer networks usually spanning a city. They
typically use wireless infrastructure or Optical fiber connections to link their sites.

IEEE definition

The IEEE 802-2001 standard describes a MAN as being:

A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks of
“ buildings to entire cities. MANs can also depend on communications channels of moderate-to-
high data rates. A MAN might be owned and operated by a single organization, but it usually
will be used by many individuals and organizations. MANs might also be owned and operated as
public utilities. They will often provide means for internetworking of local networks.
Metropolitan area networks can span up to 50km, devices used are modem and wire/cable ”
Authors Kenneth C. Laudon and Jane P. Laudon of Management Information Systems: Managing the
Digital Firm 10th ed. define Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN) as:

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a large computer network that spans a metopolitan area
“ or campus. Its geographic scope falls between a WAN and LAN. MAns provide Internet
connectivity for LANs in a metropolitan region, and connect them to wider area networks like
the Internet. ”

Wide area network

Wide Area Network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a broad area (i.e., any network whose
communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries ). Or, less formally, a network
that uses routers and public communications links. Contrast with personal area networks (PANs), local area
networks (LANs), campus area networks (CANs), or metropolitan area networks (MANs) which are usually
limited to a room, building, campus or specific metropolitan area (e.g., a city) respectively. The largest and
most well-known example of a WAN is the Internet.

WANs [a] are used to connect LANs and other types of networks together, so that users and computers in
one location can communicate with users and computers in other locations. Many WANs are built for one
particular organization and are private. Others, built by Internet service providers, provide connections from
an organization's LAN to the Internet. WANs are often built using leased lines. At each end of the leased
line, a router connects to the LAN on one side and a hub within the WAN on the other. Leased lines can be
very expensive. Instead of using leased lines, WANs can also be built using less costly circuit switching or
packet switching methods. Network protocols including TCP/IP deliver transport and addressing functions.
Protocols including Packet over SONET/SDH, MPLS, ATM and Frame relay are often used by service
providers to deliver the links that are used in WANs. X.25 was an important early WAN protocol, and is
often considered to be the "grandfather" of Frame Relay as many of the underlying protocols and functions
of X.25 are still in use today (with upgrades) by Frame Relay.

Academic research into wide area networks can be broken down into three areas: Mathematical models,
network emulation and network simulation.

Performance improvements are sometimes delivered via WAFS or WAN Optimization.

Several options are available for WAN connectivity:

 Sample
Bandwidth
Option: Description Advantages Disadvantages protocols
range
used

PPP,
Point-to-Point connection between
Leased HDLC,
two computers or Local Area Most secure Expensive
line SDLC,
Networks (LANs)
HNAS

A dedicated circuit path is created

Circuit 28 Kb/s -
between end points. Best example Less Expensive Call Setup PPP, ISDN
switching 144 Kb/s
is dialup connections

Devices transport packets via a

shared single point-to-point or
point-to-multipoint link across a X.25
Packet Shared media
carrier internetwork. Variable Frame-
switching across link
length packets are transmitted over Relay
Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVC)
or Switched Virtual Circuits (SVC)

Similar to packet switching, but

uses fixed length cells instead of best for
variable length packets. Data is simultaneous Overhead can be
Cell relay ATM
divided into fixed-length cells and use of Voice and considerable
then transported across virtual data
circuits

Transmission rate usually range from 1200 bits/second to 6 Mbit/s, although some connections such as ATM
and Leased lines can reach speeds greater than 156 Mbit/s. Typical communication links used in WANs are
telephone lines, microwave links & satellite channels.

Recently with the proliferation of low cost of Internet connectivity many companies and organizations have
turned to VPN to interconnect their networks, creating a WAN in that way. Companies such as Cisco, New
Edge Networks and Check Point offer solutions to create VPN networks.

Network topology

Physical topologies

The mapping of the nodes of a network and the physical connections between them – i.e., the layout of
wiring, cables, the locations of nodes, and the interconnections between the nodes and the cabling or wiring
system.
Computer networks may be classified according to the network topology upon which the network is based,
such as Bus network, Star network, Ring network, Mesh network, Star-bus network, Tree or Hierarchical
topology network, etc.

Network Topology signifies the way in which devices in the network see their logical relations to one
another. The use of the term "logical" here is significant. That is, network topology is independent of the
"physical" layout of the network. Even if networked computers are physically placed in a linear
arrangement, if they are connected via a hub, the network has a Star topology, rather than a Bus Topology.
In this regard the visual and operational characteristics of a network are distinct; the logical network
topology is not necessarily the same as the physical layout.

Bus network
A bus network topology is a network architecture in which a set of clients are connected via a shared
communications line, called a bus. There are several common instances of the bus architecture, including
one in the motherboard of most computers, and those in some versions of Ethernet networks.

Bus networks are the simplest way to connect multiple clients, but often have problems when two clients
want to transmit at the same time on the same bus. Thus systems which use bus network architectures
normally have some scheme of collision handling or collision avoidance for communication on the bus,
quite often using Carrier Sense Multiple Access or the presence of a bus master which controls access to the
shared bus resource.

A true bus network is passive – the computers on the bus simply listen for a signal; they are not responsible
for moving the signal along. However, many active architectures can also be described as a "bus", as they
provide the same logical functions as a passive bus; for example, switched Ethernet can still be regarded as a
logical bus network, if not a physical one. Indeed, the hardware may be abstracted away completely in the
case of a software bus.

With the dominance of switched Ethernet over passive Ethernet, passive bus networks are uncommon in
wired networks. However, almost all current wireless networks can be viewed as examples of passive bus
networks, with radio propagation serving as the shared passive medium.

The bus topology makes the addition of new devices straightforward. The term used to describe clients is
station or workstation in this type of network. Bus network topology uses a broadcast channel which means
that all attached stations can hear every transmission and all stations have equal priority in using the network
to transmit data.

Advantages and disadvantages of a bus network

Advantages

• Easy to implement and extend

• Requires less cable length than a star topology
• Well suited for temporary or small networks not requiring high speeds (quick setup)
• Cheaper than other topologies.
• Cost effective as only a single cable is used.

Disadvantages

Limited cable length and number of stations.

• If there is a problem with the cable, the entire network goes down.
• Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run.
 • Performance degrades as additional computers are added or on heavy traffic.
• Proper termination is required (loop must be in closed path).
• Significant Capacitive Load (each bus transaction must be able to stretch to most distant link).
• It works best with limited number of nodes.
• It is slower than the other topologies.
• If one computer is down then the entire network will go down.

Star networks are one of the most common computer network topologies. In its simplest form, a star
network consists of one central switch, hub or computer, which acts as a conduit to transmit messages. If the
central node is passive, the originating node must be able to tolerate the reception of an echo of its own
transmission, delayed by the two-way transmission time (i.e. to and from the central node) plus any delay
generated in the central node. An active star network has an active central node that usually has the means to
prevent echo-related problems.

The star topology reduces the chance of network failure by connecting all of the systems to a central node.
When applied to a bus-based network, this central hub rebroadcasts all transmissions received from any
peripheral node to all peripheral nodes on the network, sometimes including the originating node. All
peripheral nodes may thus communicate with all others by transmitting to, and receiving from, the central
node only. The failure of a transmission line linking any peripheral node to the central node will result in the
isolation of that peripheral node from all others, but the rest of the systems will be unaffected.

Advantages

• Better performance: Passing of Data Packet through unnecessary nodes is prevented by this
topology. At most 3 devices and 2 links are involved in any communication between any two devices
which are part of this topology. This topology induces a huge overhead on the central hub, however
if the central hub has adequate capacity, then very high network utilization by one device in the
network does not affect the other devices in the network.
• Isolation of devices: Each device is inherently isolated by the link that connects it to the hub. This
makes the isolation of the individual devices fairly straightforward, and amounts to disconnecting the
device from the hub. This isolated nature also prevents any non-centralized failure to affect the
network.
• Benefits from centralization: As the central hub is the bottleneck, increasing capacity of the central
hub or adding additional devices to the star, can help scale the network very easily. The central
nature also allows the inspection traffic through the network. This can help analyze all the traffic in
the network and determine suspicious behavior.
• Simplicity: The topology is easy to understand, establish, and navigate. The simple topology
obviates the need for complex routing or message passing protocols. As noted earlier, the isolation
and centralization simplifies fault detection, as each link or device can be probed individually.

Disadvantages

The primary disadvantage of a star topology is the high dependence of the system on the functioning of the
central hub. While the failure of an individual link only results in the isolation of a single node, the failure of
the central hub renders the network inoperable, immediately isolating all nodes. The performance and
scalability of the network also depend on the capabilities of the hub. Network size is limited by the number
of connections that can be made to the hub, and performance for the entire network is capped by its
throughput. While in theory traffic between the hub and a node is isolated from other nodes on the network,
other nodes may see a performance drop if traffic to another node occupies a significant portion of the
central node's processing capability or throughput. Furthermore, wiring up of the system can be very
complex.
A ring network is a network topology in which each node connects to exactly two other nodes, forming a
circular pathway for signals - a ring. Data travels from node to node, with each node handling every packet.

Because a ring topology provides only one pathway between any two nodes, ring networks may be disrupted
by the failure of a single link. A node failure or cable break might isolate every node attached to the ring.
FDDI networks overcome this vulnerability by sending data on a clockwise and a counterclockwise ring: in
the event of a break data is wrapped back onto the complementary ring before it reaches the end of the cable,
maintaining a path to every node along the resulting "C-Ring". 802.5 networks -- also known as IBM Token
Ring networks -- avoid the weakness of a ring topology altogether: they actually use a star topology at the
physical layer and a Multistation Access Unit to imitate a ring at the datalink layer.

Many ring networks add a "counter-rotating ring" to form redundant topologies. Such "dual ring" networks
include Spatial Reuse Protocol, fiber distributed data interface, and Resilient Packet Ring.

Advantages

• Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the opportunity to transmit
• Performs better than a star topology under heavy network load
• Can create much larger network using Token Ring
• Does not require network server to manage the connectivity between the computers

Disadvantages

• One malfunctioning workstation or bad port can create problems for the entire network
• Moves, adds and changes of devices can affect the network
• Network adapter cards are much more expensive than Ethernet cards and hubs
• Much slower than an Ethernet network under normal load
Misconceptions

• "Token Ring is an example of a ring topology." 802.5 (Token Ring) networks do not use a ring
topology at layer 1. As explained above, IBM Token Ring (802.5) networks imitate a ring at layer 2
but use a physical star at layer 1.
• "Rings prevent collisions." The term "ring" only refers to the layout of the cables. It is true that there
are no collisions on an IBM Token Ring, but this is because of the layer 2 Media Access Control
method, not the physical topology (which again is a star, not a ring.) Token passing, not rings,
prevent collisions.
• "Token passing happens on rings." Token passing is a way of managing access to the cable,
implemented at the MAC sublayer of layer 2. Ring topology is the cable layout at layer one. It is
possible to do token passing on a bus (802.4) a star (802.5) or a ring (FDDI). Token passing is not
restricted to rings.

Mesh networking is a way to route data, voice and instructions between nodes. It allows for continuous
connections and reconfiguration around broken or blocked paths by “hopping” from node to node until the
destination is reached. A mesh network whose nodes are all connected to each other is a fully connected
network. Mesh networks differ from other networks in that the component parts can all connect to each other
via multiple hops, and they generally are not mobile. Mesh networks can be seen as one type of ad hoc
network. Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), and mesh networks are therefore closely related, but
MANETs also have to deal with the problems introduced by the mobility of the nodes.

Mesh networks are self-healing: the network can still operate even when a node breaks down or a
connection goes bad. As a result, a very reliable network is formed. This concept is applicable to wireless
networks, wired networks, and software interaction.

Wireless mesh networks is the most typical application of mesh architectures. Wireless mesh was originally
developed for military applications but have undergone significant evolution in the past decade. As the cost
of radios plummeted, single radio products evolved to support more radios per mesh node with the
additional radios providing specific functions- such as client access, backhaul service or scanning radios for
high speed handover in mobility applications. The mesh node design also became more modular - one box
could support multiple radio cards - each operating at a different frequency.
Tree (also known as hierarchical):
The type of network topology in which a central 'root' node (the top level of the hierarchy) is
connected to one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the second level)
with a point-to-point link between each of the second level nodes and the top level central 'root'
node, while each of the second level nodes that are connected to the top level central 'root' node will
also have one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the third level)
connected to it, also with a point-to-point link, the top level central 'root' node being the only node
that has no other node above it in the hierarchy – the hierarchy of the tree is symmetrical, each node
in the network having a specific fixed number, f, of nodes connected to it at the next lower level in
the hierarchy, the number, f, being referred to as the 'branching factor' of the hierarchical tree.
Notes:
1.) A network that is based upon the physical hierarchical topology must have at least three levels in
the hierarchy of the tree, since a network with a central 'root' node and only one hierarchical level
below it would exhibit the physical topology of a star.
2.) A network that is based upon the physical hierarchical topology and with a branching factor of 1
would be classified as a physical linear topology.
3.) The branching factor, f, is independent of the total number of nodes in the network and, therefore,
if the nodes in the network require ports for connection to other nodes the total number of ports per
node may be kept low even though the total number of nodes is large – this makes the effect of the
cost of adding ports to each node totally dependent upon the branching factor and may therefore be
kept as low as required without any effect upon the total number of nodes that are possible.
4.) The total number of point-to-point links in a network that is based upon the physical hierarchical
topology will be one less than the total number of nodes in the network.
5.) If the nodes in a network that is based upon the physical hierarchical topology are required to
perform any processing upon the data that is transmitted between nodes in the network, the nodes
that are at higher levels in the hierarchy will be required to perform more processing operations on
behalf of other nodes than the nodes that are lower in the hierarchy.
Images- Computer network
Distributed system (with authorization and firewalls)

Client server network

Peer to peer network
Wearable computer

Wireless personal area network

Bluetooth is designed as a Personal Area Network (PAN) solution — designed to transmit low volumes of
data between very close devices — as opposed to Local Area Network (LAN)— which carry high volumes
of data between potentially widely seperated devices. In other words, Bluetooth is designed as a wireless
version of USB, rather than a wireless version of Ethernet.

Inter network
Hub

Router
Wireless network