CLASSIIC REPRIINT SIERIIES

A COURSE OF PURE MATHEMATICS

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P RE MATHEMATICS

A COURSE OF

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C. F. CLAY, ~lAXAGER LOI\DOX : FETTER LAXE, E.C. 4

CA11 RIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

NE~ YORK: THE MACM1LLAX CO.

BOM AY }

CAL UTTA MACIIHLLAN AND CO'I LTD.

MADRAS ,

TOR XTO : THE !llACMTLLAN CO. OF CA:"fADA, LTD.

TOK '0; MARUZEN·KABUSHIK[·KAISHA

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

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A COURSF.

OF

PURE MA THEMA TI S

EY

G. H. IjARDY, M.A., F.R,S.

FELLOW OF NEW COLLEGE

SAVILIA~ PROFESSOR OF GEOMETRY IN THE UNIVERSITY oi<' OXFORD

LATE FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE

THIRD EDITION

Cambridge

at the University Press

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Pint .Rdftion 1908 Second Edition HIH ']' hird E diiio» HI~l

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PREFACE TO THE THIRD E ITION

No extensive changes have been made in this ition, The most important are in §§ 80-82, which I have rewritten in accordance with sllggestions made by 111' S. Pollard.

'l'he earlier editions contained no sabiefacbo account of the

gene8is of the circular functions. I have made some attempt to meet this objection in § 158 and Appendix III. A pendix IV is also an add i tion.

h is curious to note how the character of the criticisms I have had to meet has changed. I was too meticulou and pedantic for my pupils of fifteen years ago: I am altogether t 0 popular for the Trinity scholar of to-day. I need hardly say hat 1 find such criticisms very gratifying, as the best evidence t at the book has to some extent fulfilled the purpose with which it was written.

G.B,H.

EXTRACT FROThI THE PREF

..

THE SECOND EDITIO

THE principal changes made in this editio are as follows. I have inserted in Chapter I a sketch of edekind's theory of real numbers, and a proof of Weierstrass's th orem concerning points of condensation; in Chapter IVan sec unt of 'limits of" indetermination' and the' general principle of convergence '; in Chapter V a proof of the' Heine-Borel Theorem Heine's theorem concerning uniform continuity, and the fund mental theorem concerning implicit functions; in Chapter VI some additional matter concerning the integration of algebraic I functions j and in Chapter VII a section on differentials. I h e also rewritten in a more general form the sections which dea with the definition of the definite integral. In order to fin space for these insertions I have deleted a good deal of the an lyrical geometry and formal trigonometry contained in Cbapte s II and III of the first edition, These changes have natu ally involved a large number of minor alterations.

G.R.H.

OctobfJr 1914

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EXTRAOT FRO}'1 THE PREF OE TO THE FIRST EDITION

THIS book has been designed primarily for the use of first year students at the Universities wh se abilities reach or approach something like what is usually des ibed as • scholarship standard', I hope that it may be useful to other classes of readers, but it is this class whose wants I ave considered first. It is in any case a book for mathematicia s: I have nowhere made any attempt to meet the needs of stu ents of engineering or indeed any class of students whose intere ts are not primarily mathematical.

I regard the book as being really ele icntary. There are plenty of hard examples (mainly at the ends of the chapters): to these I have added, wherever space permitt d, an outline of the solution. But I have done my best to a aid the inclusion of anything that involves really difficult ideas. i or instance, I make no use of the' principle of convergence': niform convergence, double series, infinite products, are never all ded to: and I prove no general theorems whatever concerning th in version of limit-

'02/ '0

operations-I never even define ~ and ':l • In the last two

U.'CvY UY $

chapters I have occasion once or twice to inte rate a power-series, but I have confined myself to the very sim lest cases and given a, special discussion in each instance. Anyo e who has read this book will be in a position to rend with P ant Dr Bromwich's Infinite Series, where a. full and adequate di cession of all these points win be found.

September 1908

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SECT, 1-2. 3-7. 8.

9. 10-11. 12. 13-14. 15.

16. 17.

18.

19.

20. 21. 2,2.

\

23.

24-25. 26-'27. 28-29. 30.

31.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

nEAL VARIABLES

l'AGE 1 3 13 15 17 19 19 23 26 27 29 30

31

38 41 4:l 44 47

49 52 li8

(HI

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Ratio al numbers. nal numbers umbers

Relati ns of magnitude between real numbers Algeb -aical operations with real numbers

The umber '2

Quadl atic surds •

'I'he ontinuum

The ontinuous real variable

Secti ns of the real numbers, Dedekind's Theorem. Poin of condensation,

'Y cie trass'e 'I'heore: n .

~. iscellaneous Examples

Decimals, 1. Gauss's Theorem, 6, Graphical solution of quadratic sqnationa, 20 Importa'in inequalities, 32. Arithmetical and geometrical means, 32. Sehwnl'z's Inequality, 33. Cubic and other surds, 34. Algebra.iclll n mbers, 36.

CHAPTER JI

}'U~CTIONS OF REAL VAnT.o\BLES The i ea of a. function.

Tbe -aphical representation of functions. Coordinates

Polar coord inatss .

Poly mials ,

Ratio al functions

Alge raical functious

Tran cendental functions

Grap ical solution of equations

Func ions of two variables and their graphical rcpre·

6 ntation

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nll

SECT.

32. 33.

34-:38. 39-42. 43.

4-4,

45.

46. 47-49.

50.

51.

52. 53~,)7. 58-61. 62. 63---68. 69-70. 71.

72

73.

·74.

75. 76-77. 78.

Curves in a pI ne Loci in space

Miseellane us Examples

Trigonometrital fun tions, 5~. Arithmetical functious, 55. Cylinders, 62. Contour maps, 62 Cones, 63. Surfaces of revolution, 63. Ruled surfaces, 64. Geome rlcal constructicns fo)' irrational numbers, 66. Quadrature of the eire! , 68.

60 61.

65

OHAPTER III

COMPLEX XUMDEns

Displacements Complex num ers ,

Tho quadratic equation with real coefficients Argand's diagram .

de Moivre's T corcru . ..i

Rational functjons of a complex 'varia-ble Roots of comp ex numbers.

Miscellanc ItS Examples

09 78 81 Sol 86 88 91::1

101

Properties of Q trian Is, 90, 101. Equations with complex coefficients, 91. Coaxal circles, 93, Bilinear and other traosformations, 94, 97, 104. Orosa ratios, 96. COD rtiou tha.t four points should be conoyclic, 97. Complex function 8 of a ell. 1 variable, 97. Oonstructio n of regular polygons by Euclidean methods, 00. Imaginary points and lines, 103.

CHAPTER IV

LnrITS OF FUNC IOXS OF A POSITIVE INTEGRAL VARIABLI!:

Functions of positive integral varia ble

Interpolation

Finite and inn ito classes .

Properties pOSB sed by a function of tt for large values of n Definition of a limit, and other definitions ,~'

O!:lcillating fun tiona

General theore a concerning limits Steadily inoro sing or decreasing functions Alternative p of of "Teien,trass's Theorem The limit of •

106 107 108 109 I1G 121

I 'J"}

I ~,

]:11

1;~4 134-

I)"

Tbe limit of l+n .

Some algebrai 1 lemmas

The limit of 11 Wz-1). Infinite series

1'37

'\

1 ;)'9

139 140 14.3

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sscr. 79.

80. Bl.

B;], 83.:..a4. 85-86. 87-88,

89-92. 93-9i. 98-99. 100-104.

105-106, 107, 108-109.

CONTENTS

PAGE

IX

The representation of functions of a co tinuous real variable

by means of limits 147

The bounds of a. bounded aggregate 149

The hounds of a bounded function 149

TIle limits of indetcrmina tion of a 001.'1 ded fu nc tiou • 100

The general principle of convergence • 15l

Limits of complex functions and serie of complex terms. 15::1

Applicatlons to z" and tho geometries series 15t)

Miscellaneous Examples

167

Oscillation of eiu1!O"., 121, 123, 151. Limits of nkxn, :.tx, :.tn, {!{nl), ~~, (~) ~!I, 136, 139. Decimals, 143. Ati tbmetic series, 146. Rarmonl.c!ll series, 147. Equation X,o+l =!(:r, .. ), 158. Expo.nsi nit of rational functions, 159. Limit of 11 menn value, 160.

CHAPTER V

LUIlTS OF FUNCTIONS OF A CONTINUOUS V A!\D DISCONTIXUOUS FUNC 10:o;'S

CONTINUOUS

Limits as .'1:_ a) or x...,.. - a) Limits as x_ a .

Continuous functions of a real Properties of conti 11 uous tu nctions, Bound od functions.

The oscillatiou of a function in a interval

Set"! of intervals on a line, The Hei c-Borel Theorem Continuous functions of several varia IC>i

Implicit and inverse functions

Miscellaneous Example"!

162 165 174

179 185 190 191 19-1

Limits and coutinuitj' of polynomials nod rat onal functions, 169, 176 . .:t1ll-a"l

Limit of --,171. Orders of smullness and greatness, 172. Limit of x-a

sill X ,173. Inflnity of a Iunetion, )77. Continu tyofMS$andsin:1:, 177. a:

Olasaifica tion of d iscontioui ties, 178.

CHAPTER VI

DERIVA'I'IV~S AND I~TEG ALB

110-112. Derivatives

113. General rules for differentiation,

114. 115. 1113, 117. 118,

Derivatives of complex functions

The notation of the differential cslcul !OJ Differentiation of polynomials Differentiation of rational functions • Differentiation of slgebraical functions

19?" 203 205 205 207 20D 210.

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SF.CT.

1W.

120.

J21. 122-124. ]23-126. 127-128. El9. 130-131. 132-139.

140-144. 145.

146.

CONTEXTS

Differentiation of transcendental functions. Repeated differentiation

General theorems concerning derivatives. Rolle's Theor t Maxima and minima' .

Tbe Mean Value Theorem . Integration. The logarithmic function Integration of polynomials . Integration of rational functions

Integration of algebraical functions.

rationalisation. Intezrabion bv narts Integration of transcendental ftlneti~ris Areas of plane curves,

Lengths of plane curves

1\1 isce llaneous Examples

Integration

- .

PAOE 212 214 2[7 2]8 226 228 23i! 23:3

s

236 245 249 251

253

Derivative of xm, 201. Dcrivati ves of cos x and sin x, 201. Tn- gent and normal to I> curve, 201, 214. Multiple roots of equations, 203, '255. Rolle's Theorem for polyuomials, 209. Leibniz' Theorem, 215. M. ima and minim:'.L ot the quotient of two qua-dratio.~, 223, 256. Axes of a c nic, 226, LengthA and areas in polar coordinates, 253. Differentiation of a determinllnt,254. Extensious of the Mean Value Theorem, 2;58. For ulae of reduction, 259.

CHAPl'ER VII

!"DDITIONAL TUEORE)[S IN THE DIFFEREXTIAL AXD fNTEGRA L C LCULL'S

147.

l43.

l49,

l50.

l51. lC,2-154. l55. If>G-IGL lG2.

l63.

l64.

Taylor's 'Ibeoreru . Taylor's Series

Applications of Taylor-s Theoremto maxima and minima Applicatioua of Taylor's Theorem to the calculation of liml s The contact of plane curves

Differentiation of functions of several variables. Differentials .

Definite Integrals. Areas of curves Alternative proof of Taylor':'! 'I'heorem Application to the binomial series Integrals of complex functions

Miscellaneous Examples

262 266 268 268 270 274 2eO 283 298 299 209

300

Newtoll'S method of upproximation to the roots of equations, 2135.

Series for cos x and aia x, 267. Binornial series, 2137. Ta.ngent to a e rve, 272, 263, 303. Points of i nflexiou, 272. Curvature, 273, 302. Oscul ting conics, 274" a02. Differentiation of impJic it function 8, 283, Fou ier's integrals, 290, 29<1. The second mean value theo!:~ml 29fi, Homogen ous functions, 302. Euler's Theorem, 302. J acobiaue, 303. Sch ws ra' inequality for integrals, 306. AplJ[oxim!l te values of definite integrals, 301. Simpson's Rule, 607.

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'i'HIt CONVF. GE~CE OF INFINl1'E SERIES AND INFINITE INTHORAU

CONTENTS

Xl

CHAPTER VIII

,eCT. :r.\oe
165-168. Series of positive terms, Cauchy's and d'Alembert's tests
0 convergence 308
169, Dirioh et's Theorem 313
170. :Multi lication of series of positive t ei-rus 313
171-174- Furth r tests of convergence. Abel's Tbeorem. Maclaurin's
. tegral test 315
175. The s ries ~ n-' 319
176. Cauch 's condcnsation test 320
177-182, Infini e integrals . 321
183. Series of positive and negative terms. 335
l84.-185. Absol tely convergent series 336
186-187, Condi ionally convergent series 338
188. Alter ating series . 340
189. Abel's and Dirichlet's testa of convergence 342
190. Series of complex terms 344
191-194. Powe senes • 345
195. Multi lioation of series in general 349
},. iscellanaous Examples 350 The series 2: n~ 'r" find allied series, 311. Tm nsfo L" mation of i nfini te integrals hy bsritutlon and integration by parts, 327, 328, 333. The series ~ Iln cos n9, ~ an sin n9, 338, 343, 344. Altero.tion of the sum of a aeries by rear angement, 341. Logarithmic ~eries, 1348, Biuomial series, 348, 349. 1\ ultipltcatlon of conditionally convergent series, 350, 354. Been rring ser ee, 352. Difference eq ue.tions, 353. Dati nite integrals, 355. Bebwarz's in uality for infinite integrals, 356.

OHAPTER IX

THE: LOGARITIT IlC AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS OF A REAL VARIABLE

198-197. Tho 1 garithmic function 357
198. The f notional eq uation satisfied by log [l.' • 3GO
199-201. The ehaviour of logx as x tends to infinity or to zero 3GO
202. The I garithmie scale of infinity 362
203. Tho umber 6 363
204-206. Tho onontial function 3G·'
207. The ncral power aZ. 366
208. The ponential limit 3G8
209. Tbe I garitbmic limit 360
210. Com on logarithms 369
211. Logar tbmic tests of convergence. 374 Join www.forgottenbooks.org to read this book in HIGH-QUALITY

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~ and '2- That j r t.bau ~; and !.his co embers of L from ttl s1llli la.rly it CiLlmot to t.he. eeuelusion 'toll '1.1 e in alge bra we denote -Ii i.! not rational. lor no r& 2_ I is the simplest

onal

Ii t !.he preceding ug .- t.han ~ - :2, almosb "'" N i!!l any in~ger whi

~=3, 01·, 00 ~ :sM.1l sec I aU:! I' on

e in 1.hc ui!9t.enre of rra ,\ u b thlit. ~ .. tiafit'5 equa ig len SI cannot Cu";2 can) ge n t.neRl m-etb~!i,

iUldcr 'Do"m !'II) dtlllbt 1"ImI t}.111 I'IJ t of I!ILI.I':h .m ~Uil.t.ion D ,sol

i:lll ... tt •• clw:d. '-0- ltUel!. "-1n11 l:!II

of the eqllllt.iom ft .. 1t::::o(

"Win ~brI, bow, i.tI ~i

reader msy now He lXtay~ if he tlflal :I'J L1 m hera I such

th a. bEl ~t:\l la"W'~ with. 'PI' hew' 1 lJiI! able to ilwid th

Ji ions. and lltIly pus.

1

5,6J

luw, in w-hien

to J'j~ then '~+'2J,i;) .lro in Cl'1pMit.6 dir o.ppro:timsl,'ti(llli W t

E:umi'lll!!l bD .... (<l-r ttl ,. q IJt. ~ Uf.I (wrt ti l 'I moe., the,- do DOt i~ III n~IUol1j U:na il .i.8

umbers in qu ruc.t a :Se&~i.o n in tcri~cd by "th!! j . Let. us DOW t

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm Boow..:.

I I I

v Rl;\ tn.E.~

,L hed no

5 eless or- to 1i.~io.sJ W"~ &mh!r ~ 101" ember and

'~li:l,'

ld I..c! 0 l' loRd Q

(U.. ~>- 'r'

Ail IIIu..UJ111i.!J QQ ·~>lj, Ul!IViIi!l .Jl tho d1J ,JOt, {)~jl1 J j ~ 1M t'hl!l ~,Jl

a.M al II umbel" o "erse1y. it is t.i WI TI' h ic h t.o be lM

13

(ill !:tl-.rJ'l!rsJl'Ol"~ CI:l 4- p",UiN aUoDal ""'til

F~"'" franle OUr

lit.tle. W~ t mc:rely

tlmbi:!l'El, i id about 1n(!!"Clly om~

we have (ore we f "iew a d.~"~, Il.l rational w~ Mv&

i 6) 7,

-"~ob.DI1

I I

A ~ 'It 1'~ mllw 11ft.

If t;be tW

D.E F"Uu 11 0 lII'!l. cW35U t:tisc Q;m:Z "

The I'$U.dIflI'" .. hoI M! w be 1I.t.t~bet.l to lui p l'1L'1'CI adopt.td. Wa d IItd: ~ lV, 'milM eq 11 'Ll~1 el.ft.llll, ind ICnrju. I!I:jIIl::b -Df llumbBnl, W.h&t i

Qpa.'bJe of ~ t

'Mil. ~ far &III rl Mr EDlobmd It

mIlo iD deto.ill III. (I( M.a t he.i n G1Mter&l. .a.t

ppe.n tha~ and eero 'eo describe-

$oj-' happen

IS

g,9}

n It

icn.te. :!I n:! m:ll.rily how 01. 0'10 ceed,

.. real 1'1 um ber by 'k let.t.e

I'lU'tnhl!!l"Z. of it! we and upper

ina: t!lh letters a. A; b. B j. C j ••• ~

I,," wt, d not~ by (a), (.41

If III fL.tL J3 &ro hm real n

(i) eve 'Y C!. ifJi ;D, ~ and e ith (b} an (A) with (B) ~

alII(! ~I.i~ lD • • T.hlll .... r I'CI~ d.!fIlliloIG IInI-'bto ..... iillil¥. Iop:II [)'bjec~ 14 i~... Tb.lII:'IM;~ IliAtB tt.1of iI4'tOf"1 '"1. lid! Ylil il tbal.1:II 1.11;1-

~t.Y', u4 oU)lui411tC1 ''bll=ir IlLlmbt:lr.

e zm n FDrJ'Dllm Boou

I I I

_" f...-aDltom1.noh.DI"1

I "I" ,.-----

16 HE",L I
. m a h, but. not his )
f {h)-I and (B; 3
IjJ~y be i.TKl.ic& Fi
-e wr.ite. tI! = fj L..:<: ) an iu CI.
cl-eL'u' tho.~ w h
~ k'lltion.'ll~ :t.h ~ ru
w ir,h the ideM. III:
I:uilit.y ootw [Hj
which we be
p fui
011 (~ =fJ,. ..::: I

;:>0 H a j, potLI!'I'e ~ 11t·1-

<J'l<.,,3 <.2.

)

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm Boou I

9,10] 10. peoeeed to- de ne- tba

t~Dli such 85 itilXl:~

(i) AMii. In

II n.ad H, wO M'i.ide[" formed by all e.mlll'.il G

O.c: A + 1]. jl,inly c

Agai r,!~ ctU:I

dr;te19 D~ bale g -ei~b 't\lftl, _y '" ., a~ fnt:t!it. be graa. er thlm cannot. be Ie" th.B.o :t

7

and we l:iUl B. ... M :l'imnll ~Yp3~e.

) +(B - b)~ t:b.t. both t.h~ plllit.J1y 00 ~

It~. ~CO(A)md

or (C,t. ;to tha. 'to

(jj) SK~

.a.t'Ie the ltu1. ~ c:l.tk ........ 0lil + D iI III 001,1," P'f'hj~ ;deM

dl!.1i;Klfl (.0.+"') (1+3=3+'" ow

..... PrM.

n. :2

o lBIB FDlJ'Dllm Boou -.~ob.DI1

I II I I

1

~ 6.. 7,

Fi

1

b .... (COl ~ l~ plicaLio , 'M numb 8llrlto

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm Boou

I I I I

10 l~]

ply t.6 all res] nu and melLhad...8 ~e to carty 011 and more in put1~ularly im

)- ..0).,.. 9. 1 ~ 1=lilll~ I •

..rz .fi. rIll (.J21

t'OOU v2 aM - y = 3j ~ = 7, ... Ii d! the I:lJIn ~ v3~ }IT, ..•.

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm Boou I

-.~ob.lII1

I I

:20

C)fJ.~y! t.b~ IIIqC-lot· opt - f':>o,. bae ~ tt. r

1'h-e only kind sugge:rterl by the qu~rl!.t.ie tunb. p irnt.iOWL.l~ 'li'"hich repeaioo

[

Jl;UL V"RUBLES

~-~+r-!"-o.. ~ + 'J.tn + q -0. wbBJ'e P ,~ t.wo q~r..'UCi .tII.n1t!

irm1;ional I'm mb6I"B ow eo me t rica I eonsicienlti(l ·eo and rni ~":U:~I and t.h Y be E.I prt:&9Cd in a .uq uare r'lXlta. :lj.UOO as

It i$ ensy 1O c.u lLU .. >t gwlllt:trkB.lly a J

equal to any num or 1.his form, as c.he.

hi I1Ixlt: That irn. nal numbers of r.h.e&o k i itTllt:ted by Euclid .., methud!! (i.'_ by potd 'lIf.i th ru ler and co _p.;!4IIes) II :III :plint. th.e. be deferred lor the preseu t·.. Th~ proper!.. mUt~ them apecia 1y intmat.ing ..

./(1 +J2h J ~ + J(! +

t.. Thll q_l.ladratil'J equation 4I.~ + ~+-(I'-O II- - a~:> 0.. SLlP~ -Lt. (t (: nJ:ioo,nJ. .NolbiflC ie l t,(J .. j rltqen, M w.!i can mulUpll tba iI!Iq~ ... tJOCI

1Q .. I~p1.o o! llwJ:il' dll!lno ....

TOO .JHder ..... m :n!I 01.8. _II' 00 (XIII """ LCt. tb A mL1.Ch 'r:I:IOnl eli!plll ~~iDg.

II!mbv tb .... tiKI! ~ ~ { ]IDug\b.I .;eomet.r.lcally t Drat. U!QUP ~ lIf.rai&btfww

• Se.I!I Ch. 1I~ :Kil'" P.: 5. 2'l.

t 1,01', 1nu. ~ t._o lmd- ttl 2" t.r. .... hll!Jh oS ... ~+ .HI 00 ~ 'l'W:U, fll~.. "l'b6 foIl.d .. wil! NIIlII!lIIIbe ... I..b ..:I,.tw. I.he e.q1l .... 1.tJn L!i aiiII Lo liau Iwo 4 CClmllln ' .... 'Ia.t!heiI 1.0 lJolillll :II"\CI~I "ill 'w *lIiptalll_ iilll tb. Ill.

Whe II ~ = 1:1 ~ lh.e fQI IJ(IIJ. 'b tilL (Id 11 0 ~ :roo t. :For

IL il pII4I~lll' Ililict iill '1)IL1le t(II bM'I!I • hr6 I!qqJ 1

IIIIUI '·111 tio:g.

e zm n FllfZ(l!lm Boou i I I

-.~ob.lII1

II II

b PF .... 9IIjlt iIruJ. rlt.. ~ n J/ I!I:U

Q.t' arid Q1 dt'Jt IAfI,.

!: prDOf l.i!i ,~pJe 8t'r pCl'"NP" O'IIM :BLIJI if V1'I!~ Imp},. INtI. !M!"t_:u~L.[4J" "' BC' 0'1td .."&. oL\ ftJ'th ~Jl.rli. Be

]' .$:(! i, poIIi'ln! P t.lu.t. P"Q' 'Pi'ill Mt

1!"Dt.. VCI"i(1 iD.l.t!o tl!

Ldl nco

-t. P"rtm!! tha"

4. SomlllthlIOR qUlldt.O.~(; surds .. IioG mLioos.l m ul pl mi'ar. 'l'bUSi

Two

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm Boou

I I I I

-.~ob.lII1

I I

V A 'RJ I.B.I.U

R

The integral 00 t.he

iPJ evidcn Ir nt. tional, and ere re (Ex. , J) t

.M N - pt. re P ig au mte

torli of p. I:w.t

N

w hert 'I fj,~, - • !!'lIre poait.i e ntege:~, Then (,!'t&, I\nd thon .-e eithet- ( ) JI is divjsib t! di mib! by at.& (II' (3) M ri d ~ are both d i'\l . ense m. be lied ou ~ IIi M and N h."8 no 'l'his 0 II men t ma.y be app ie to eaeh of Iha fI cto so that M mu t be di villi oCI by some of th

divisib I or {2} Y d. rl"b mr.n~ fi

by

... - IS

last.

by

where ,I deno es the p 8lld P't" he p uet of I.he ~u~.whwh ~nuuy

e of BOrne of the . Hanec AI an nr hypot.hesis.

_(J+ -JDj

(h) B and D an U. .Bqoblf.!~ 0/

t.hat; A i MsD.

(: .J~ + ~f; ~n.Ro\ :ra~i u"l~ ...

of J(J - .//), unlc. =

(Jilbu (0) .It ~ ~I nu.ij IL 11 ~be-

11.

1

)

and B= OJ (]oJ' (~) P'/ ~ ~ .J »t 1I&./iII tho ~h"'NI Dqt.KI.tion

23

Lioo m~l u tlla.s.a .J b i.!I L. . ~ :!iB ;tW. t.i.on 81,. tlLI tl .t"'". \II rln P+ Q.,Jfh ""M't: P &ll

.. i. (,'M. 'I'OOt 0' M ~gtI ,*1 "" il!li UlD~'her ~"(II)'t, or thl:!!oj mel

~'C:&Wlt;1n .oJ the!. fmM () (.t.)ll ('~h

with Mt.iunal ~(!il!!l~lB~ bo

IIl"e hIA: i 0 I w.

be~~tob~.J(p+

I,. 'Pi'bGl~ ~. II.nd Y IU'e :r-.ti

.~mcl~t condltiOOll !.hat. J&}

regate of an resl nu m

orUhmeUoal conUr.

the ~t.rn.igh t; line A of S '2 to all the n umbers of t.betnen -tI. The pointa of lhe

~il b~ Ii ...,:IIDIJIII lhl!"

-01 'With oI;lIIn"II1.'i.e"r:I~ •• ,,~ ii:tJ.

" t-t!I ~ la.1~ mil f(n'

'-0 r bAilllM kI .. td.)' til. rCl11il1 '=Ill'

zm n FDlJ'Dllm Boow.:.

I I

]lDe~ tJ..u~ aggrega contbnlum, t.h ~rithn\etim.t COn

WI! h,a"e con . row el~ of reAl nu

or q uadr.Jtie Su very speciaJ thes PLlt it; roughly, t.h y eo

"Ilrie'y of .otl rnbo wh

Cl} Lot. ~ -oon~

il.t.lL "A~IA

Tho ~h~-b.uJd llide {.Ir '"

JU:!i(IIIl I I"Ig .. Mch

:r;i - 'I (OJ' an,. o~'b~ is ... iI=I ... G1bill:r ~ I!n'~ .1millUiy '1-1'1:..;:,&111 rid

:Now i~ i& ~ kI

..

~=:b+f

L And we mie:bt M'I'I!I ~ p:rorA of be

it wch tlu" ~ - 3.1: h!. I:III.SI to III~

Imrnban. Fill'" if 8 And. ~ -:3ta

d[ ... ~il:l~ b1 ~ - ~ ~+~ -3.

~ > 8 ;3.TI~ t..ho:roIi Itl > ~>!,..-_I + ~

j lIBt fgund ill irnpoa "too. And;., iI! 61111

be o~tij'tt. p", i fleg&lI.",. IJnd

~ - 3{+a.o. or :) C. HI:fI~ l

81' > 'J ~url .5Q we '" eq~ 1;0 ~-

HI!fiC!I tbN'e ill m.tilm ... L PoOr my ~(Jrs (El,.~3), &:r.Id i

T'b.u.s .rI'I .. 3.t+ 8 U

.. -nIl rm. ~tjOMt 'CI t.wj)~ L.,1I. jJ ~>b+& Ili~ g 'lIppD1M1 i( poMiMe tto:ot.illl r- za -<.:J ~

-.~ob.DI1

I II

1~]

oth iIi!Il.l:fIt.; .and tIM! fMm

er "il.rtoe te.I n~!!l"bet Ji ~h~

no'lll'4 how to .,1"" cubic Lbi .plie!t Kprt:SliQD of

mG"1l t a lied e to the cq uatien

plied (th h tohe o.pplieo.MD WtN ld be

t.be eq 1Jtl. "o.g

11 niqtre positive real In tlhil; ~. how.

very !!iI

(iii

nnmbe espliei kinds

QU r list. or Irrational 1 G) which eannot be nc.t. xh!l.tIsted the di ffereDt cd i D ~ e oontinoum. ~t. UIII ilia dec is eq 1 to A J ~ i.e. to unit-yo It. i~

the eireu rerenee or such II. circle b..aa Dent. Th.ill length is USIIt\! ly been sh n t ( ough tbe proof iii uniAio ... 1 t.) tt-. t. this number '"' i!i not t.he eqnation W' th in gral eoefficienta, such,

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm Boou

I I

"A.!itA :SUS

26

OIfible to d the A

variabJe,

A ~ l In:lltead might. e ~ggrega aggrt:lga in slate i.ntt:gof~ a pOiih

not. nOC-O!EI L'ily be J't4l "ned -

num IJ.'hese eonside Inlly d 0 decimal

" '"

Ion IS

is formed by

~lUdpl8B, b

L V&R[An~

6clJ& of " Iife: pcli he week.

Of ftal numbeFe.

tiMS of the r t.iMl~l num ben, i.(r. ber! (or of t.he poaiti"e: rn . L and }XI'5GS!ing the foil

(i) Clnly 0

(ii) (iii)

ry num er or tbe t)1 pe eona - e two C

I h ~ mlllr.lJ}' 'W1.1'1 .i:

IIlO't a.'tI.e ptd. .'I'Oi.rl.. II. .. ~l;:It 1ft up!.!'

IIIjl1c~ In DfilI!"!tlnd'.. bml:lI;n.

II:EI, uJod. i:llli~ • 'LbON 'lZ'hll) prtt!r '0 l.il.i.meil i~ 51 G-U.

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm 00 I II I

'28

[r

au:mClt. OC:CtU·, Fo member ") t.hc nu of L and less Ieither ellIS!. On t

F O"f lee; L. Qnd t.a.king only the l' L. e.lld ~ f'otm a two t&:!e& to di!~

It mm.y happen a must biI!I also 1M Ii greater,.y {J. 11~ and thOM, bain and this i8 p1l.i u member of L.

On t.h!. other rnem her. In ih i8 by h and B; is 1:.cJ L er to JL H thn.t it i& the to R, it i..8 U-U~

1'b U3 in any l all.'!. t. Any BIE'.cl i g a ra,l number in ntl m bert :&OT.Q.etim III

nl.1m bar. TtJi:!! that the COllBidera

~ to .l'lly rurth.

f.-om the ratioaal thE! mtion.a.l nDm b of :11 I'1:!U lLU mber, ~lt might have l'6a1 numbers woul The diEien~o.n w t.hat the aggrog.o.t.e 0

of OO..nple1.OfIC&S

lacked, a com pie nguage

by sa ying thiU ttl

t.e&t me are ra. iotl8.l nUm ~ , bekUlg t eont.l' ietion,

ember IH if 1IO ($lyin L~ :IIJld

i\ mm. h!.ppen t.he- se . II .or the

o lBI B FDlJ'Dllm oou _. foraDltom1.noh.DI1

I I I I I .-.r-----

IlILI bri1i b.I. to ~'be i. "d tbat ... hI

Dum bers, 00"" Ill. defined in r .I1l1m her" or I the pcsiti ve

or gemnetry •. hieh W~ ",ill t. beloDg to S. ibis to choose dOC8 n.o1- conoot. posa-ible.

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm Boow..:.

I I I

t (Li) k$ true, '1' gt.h, contiii~ gs 11::1 8 &nd da nO~ coincide

be a mem hBr 8 or not. In t ~ t:iI&I!I we

Dt or accumul Uon of s. It. i euy 1.0 e

~ f + 3} nUI'8t nMin, not, roe Iv one. b

Clf 8. FM"j 'W en 'We M'Y8 de tmintd .. al (E -~. E + )!;U m:Jl.mding e t"i t not this intornl.l n\U:n eon w-f... ;i1.. pni nt., r of S and do Il~t eoind~ i.l;h.e.

t 1.b ~ .11.1'8 11m with.· E1 in e place

ni tdy. In.t.hH way we can dEl

fl' ,f., E6

[

REa r. VA.91 A

please, all belo ~ E + 8). point of K('!'11 rn larien of S rna Tbe u~mples bleh fuflo~ illus

.. phs; U:. 1- If 8 con5i_.ts or .I!I if1~ra, IJI' 1111 tile 111tqtrs.

If !I ootJl!list.I!J of Un! ..... t.loJllll P(1

zm n FDlJ'Dllm Boou

I I I II

Ir .'hoowtt Df I ~n~ 1~ 1.1. r i~ Ll:ie. origit'l..

U !J 00I'I:mta. !:If" t.bt ~t.l'HI l'&U nil th.e j)fj~J) L'LOO. 1 ~ti"'lI! polcb

9. Wei.l!l!l"ItI'8.11 • Theorem. inbs jB of the: IDmit i nt.fl~Bt he!! of analy:!;[i~; bll to it. is fw th

ed in a book t:h '" t.hi&..

III theorem wh' !!ii auily ded u uiee later.

JIE01tE~'L II tI ~ S oonttWl:! ~!I Maud in a inU:rf,!al (~ 11).

U ir Q pl1i1'U: ()f o..'Um!(laJ~ S.

i nt,e; of ~ Ii D A in&.o ~ poln&; P long! ~

8~ 19]

n.6 ni t:t of a. Til

8J

PJi 3.1$0-

Me i, 0. pei t ~ ;$ueh that.. h

ekmp to ~ ,f + 8: to R • so that 'the

nbt.ill' an inti! 'ty Df po nts of 8. &n.~1!!1

ion of S-

ma.y of iIXIUra: eel n(!ide 'IV th ,. Or'" n.

:M of LN pDiot.& l. I 1, ....

uli!l M.

J • \l"'N. IS. ;'I.UI !XI nd i _

j ,. It; (I) f f -..11 'VR.IlttI!! UO!Io uI Zj " ~ IJlI I:I(~ to bt;i

of III

y

[n 1

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm Boow..:.

I I I

32

!:i +"'+~"'.~a, be wt'iu(:o io

•••••• ,_ •.•••••• (5U-

•• -(ilh

-.,.(~).

11-1 in (I ~ or - 2: in (4.). u.o .i I~ +nt"' ::'.!lI'la.t wh 'U r;e llrlm'bma •

mLl ..... tio.a.. r:M. nl1llllber.. l (;If t.t.e "PI' (1) "h ~ 01» D be fIlL raw.~ n I) in "Ulilil i..eqI:l .... Hty

tl:..11 V'W"IMe m i!I;~ -IJ;. -{dr-- G'} C

t tn i.l1U';t LI.m 0Jt, :t. t tp tti ti CIIl-& 1111 O. tbl:! io.j.\i:iJ.

e zm n FDfZ(I!Im Boow..:.

I I I T I

w'honre .A:! 11, a. D

[f>idontlj' ,,+.r. ... ,p+~ .Ii' 0lil+11 {l +r. Jp + J../'l - 'I---~:- -F--I.H;.,r---:-:,I-'----<+--=-+"-, - -

"IIrMnl lit, II. Ik. Me 4~~ 1

10. lekwat III i.neq.uli 4I'1l lUll t ... D ;II(It.II d DlIr:n'i:J iclet!til..y

-6L~ ~, ••• , A.. too ",enry Lhu.

(1 ~Hl + a,) -.

J.

l4. H JPt wh~ a! ~,4 d

[1!1~ •• lpi I..he. t.b COftffi {] t i

11.

FDlJ'Dllm Boou

I I I

~ [.
my IIltilll[cMK:.rl of D .... r
"11 ... ~r IJjll. ...
! .JG.)
....
!8. ] ,Mot.
,'-0,
l-..Q'.fU'I!I ~ of rot' I
" (,UQ.I'Jj. l' I ) or Ihe rt:lrtn rcq ,red, be (11110 - J)UJ" 'l"lUII\ r dl.n _ lli~I4"H _I' 011. Hee lIJ1I

I)da:.

e In n FDlJ'Dllm Boou II

- ..

I I

(

-.t" + ~ + '.i!!J. - 0.

t.i~ 0Il.1.M.t~ by III- IUId - ~ ,+~ - =0.. or- ,. - - (,.:rI- '2kU(

ia i mpOott!i ~ "I"bG 0111 f III tt.amo.l.i M i.J

1:1;' -

[f Mit:hllr II. .01" .b 1!11 ~ • ..... bil:h gi.,~ ~= Ii§,!' ~ lI.f'J.II LhI!I mLi~&l I)um~ fif/6. ~, llIq~tion Uu.1. s:., b, .'IId

~ """-d+l!'~ + f ,'1"~ t.I!IM III No It,. ~ I.baI. j of'

. + ... + m,. _.,'rM -~~=O;

w. \bll(1. a.,-!&IJ.- .•. - ....... _.- L tb.

il.

.. 1l11J1:h tb."'d +&J!)-III.+iS,Jt.

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm Boo II I

or

3

II,

3G

1I:IIL <+_ ;1',

,\. VAIUAnuS

Shnilarl

.7!-

Hcnoe .. buli!l A i& t'ba ~jN.t'J.t.

3L •

• 351.

.. hctt Ih& a's MId "' ~ jl Z". We t'hna

I'&,. lVriloll;l ~+$ equalilID 0' IILmi

l;rl""" ~ + ... +~ -0, 01: t)~~]

(The.

eqoaJ.K,n zi - !U 4&1:'+9=0..]

ef §14.

e zm n FDfZ(I!Im Boou

I T I I

J'oII:.H.

- I. thet.! , wll!lfiM ~ J/f.UA.. tip. 19O:1}

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm Boou

I I I I

20. The idea. or.. d ClUOD+ Su ppose that ~ an

b' ceutinuous real varia which we may.!!lU PPQ;&C

se ted geometrically by es 11.p - %, Bo Q - y

fro fixed paints A.~ B~ g tw sln\ight I inC!:.\ A,

let u, fiuppo!Ie thB;t,. the l (I the poi nta P::t.n Q

in f!:perlldC!nt but eonne.cte y It. re I1tion which we

to e:J. ~ed 8$ 8. rel 10 bcLw n s: and !I: ao

P and ol: ale kno'f111 Q" ~ also klW~n.

ro fI.l:llm pIe, .UPPr;,'IISC· tb:::Lt "!I !I ~ h, or ., z, or

an of these c:I.&es lohE! v Iud etennines tha.t, ation bc:twe~n wul" for 11 ill ctien which

II

V A. RIABr..ES

in, we migh t. su pp08ll!l gi en, tlot by means of I'l bu by means of a geom~ de mine Q wbon P 18

In \hese ci:re"tun!'tt'W~ iOIl of fundional dep hap the most i.mporta

y Ud ()J~;

r whi h y ill given

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm Boou

_. foraDltom1.noh.DI1 I I ·-·TI----

20]

39

Ca!IC t.hat t.hella~ par cui ) of the moss impor~lUl," fi llewi ng exunples wil C'Dt.ial to a. rll netien. 8 sorno relRtion bm. .Do Olny t'&te cormpon.d

c.rru::~ri!:l t09- are . But e eonclear t to ~bey t,j.o.1 i~

hat to

Lel.y-~ or 'Is or l.z- or 'to~I!;ILJC:hZl!il~

.. tho val1JC! d x, Lb..: ron-eapcrulio.; vaJ 1"'i!!lAt.:ioo. m~ tlnl: Mill 'Pi'CIlIkI' be. trLI.C ftn),

of z is caBed a anu.M.Rl..

rOf ";1:1

'1M 'r3o '="" of J

0. He to tbli!l

,." y. ~I;I ir $ jill . Thar.' 1;0 1II.y, f\anetiCMl ""lI!Infl)l.~

•• .{i),

FU:rtC'fIONS 011" It

40

l'O.'{i:ma.tion ~ tbo t.ll;U!I '" ~ \'at! d~1'" ¥l'u1m' I!~ ,

&. 81 .. ,. ... rfO(lU1 clMlic:

from i'- 00 " 0l.I 'too & bOO. n(Jril!dfl

Ttl. (I f&'ttnW!.e of II!IJIJIDI,,:m,..-r

praba.btl ........ ~, thorn' Um.t." = 19,f1 if 0 ;::ern'! r.a n.)'

fIJI" Depth")!. n.l1lM ~~i ve 'l'alutltl of 1.1 do

(t), "'" .flD11'ahllD Gf II .enl

(1 PM ~ 1.8 nil!. dd:o

iii- ne;-,ti\'IC. 'S'l;Ilumlll j 1.h.a..m sa.;: h Oi ftI r a;: OJJ '

I!I ballj &t tirtLfl r, btJJ~ ... bicb il1ll ,oul,7 ddQ~

, pr'l.PQ f~ ~I s;

~IJ"'_ ~ iJ. pal't.iclLw cu ar , of l.J M' of ..,ISI Qt d!:RJMt for ~ wll.lll!;tjl bal'l.(:te~ltl!c (1).. H ula which U}lf",$!11

!I 00 dli!taned, M tlhl ~~i I7W1UJ k!' " T i:ll I!I oIW'L e 1.001 pte IJ f B. i r).! il10 N'- n\l. ,.-1 i!.l'. - nn: 1!:IJlJmina ;to or ~ I bejng ~ T.IlIe.'I.l'dl'll~

~ Jt it "",'uW' - icb III d!l!lTlli!ld .i! 6I'ld • loe. ddM'd for ~ • .,;~ j I'd..e.

e zm 1) FDlJ'Dllm Boou

I I

-,~ob.DI1

I I I

41

u:~ 6..33 P,h.. 1M tt.gw, J 'It.a 1 u.tfI 0 f jQ. di1j'~n C 1111.

aJiI. Czj ilL ,1l1li dll:f1Llod fUI" 10 N j" LRe: tot.IIl t. ft.LaI~

be).

The natu ill !ltntecl Q ~ QY at prod

5. We y by g the r d beln ,z:L thep09 In nt being in Fig. 6.

Let Pl defined

,.~es..be D jlw t.W() lines

11'--+---+--

".0 Iae Llr. £: f.o has (let. UB ! b. Ta.k1il mplete ~if! e t.be point. . " P mc.y

tli.!lb.

~~ 1;/ P i'ruttf of r, gethe:r the

zm n FDlJ'Dllm Boou

I I I

42

""err slmp1e e A.mp~ I!IU ppal!ie t.hfi.t by Q equat.i.

J,,,, By + G~ 0 .... , •. - .... , .h ••••• (1).

wbere ate y fi:xed umbera ~. Then !I is.

wbje-h ~~= aJl the chor teristics (1), (21 (3)

eooy to t &; ~ 8:.vraph Y u a stmi!}M 1~4.

iu nil i1 loy ;1 iat' 'fi h one or other or t.h

of 'his tion \Vh ieh a gi .. en in ~ej(t· boo

Gcome

We tball u

lohi!!. ror all vallie, (.I: of .t (or '1;&1 C:Ij. b, bl, b~ •. ,.) of YI points ~ P' ~ P"~ ... ). h!1~ gate of all thue poin'" the

l!I.uothm'" made of e ary in sueh a W>l.y e tAe 0CtLS 01 ~ p~ ~ (%1 y) it il m· ! I ( ) I~ ~iUUtl}n if ~ ~ 'OCUl, Md Py t.h e loeu. This :sc or t.he te.tml!i 'loC'u ui r.e generAlj and ms.y be BppUed n u; aDd :J il C&Pl ble of belDg re

ul'l.

in c an $,m,s a pro[losit. CI

~.

+ By + - 0 is tM 9~1"rnllq«4 + C is t.h mo.str gtDlE'ro.l polyno \-e any nu!). or degree h ighe.r

enee 'A~ g.eu i!'tJUO.~a!'i: of ~hi ftrB

I~ i5 eq ualt)'" ea3Y t..o prov ~I of tlRy ldraight li~'

enti n a rew urthn eaamplea or i b,Y eqUIJ, ions, An equation of

(c - -1 + (y- H'f =t,

GCrIU" J n. t:.lJ,e ItC\LU,li~~ We- 11'.1." :t 0111l...lM lJ jpr .!I!, ,n.. ~. - CJA.. Ul

e lin I) FDlJ'Dllm Boo I I

<':II 1)9]

- .I ......

:1'18 OF

21. the If OP angJe thePJ

Bte •• In w lengths of R= fl, (J hoi 2" (meBSu

ve dirsctioe j it. .is e'ljl'iden

!/- ,. elll S, ('I y~ eM:.9:sin 6':1:: ~

ua~ion ... 0

nts, a&IIin:ming

a COT.! ie .&fj~tiODJ her diseussion of eometry.

hlll.'re datermiued OM"",sjNP-y.

t.ilID 'bBlwee.U r 6 pJa~. ~Q;M .. frnm the (~ g) 0.00,,8,

COI!I (J rol!pre&eRUi nera 1 eq I.un.ion cf

pIIIitI 'WI or '!Its'4I Li ~ l~!lwd!. ml.l~~kIt. b,J md.D:II iG oIIU:t dell! ~ 11.11)1111 f' b (lDil In.ncb 1:Il,jIJ I. "Uhtu~ Z'lll1Im.a'" u.~ .. n~

e In n FDlJ'Dllm I!oow..:.

1111 I I

41

as. Futiher rtpretl,n'tilt1on . reader a beuet I'l runc.t.ions.

I:iUO • and wh· folio

etyof

wheu a •• aw •••••

!.he !irnple powt"#'" a!" is 1)f two distl

Fi~~ 1'!:!t m = Then t

(I, 1), (- II 1). n

l.n.Ily be: rOllnd by do il'n.lu~

;",1AI n the ditlo a.l poi ~pee ",aJu

give

.If the reader ow ill will be led to ron form or t.he grap like r.hBt. shown he dn.'f.lll a. ell ~pecial pDLIlt.i ",hi to lie: (In lohe pp itG e.et1nacs by gi ing ~ valueaJ and eale to g t.1lt!

responding valli :v~ he

flt.d t.hu \hey Ii.e

when she inavita

[u pblcal "W ill i ve t.he ible types of

of thll

ph (0. G). on t. e g1."aph t..a z ~ LhuSi the

• ft.

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm I!oou

II I I

23]

ted pc aU;. on the ClJrve, though nu:t. he more prob!l. 1(; will

.. .

-

ee, but

Fig.9)j

e zm n DIJ'DIIm I!oou I

ins' or gm y tb8 use of I ter on, that

.. tlllM 110 fWlIU4"M t"iZlI!:I 0lil 5~l c!\.en bf 00lJC~ cd in. 'to

m.,.ph or~ SN-+t y- &: - ~.f(lJ -0lil +(II/a)II.

~ t'" f01.I,i b IJ lie

e zm n FDfZ(I!Im I!oou

I r I

47

wbkh

ooctioo &.I

(Z!1

by ihe ordiL ... r

QD for a. sivu ,.. j'f)l7P. i""_

1~ l~ 0. 2 all IlC~ dll1:niflll for tb

[u

.II."t~OOtl. ILea or :Cor- 'W w~h !:IILdi t[m,.i:I. ~ Qnd tfl reduce IJ ~ r -;tTn O'r quotilPRI. I)f 1 r- L ltd. ion,. fIf t'''mli!l/~ifJfi P &00 Q arB mpijtlll:'lIltion .a.t:I.

iIXIomoi.c:,," Ii!:ly h. the: vr.!! -n wh'

iliNla.I 'U~OlI. titJn-n.l 'll!'ll:II:IIMn. U:le \'lMiiiloble ~

• even m(lp: 1bct usc Dr

''''''e abnll axareplcs,

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm Boo

I I

-to !BCiI!I Y= If(~ - 4 {.e - b

n,. tl:ak:'h ib~ gc: ful' ~md

r=l.1

.Fi.g. 11.

26. C. J::qJ 1 h:: porUu'l el~:!i of fUM •

I1,umb ftmcti

are e:r lieit. .o.lgflbra.irl:R and ~ a.ny ill~

m:dd be nat.i

.n.

JON"S 0' R:I!!.!t. am &.Bl..E

49

~ - 1~~~ ~+(l ~f, ~- (1 ~

ithlJ IMIgII.ti~· fur 1$1- CLtI 6.

n&. imne ti 0"". ~ finite

"""" ........ .foI. ra t. io lin 1 of roet.

o lBIB FDlJ'Dllm I!oou -.~ob.DI1

I I III I I

The ar will

function .;~ differs

In the fi.

Iues or ~ But. 4~ i! und~fi \·D1u~). it is defia

nctien :t f{;lf all '01 Ueril of ~.

III I:IIS XlII. . .J{(~ - B) lr ~<~<b Lt b&.!I two ... 4

pt.ious. (i.t, all \-:ll:ue 8-lStil.

~!it.iw '!J -- 4%

D~n m . ~c.D"Yeni !It til re

funetion who:se tw

[11
in W' h 'I:!&ge
k! ~
".~uod
:5qU!lrt
• t.he t~'lJ. It· ~y to

tMO

or ir thtu ~h or hl!M eq t.loIl. ions m.y +R~

\fM:ro • Rw. •••• ,

will ea:.! y ~"eriry t in the $' t41:t of

.. (1)1 :a.ndli readu ideNid lSi fonn..

o lBI B FDfZ(I!Im I!oou _. foraDltm1.noh.DI1

I I 1 I II .-.r-----

~G) 2,j1 It .. I nm.t. algcbTAi~ d iffirulc to p proof here. en wbich

any 1M plici'ti indHd not m,t & Comal m'" the 1 inee

, It 11M t 111'0

]f,.-3 r t.bo .tOlulion mmpl~ thcvroveru

on ..6.lgebr.t. for ] III t.b I!I PI 'OIII!M i.a

• ~ we tcntr,n,U, ~~r.t.f

til Qr.i1riD1I eq ua.LiQn. -

01 II) FDlJ'Dllm I!oou -.~ob.DI1

I I I I I

52

.. Find &lgobr oacb iJf Lbo fw1(!ti.o

rtlz+.J(ll ti-. Ccrn.!Iidcr tb [H81"8 y- ±z. l'Iu .. ctioo bu t.wo

6. .An.u.la-o &l gtI bmi.otL.I 1\1 n ct.i.cIl

Wo: 'W(; u ... e

[u

3.

tlm

.... .h!:!rli!l

Etilllin.atiug • """11 fI

'1. .AJ) ela.mple CMlIut. bE !lZfln!lMled j flLnetio:o , d!lfl:nm b

But tho proof 'lhAt Urma -of $ i.3 d.i:l!ic 1

U (unction tallNi II dclined .i

arc not r&t.ion.::d! fUl'1et.ion!. n ia tIoC!:g4c.i'110 a m iil.nn kunia of function Arno.og 'lib ese 'We partieu 1L\f]Y into

E. The cUr

t.rigooom~try, SUI them. Will: 'llJ.8.y with "bell' moss i

• 'T~ .d~:t"u:J i~iIIru I101PfOII.I!I tbAI. &11)1" !MIl 0lil rY. l:I 0- th i..t M$1.I

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm I!oou

I I I

ar, 2 ]

rtTNCTIO:":-S 0

- .... .c.l

• l+ Dm .. the 1M or O».!!, min.

"'h ",.hen: B -s,/(,a.1: ~ Md. h/J{c.i + tor.'

iell ~iJ~~·bet. ~ UIA: cu:r"'~ y

$). s, F(~) ... ~.

thl: grl1.~ ~ d -i:00I!I: l~p+ )J(p + 01]) ~ -lllroaJ.t

-l/l2t .... 1 "llli:~:RiI: i4 ~1 lI'hen .:1 ... 1 y--l :A,~y-l

F , 1.

Ft.;. ....

...

o lBIB FlllJ'Dllm I!oou -.~ob.lII1

I II I

lj1!J. sit! {IJA'1 YD (l/~', { llin' -,r)II, -.ill! ;t:&in (1 14

, ill: to&~+ !iI';:!1I~.

los IJ~ W Chilw t IC gr&fI Dr Z, -000 • ICl1j'ill ..bowa 1 ~ f!1 d['CID.

- l:i.~ '"' I, and • i:o:lin IJ 1-

er riO t:[olJ ~ (!I)'I"bt. th i.I,

d tho

AL v 11. RJ 0\ "81.1:9:

8..

(II. (tOaI"' (1

~. I(l, {If s

.aid""red U. ill V&w!

'3.

l ~OMI fnnat..i jt.h p!!rimi 4, jf f a.xlnd&i rtmetioo ClIO be

[u

otrJJ I(O)-.f- Tl:Jall the eqwr.,. p ~z) .tQ( ... 1)

urn bsr oar U'$ or ~ .... j~ ~ 001 ~ '5!! ~ 1ElLe... 8.lJd

'l11'1'" Ie;) ! rut &U -ruues '~:i. f{x) i!J II. r~ U e,. .. ~ .. ~ ... )

• od 'oUI 'b II.fI

dofi~ lJJb bl-&iad fuc:cr.f(m be

+"..r-'+ .. +n..-o. ... , •. , .•. , .... , .. - ._., .. ( J

+-.+p.-o) iDJMlEl.bM~

RUI. \'.ABlA8U::S

-,,~ t'be ~Lltl.l.iOJJ (I} 1:'\1 j\:n:u:t:i Il n md lll:e:!I to

to ~CI 1!If1U0)0rI't.,. 01,:1 r an; "r8"lI.e CIt ~, 1M il:l !lumbar at MDStau

JIll c:l6i.r:J1II am '!lot rot' m tba ~ Lha~ m U).f""" ~ b,a,\' :i.MiDi~ DI~ " .. ~

-1

of tr&nlct!adentallb

in

II:t J' - ~11l'b.er1! (.r) d~crlaI 1:. i IIbo'llfO j It 'Fig. ie ~ .r1!1:h~·hNid ~C!IiI. balD

,_ s-«:

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm I!oou

III

.56 lfS 0 REJLL V Fa {n
3- r~J}· ( . 10 t_) 4. .t- + or - [;t U. (Fi;. l3 d.J
J)lj [.!i"] -(~JfI ~ • '" c:. i. , It.
~ 'I I .( \. .. 11, ~ (r. ... R) 1 rl\ {\
e. (;ttj, z [,J.-cJ. xt-['~l U~n

TIle &~.tI.pb

a. Llil (mIl' far.

flmc.t.iClD~ ]!:n ow 11. Will tI~T'u'b d Lffi::runt. tIL in~01'

~ ....

I th i IjI; ca8I;] J is oik G:ri td :cQ I'y pt;JLl'l't.II @ t.ht gropb

:tI! Q( tlil 'IWrd .. curee,

.. Y&l.1lM .or ~

j I (6. l0t ""hare. 1t~ W III td ~III ~ "" 't.i!lh I. en

\b.n.1I and prime to ~v.

no

1 pt)Qi ~eqll.ll.l

ror ~11

J are\ui

Itl"kll::r t "rid .]1 (rom tt

'bJe ro~e:t..io:A. IF.i .,,! vtt.hlMt IIhoold tt i!l- ~mp~,.. ~.r~ the th!finiiioo Clr a. 'm'b~ ;t p.; koo'll'D , i!II t(Io be "lwIt 'i1te pl_.

r;.j ~ is,. of tDLlnt,. .. quite

IJ.II to A1 wl:lI!do&!:~ 'IiI'.,.b!lll:',

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm I!oow..:.

I I I

i9]

Lt. Let Y=~ ",,·bet ;s" lfI ir m.tian.al hct.loo 'PI9.

ooBl. 'l"be 1 .md. J''' C1, hI l~ bo {R,

llJ. 1.d., .. 1 -herl il!l r.a.~ ~itII or two ~ or IJ'O.I.atl I.bo lIlytJ it. ilo not. dJ~t.a u.~~bl

fOal:i.'t,,1 ... ." ill ~nL~ Durn -of po - t.!I.&

..... -'1 ...... 'I

...... r .. _

• ::- 'I + r ...

-, ......... . .

._. 'I ..

.. I • .!: .... ~I ... .. ~ r I

'I.' ..... . ..

':

A:; 4

'I I. I •

.. .. r .

.. r'l - -... 'I r

.:- ....

.. _. .... ...

. : ->.

, , • I "'_

• l'Ir .' .

.. -;.: ..

. . rl"·

, . ...

- ..

Ii.s. 6.

~"w.e. .:I".c::1. Thu

U:m lirlt, Q:I PI,,; ir p

Iie '.:D.!:" if (}< z ].r i3:ql.l&l to tijOira wi"t.h Il!IfgO 1.J'Ltm"t.i {for po:!I 1 poin.ta ,.

Tbe pIIlio ~ ~ht 50

or ,be: te.M. ~ Lhlll di ie.Dtatod. pOio'- in u.e ifI. 0' JI(Ii:nt.:t iI: Dal.. roond y e:r&p'b. .s. f%. 18.

_. foraDltom1.noh.DI1 ·_·'TII---

DS

II"hdar expressed

[u

30. u..nmown form

or REAL

(0'1:) =. C~ - •....• --" •. , -,,_ .. - ... , .(l)~

nre eMY draw.

inte.r~' i.n B p - ~uaLi[)D {I}.

I1z:1mpl_ I.]~ T

mar be :llCll~;r ie&lly ;1}

tbo ppkllll of

0. TWill .m,1I'

circle

~hO&(]. amw it! inl,.at.UdiOM wit'b

~-

nLJ.!ll btt

of .root&.

,(1,.

...... I __ ... L _ _ ...... _ .... 1'.. .. ... '1"1'"...;. ..........

:30,31 ) 31 .

'EAL V ABU BL.!O!Ii

. 'ine grliphica.tl j, ezac r..metions r a. sing OZ in .8 of th to the CI rrotO the.

OZ~ a.re lmgth!. u posi!.iv

same as

As ;II and y 'Ir'lI.ry~ .Aggregate f ai I tlh point; (~~ ~) er I.h relatien b

or 'Where F' prco6! of eee pr .A ntdyti.ca Ge:ome

eD lS 8. ~; IIJld on.

utt. ag'ilin Rf.er to t.. boob (If

o lBIB FDlJ'Dllm I!oou -.~ob.DI1

I I

{n

60

3:!.

tion

to Clfpn:: t.hls nota prwe.d e (or exam

, = !(tc) ~ + ••••• (1)

pendente of 9 pon ~ It· !I ,-iJe t.hat

t n.ppropriA.te in e case in ieh:J is ex ~

9i of :z: by me s of & r. m leo, as 'when

\Ve b which it. I~ for e to be im

of %- If

sin.t:.. a oo~ + bsin'~

e vel')' often to doe with fu ~ at re at.iL)n~

bt or ineon venien to el':p:r th i form,

:y - $ ~ 0 01' ~ Y' - ay ~ j (l'Wn

N!8S !I 0:11: fJI1t::itly " an Blga. chon

c~o~ eMed. Yi~ by t. ftm:nula

F+ .,J(FI- ~ - 20.21 - C);

more

8il(Lplye It.

We

the S~I'I"'_' A- m.l"!t M I"Jl inc! udes 6 eq llat n (I) ial form o a uneti R of ol: pe.tLk of "he loeu of the poi r. ~,y) Ilbjocti h 0 r lhe fl1 net.! n 11 defin I (~. '!I) = o. 0) ;;;;;; 0, and th

oikn third and W;M te

.'IS !l I!I~C and !/. toj(f&rY t.he curv Joel,!$.

Tn uteful. n.riab!e de,"oid of

et hod of 't'Cprc!!

.a: and !I rare ot.h rLU1e~

be re~ed a gegm~t:Q;l

:s; ,(t). y =

S ~cd to to 8 OOl!"'Up ng ''OJ. ues -or

Elu:h pLloi.r of ach '\Iah,l.e~ d mes point.

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm OOU

I I I

ointa whic: obt.l!in th pPIPI! fur

61

:3 ~ 33] ( , y). Jf we, ~ et. aU y 10 diftue:nt \Ill

fo~1d ~ o« ~ .

C 8 over ud O'&l8r in.

.It. dirtct rdatiotl be~ een ~ fi d t~t; L'It +1" = al~ being

EnJn~ X'D!. ] Thl!l

I1.ltk:lll4l .UI!!I 1(II ,) =0. ~ (ZI ,)

d ODed irtb~Ellj.L..Ia r:J.:!i ~

~ .GInC Y. T~ lIDluti ~e 't Uft of :& I. nil ,.. 'I'l::U!I tow ID eq .,btt of i::IICIl ... r.cd pOL

t. Tr:B.Cl9 thlll oC:ur'l1ll!l +,)1- j 3.. 'I'M- curwc f(1;,!1 + ~ (.J'j 'i)

II!! :pcin'fol IJf In"Winom.ioo 1- 11 ¢

4. l\"~t locIi IUt ~.I11L ~

{II} Z'lll:ru+~ s= +d.

33. Loci iD IP o fundamentally d-

e am plea are the p

A particle whieb II.OVes al ~I jrf«lom. I dire t.i D be 'CO rnple tAl y fix d by dil!luUlOO from a fix

CI r fundL\meubll l in.@! Qf C B.

determined by .. a· g1e c B pIM.-e, on t.nll!: Ql' h ition un only be 6 fd by I:J

Qnly (lj11S pcsit.ion i n, e,g. by

ke he line n.s lIy i ~ poill~ ieh moves edam .. ita rdinatea

P ili DIy l:i@lClng'! 'kl th

led Q; ,lLt'ju.f'A- I to

Or RUt v ,un A. La.

.at ma.y -e\l"ide lit. be. ge iI!Imliae :ao

unction j (;II. Y) ;If) of t/trH ariab!e (OL· r of .. arW;lh~s). And ns .in § w~

as the: standard of t; e eqn Ian

shsll II.grete to ad trG

(or, , • .t) - 0

by huo eqlu1ti0n5 the 6l'8t cia. f Ioe~ rtI.El.Y bu reprue ted by t

+ D = O. A ail IS in • be

00 of a. I5Iphel"e d IlL P a.y

two eq lIation~ of e: fo

or .l:Un!:! t.lU"V'O J(~1

1 (f(~." =~ ..

ol.a e:nd'aC:1fI OD

ble W ~~t & Moo

j.wl!e:i tt ill: but..tI. vtt1 bit

1 DI:: wLAintd .u!tll rq_ tc!~

.. ;Ii, ... :r~icullY' it.tI diflll:t~;t1j

i" (.a,. .A.e'

lura a... lIi"I!I DaY!).GIn a ll}a"ne CUl""i'll ~ 1 !.he CUI"'I.O!I (a) ill

[11

-.~ob.DI1

I I

63

do lb~ rel'"..u a). w~ Clbt&i.n " .jI. ountoliRd

ic:h !Well 11J.e.pt;

tl:u! l:UQQtI cf tho PI tlilll Bl to U!.6

-Dtl.lm d \hI) ; and let. oil 'be (~bich murt. -.ttaota-=.o..

iii I.ba Ie 0D:tI cI or Ilt tb 6 IIIJ. U IllliIrn r :J; - f(4 rnund

~ J in_ JIIWiIIIi1l8

p;ri.:m't. l.l! ~ &:be RltW". A

~ifI Es. 7 Sho" thai the r II ro~ / a:f~, #1) ~ Uld. ,bat -IIIlly

[ r :OJ r," li~ 001:1 co ....... mutt.

e zm FDlJ'Dllm I!oou

I I I I

IH: ti.on o! ~ '1[(1 L' of I"cll~ Ilh;od. v&h.1;1!I of , tb!:

I'i, It.

I' .18..:.

e zm n DIJ'DIIm I!oou

I I I I

-.~ob.DI1

I I

&'h1J-'ol' t.bt!.1,. '3-1 Jt f(J!il=/ ~.T} --/(-4 jtlo

m.o.ll 'PiiJ or

a.

4,.

I. SolV(] the 1:'Q.'liait.i e ~'-=r:- 1iL~ tIS rr:JDW be

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm I!oou

I I

-.~ob.lII1

I I I

1tU :II. is a. posit.lw l j .... 21'i+3
tb.ei ~U r-ou.eb1y.
that tile -'1'1'"
4. i\f1d ".fI.illl.OJJ or th.9 eq_ u '" Lio lUll
(Ii) :P-+~n'lR ta.n .!:::::IIhj(l +~
{3J (l-eOlIl1:)
the ae:.eond dlgrelB
-hl
- J
l)th docrt* wbie~
6- .Fin I jn .;C of tlIe .iOGO iii hid:!. tot' t-hm "a.h.l~
~ I 2Ctf tabs Un:1 ucs lj4; lJ(IIH]). 1 d .AD. Ud.t -beu
.r- +2j~ Allie kI!I If(t ). (JI"alA. 7Hp. l~ll.)
7. Sh t.bat. ;i.l ~ is &. ratitln&l rUild;l!ln
of.:¥" 'h«I It +&+0,
8. If fllfJC:Uon. or .:1", m b r.Q. iI::al 10 net.. rm
o!
9. 00

[It

. ['l'u-. .s""ICII~ II!' the 11lrm.ula et~ f)

or tb. graph of ~bll!l ]+[r]1 ·=.,1:+1- of t\o!li!I I"&ph of ,he!

.~c. (~+.)I') 1

b~ In Cb.n.pli!r 1 • kngtb equal lo bGS to ~ue'" . n I .,_. r poIIIId 1.):1111 l-

f the M~i. 0( till;:! ra . 11&1. A II tlllCllSO ceeiI)f.Il; ~ d.&t_lIMHIed

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm I!oow.:.

I I III

7

I I Wrly ob-riQ1,1I!I 'Mot 1,1110 mn by II.nr i 1'J'.'l,iDnral mlmR-r ~ bowe'l'e1' Wlnl,jit:t:ted' •

• '{ '(17 +3Jll) V V U-3JH

~ ie poi.at. TMIII e.s~tlD the ~l~ l'I:Iat of .. .quar(J. • &iii tw ~ b~~l'I'Mtli 1 ilnd I ~

a(l00 , Or ,beIII:I t"~ mi.J:m 1IIl,jldlll m..iSltt bo n

~ + 100=0-

~'ettel1, .only m't.~I.'tI Q( Ud. • Starti:nr:l!'Dfll; I). lOI'CIit. ~qtb 'll'e " ~1l.D coolllnl~~ Lhc lir.D +

~ C II.M r,:l't,joo~ .II:Il.d tbo (Iirclo

(;!::-#+ -

!f + ig~ +- i!/1+t = OJ.. p1'O'rided

impillillS n.&t. I" J, (; aA!I m.t.ia

00 i!l. i\n.)' ElIclid~L' oo~lllll(! • del-!lrllJiDM DB. tbe. l.o'tolllnlf!Ct:i

'B IL t. U· t.b tI COCI mci.e:nttI Ilr'fI

.tI..'Ir+.Dy+C=~ "~ yt

1:1

oM:!. ~ - II 1M: irr.a.tiol'i-l.l d:l..mnCftl tl:m:!l ot li:lCIII .r.d -ei:r(;1". .. l!otCI e

• "''I.rrd,. It. j" B¥1 don Ii 1. OWl:! 'r • et. .." d!.G ~ (I' IkI '*" li CI rL!S ~ nd. el

Il!yj l.hoosn DIH' IIUrd DZp1'~Lo APil tMII. :rI!mallJlIi tmo 1l~'nI EuditNGs frlttWI 'I1'iU ~"""1id !I, aM "0 ~fln'&,.

or the tU®U1fI ~'O'b1etm. o! a", '

1;\ t.b .... t. is to F'J:J.1 oJ' LDe 0011 mca.&ttl'td bJ -12. It c&1'I btl Q!M.1 !tLlte Mmbillll.tio~ of 'rat" pro1.le:m is ~ im~iW, 0lI

MIl. i U,1lI fi.m. ~ ~ th"" B- ~uadraJ:.i1.'l eqWl.tioo. &-et -I- ib i!,' Cb- [ (Mi'5t-. Em 21).

-"~ob.DI1

I I I

v J\lU &.'BLO

[11

ar the i.rele. Let () 00 th!l eItI or

~ A f-1f n fl,m;J. A(i- 11, OP !LlUl d~'PJ }; J/ p.o.ru.lll! 1D

t.c the im.lmferalctl of thll!! cil"'dc IJ pl~ t dceirn~lL If R ill t.h~ hi M "~tll ml!llQl! 16 le;rw tM..J 11 'P

n be. -oon1ill~'t'1Ict.ed lI."ith UJt: tional. ItDgd.:t.

meter QA .n.d tb..e t4npDt ~d We ~t "t. C. On ill Oll ~ ui.i of ~I .MIl¥' lha.t the

if: CW' .... t. Ti1c~ alq the ulJi of ) ~ n P and. QI' Nt !.he. 't.A[)gllC:t, \0 t.be

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm I!oou I

oN UDBI!: ItS

[n

- de r di$pl4lcrmiSitU' in plane.

PQ be~. But; n

orrle~· to s ify it completely. \Ve uire to k no :

g,t1tud1l5 of he tI spleeement, ... .& t e Jeng

e PQ ) (.Ii) • di ctio~ of tb8 di~p

by the Mg~ w hie PQ ma\;:ee with

; (iii) th.e " of ~ d i:llplaccmcllt; ~

hrM. Of tL uirttnlmts we Q

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm I!oou I

-36]

1m. Eq:uJnl,nc:e pla.e.men.u 'bJ' D c p, &nd r AAd ~. th

t 6SeI oqmLti.alJS, being E!i eebols - If -~, t). - tt • [

I to is clear that t.WIJI and only i f, ~ ~ ~., y

The I"m'QJ"U~ di!llplnce natural t.o agree that

[~-r.

~ - 1'Jl and it.

here « i.F.Ii nny Rt.l.l nu OB-- tOA then

oil"..} •• , ••• ,._ .,' _ ••• ' .. --eZ)

Thus (Fig. 9)

The eqU& t.io.o~ (1) n.noct.ed with disp pudtipli:cattM oj d

mportant. id displaeeme t,9;,

36. Additio:Q u-t y de~itioo. which

ramon !9~5e nt onM. au s to

o two diapli&Ce'ment.s h di$ 1 iJJ the J"C

o .... be !uCCCMi ve appli , c.h

o lBIB FDfZ(I!Im oou -.~ob.DI1

I I 1 I I I

[m d pm-a1lel J ,P'{{on • 't.hcn W~

/Q

\ \

, or

... /"""

• Q ...

-.- ~ ..... A' .....

.....

\

\

:U, if qQ. be to P'lJ &0 L Bot. tho!!! ~1 of :!!ill~e:ssi"¥e: d' P is to l;ra PJfe.- it fiAt to Q n

t.h6 sum 0 PQ and ~ as n 1 rmd pan. k 1 too PQ~ 8Jld 0 plett} the -al1~logre."l OA

FQ+p '-PQ;-LiA+

.. '

Fi_s. :2CI.

nsider \he O~II(lnc:etil of il!e!i of B a :i,!I. U~@ln t.b + .i')~ i (y+ )~ a.m.) these of

[.10. y] [.z'. y'] = [If; + ,,;.

regaroed \Yeo

j + [%, yJ -- [ +.t:1 Y + .Y] +$'Jy+~ll·[)

s, addit!'(,1 of d~~j

d in erdin algebra by th

~ the bvioWlo gecrn~tri

thro~Sh a chlt,anec PQ, eq n

.[)Ugh ~ di.a e eq 11&1 nnd

Ii!IU1Ut point Ql as ber.,re.

detilli t.Lon_ Ie point Qf 01:+ ~ '!J y'. He!1!;l11!

y').. .,.. . ..... _(3)1

n i.tio of addition of

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm OOU I I

73

e~ [~ OJ d dil'~on pa enotfd by [~ long a lion. nd [3:, y] ~eir

ere is no fur ny nnmber.

r.'t~1} +

«, 'Y+y~ + m.~ by tbe- eqUA D [~y]+ ~ [~'j!ID .... , ..... ( ~

~he p l1icle whel"€ j me to W' 'l.t [0. 0] - O~

EJELmpl(i) (ii) (iii} {L .... ) (y)

~il il equaJilIIl'!i fotlo 8t'" lili.mll ju ~h ~ id &'bo~ in tbifl

2. lUI i a tM idli18 Emi ir If .d:Ll'ii!tt FQ III tbo ~t.i

D

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm I!oou I

-.~ob.lII1

I I II

COl1PLIiJ. !tv

;mo coll;11~ poi'[]ts in th!;! ~ at IIll ..,~ aM. :!I~b t

II. (f}+fl. ,;Jq+l' .

[lil IiDd

.dC'. =.8 . A (), Com

• ..! Co It ill- tridlli!n1. "Y I 'PI'herl OIl t.n I;:! ,beQ

r.U~~ T U .11.," ch';,,,,,'O Sbot'l' Lha~ AC.

il'- .s II+/J-l

e zm n Df1'D1Im I!oou

I I I I

-.~ob.lII1

I I

:36~ :]7]

.fl. mnde ne a:Lte uf th~ prod. wio.n \'IIhieh iF; mul ~iFI ied

d11!1p]B.ClMDenb. S13

pit. 'ID :II. t.t.sc Y m@M.in.g Wt.IOI. vor

of t.wo t1isp 6C men 18.. Tho en 1 . kin e ham OOD' ed is tha~ in W 'M & Y a number,

IiQ fR.f 111~ ~b ing, nnd 'We !ilf"e nt. libert.y to def I"l

anything 'We 1 ke. It 19, h w er, t3.irly clear t t. jf DY

of~ueh ~ P ct. it to ~ f Y use, the prod~ t -or wo

mmte multo i Ir be a w.. b. tnt.

We might r~r example d ue i.t 08 being

[ + '1 Y + y1; in o'hEll' \VOrd J we migh t;

men t.3 was. W Il101 wa)'"3

t \iii 0 serious 0 ections 't.O defllliti~ WO d be fut.ile..

met.hod 01 e eJt~E!i Wj ineon vi'nie.nt

:a. rea.l Dnm hi:!

DOt. gi\'e thil nable dell it n m Lg bt (LPpelU" [~ J}[ ~i y'] ~ ["1 !",y'].

In rnct., 't. ill by no m .0 b"iml9: WMt.· the

produe t [ J Y [%'.!IJ. A Il that iF; el

n is t.o be f ny use, th i~ pr et

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm I!oou 1

_. foraDltm1.noh.lII1 1 1 . -·1,.-----

76 [rn
.a. dieplaeemen to and
wonls t.h~ .,.."e;
[",,~ ]I] [.:;1,
where X and are flJ:net.ion of~. YI
definil.icn I".D U!~ I!IUM :11.5! \0 ngree WI
nnd (3) Lhnt th definition mu t. obey 1.
dinributi u. an !IooIlclativ! 13 131 of ruul
~ y] [~. ,1-= [,iI(, y1 [
({~,:.vJ + [ t1)[ tt', 11 ~ [a:, 31'] [.2:
[e, !I] ([d:~, 'l + (~"I y"'n - [.-t, y] (*'
and [s, y] ([ y'] [%"'t ~D - ({~ yJ[ ,
38. 'rile f~ "definition ~ t.c.kc. i, u We
k~· th!1~ if BI OOf) are t~'o aim I . ngle~ tho gles
eorrtspoJlding i the order i.n which t. e wntt n, til n
or OB. 00=0 .OD. Thi., :iI gguw
InO ltiiVI ication d d ivision of d splncem
0 OA .. 0:0(001 (i1i.
Now let
[~ ~]. DC- [It'I,jl - K~ YI.
0 e zm n IIIJ'DIIm I!oou

I II I I

31j 3S] 17

that (J£ .. [1 0]. Then j Y] - [X, YJ,

=I Y].

!I p!ln 9~ in tes or D pa'~(8 txr aln (0

~) 11- f3 :51 ntly pa and 8

l= l! -91,

)r= -t p',

We desired .

]

c:hM~

sigu then

the X ='"1 Y q. we ide' not; Altered i we ' tm~

f§37 er'.lt,

78

m

39. Comp OX wrreapond e. m.an~ ~o'tJ y J in th of nat t'r-ImWm ~.

W & shall find i .'1:", Y by ihe Iytn bo

ment. [.2:] 1 o to a di

)1') and II

Tho reuon for t e ehoi For the: present t e ROO lUdy f)f wnting [: ). Th hltJn~.

We [X'OOI!ed ne t to deS rum of eom pleJ: nu belt..

a d isplaeement. eOJTes~ng_d~

of t~ complex nu to t.he .$um or Th1U~

if.nd gnly if.:L:' - ~ y-y'

(~+ i) + (~ !Ii) (~+r) (y

(~+ -c;j -W1"-(

In part.iClllDf"

and thase equatio confusion i rj when :E + Oi lind yJ. for 0

Positi .... e j nteg :fIrfl: then defined

y = y' in (3)j \\'e 0 lU

(;I;+:VI - (~+

+Y" ~a+ .; t. til t th~e

L th. c pin n 'Dl beI h~n~ th.

-.~ob.DI1

I I

Slii. 39

or

COMPJ..li.l. HUM

'Wi' I e-A!ily veri fy ttJr- hi tltJ of complex n lim bera: ob by t eo equations

~+yi+(~j + y''':) -(~ + ,~~) y,')} + {z:.~ + ~i} ;;;;;; (.'I: + yt.)

":)1 (~+ y"t}=-{~ + Yi) (~ + ;.) + YI) (Z" + Y"~)J ~ H~ + tfl) $ or t. 8M eq aatiao:9- bei Dg pl1.\Ct. ooing 'f!q [ult.iIlDB fOI" Lhe

.nd diviBion tJr oomphn: u bra. Th 113 we may de6ne ~

Ltion I\lld t ~gebm

- y1i;

number E + tti such t.hat. (~'+y',) +{E+vi)::;;% ~

t.he I!Ia me rn&tLlL And {:II mplex ruunbet E + qi su.eh

(_a.) + y'i)(l + 'll) - % + i;

~e - Y17 + (~1f +:vEl i - + 'J

~.( - Y'l1- ~~ ~''9 + (E - ..... " .. _- .. (4).

So vi g

·Is if % !Uld y' 3I!'e bot.h e n is nl wayE; ~ible; d~ vi ;0 r IS :&ern.

;:) is defined

80

-iO. known

to !SIll l)1iry our •• t.ead r O+yi

ply by L. Ilt along

=~l. ,~d - i

a&. the upshot of ll]e:lt n mben is

:J" U. ¢.y cl!, &~ ~

tL i a itMlf n.umberl

o BIB FDfZ(I!Im I!oou -.~ob.DI1

I T I II