Chapter 9

Network Organizational Concepts

Basic Terminology
A network is a collection of loosely coupled processors interconnected by communication links using cables, wireless technology, or a
combination of both. A common goal of all networked systems is to provide a convenient way to share resources while controlling users’
access to them. These resources include both hardware (such as a CPU, memory, printers, USB ports, and disk drives) and software (such as
application programs and data files). There are two general configurations for operating systems for networks, Network Operating System
(NOS) and Distributed Operating System (DOS).

The network operating system (NOS) in this configuration has networking capability, users are aware of the specific assortment of
computers and resources in the network and can access the resources by logging on to the appropriate remote host or by transferring data
from the remote computer to their own.

A distributed operating system provides good control for distributed computing systems and allows their resources to be accessed in a
unified way. A distributed operating system represents a total view across multiple computer systems for controlling and managing resources
without local dependencies. Management is a cooperative process that encompasses every resource and involves every site. A distributed
operating system is composed of four managers: Device Manager, File Manager, Processor Manager, Memory Manager. At a minimum, the
distributed operating system must provide the following components: process or object management, memory management, file management,
device management, and network management. A distributed operating system offers several important advantages over older operating
systems and NOSs, including:
 easy and reliable resource sharing,
 faster computation,
 adequate load balancing,
 good reliability,
 dependable electronic communications among the network’s users.
Processors are referred to as sites, hosts, and nodes. “Site” indicates a specific location in a network containing one or more computer
systems; “Host” indicates a specific computer system found at a site whose services and resources can be used from remote locations; “Node”
(or, more formally, “node name”) refers to the name assigned to a computer system connected to a network to identify it to other computers
in the network.

Network Topologies
Sites in any networked system can be physically or logically connected to one another in a certain topology, the geometric arrangement of
connections (cables, wireless, or both) that link the nodes. The most common topologies are star, ring, bus, tree, and hybrid. In each topology,
there are trade-offs among the need for fast communication among all sites, the tolerance of failure at a site or communication link, the cost
of long communication lines, and the difficulty of connecting one site to a large number of other sites. The star, ring, bus, tree, and hybrid
topologies are normally used to construct local area networks.

Four criteria:
• Basic cost: the expense required to link the various sites in the system
• Communications cost: the time required to send a message from one site to another
• Reliability: assurance of communication even if a link or system site fails
• User environment: critical parameters for successful business environment

Star
A star topology, sometimes called a hub or centralized topology because transmitted data passes through the central controller. Star topology
enables data to be transmitted from a sender to a receiver. Star topology permits easy routing because the central station knows the path to all
other sites. The central control point makes access to the network controlled easily, and priority status can be given to selected sites.
However, this centralization of control requires that the central site be extremely reliable and able to handle all network traffic, no matter how
heavy.

Ring
All sites are connected in a closed loop, with the first site connected to the last. A ring network can connect to other networks via the bridge
or gateway, depending on the protocol used by each network. The protocol is the specific set of rules used to control the flow of messages
through the network. If the other network has the same protocol, then a bridge is used to connect the networks. If the other network has a
different protocol, a gateway is used. Data is transmitted in packets that also contain source and destination address fields. Each packet is
passed from node to node in one direction only. Every node must be functional for the network to perform properly.

Bus
All sites are connected to a single communication line running the length of the network. Messages from any site circulate in both directions
through the entire communication line and can be received by all other sites. One site sends a message at a time successfully. A control
mechanism is needed to prevent collisions. Data may pass directly from one device to another, or it may be routed to an end point controller
at the end of the line

Tree
This is a collection of buses connected by branching cable with no closed loops. Bridges are used as special fitters between buses of the same
protocol and as translators to those with different protocols to create networks that can operate at speeds highly responsive to the hosts in the
network. A message from any site can be received by all other sites until it reaches the end points. If a message reaches an end point
controller without being accepted by a host, the end point controller absorbs it. Advantage is that message traffic still flows even if single
node fails.

Hybrid
A hybrid topology is some combination of any of the four topologies. The transmission medium used may vary from one topology to another.
The objective of a hybrid configuration is to select among the strong points of each topology and combine them to meet that system’s
communications requirements most effectively.

Network Types
Networks are grouped according to the physical distances they cover. Networks are generally divided into local area networks, metropolitan
area networks, and wide area networks.

Personal Area Network

A personal area network (PAN) includes information technology that operates within a radius of approximately 10 meters of an individual
and is centered around that one person. Also called body area networks (BANs), PANs include networks that include wearable technology
(gloves, caps, monitors) that use the natural connectivity of the human body to communicate.

Local Area Network

A local area network (LAN) defines a configuration including multiple users found within a single office
building, warehouse, campus, or similar computing environment. Such a network is generally owned, used, and operated by a single
organization and allows computers to communicate directly through a common communication line. Communications are not limited to that
area because the LAN can be a component of a larger communication network and can allow users to have easy access to other networks
through a bridge or a gateway.
A bridge is a device and the software to operate it that connects two or more geographically distant local
area networks that use the same protocols. A simple bridge could be used to connect two local area
networks that use the Ethernet networking.

A gateway, on the other hand, is a more complex device and software used to connect two or more local
area networks or systems that use different protocols. A gateway translates one network’s protocol into
another. Gateways resolve hardware and software incompatibilities.
Metropolitan Area Network
A metropolitan area network (MAN) defines a configuration spanning an area larger than a LAN, ranging from several blocks of buildings
to an entire city, but not exceeding a circumference of 100 kilometers. MANs can be owned and operated as public utilities, providing the
means for internetworking several LANs. A MAN is a high-speed network often configured as a logical ring. Depending on the protocol
used, messages are either transmitted in one direction using only one ring, or in both directions using two counter-rotating rings. One ring
always carries messages in one direction and the other always carries messages in the opposite direction.

Wide Area Network

A wide area network (WAN) defines a configuration that interconnects communication facilities in different parts of the world, or that’s
operated as part of a public utility. WANs use a broad range of communication media, including satellite and microwaves; in some cases, the
speed of transmission is limited by the capabilities of the communication line. WANs are generally slower than LANs.

Wireless Local Area Network

A wireless local area network (WLAN) is a local area network that uses wireless technology to connect computers or workstations located
within the range of the network. Wireless nodes include workstations, laptops. A WLAN can provide easy access to a larger network or the
Internet. A WLAN typically poses security vulnerabilities because of its open architecture and the inherent difficulty of keeping out
unauthorized intruders.

Software Design Issues

Four Software Issues that must be addressed:
• Addressing Conventions
• Routing Strategies
• Connection Models
• Conflict Resolution

Addressing Conventions
Network sites need to determine how to uniquely identify their users so they can communicate with each other and access each other’s
resources. Names, addresses, and routes are required because sites aren’t directly connected to each other except over point-to-point links;
therefore, addressing protocols are used. Addressing Protocols: fulfill the need to uniquely identify users. Addressing Protocols are closely
related to the site network topology and geographic location. There is a distinction between local name and global name. Local name refers to
the name by which a unit is known within its own system, whereas global names refer to the name the name by which a unit is known outside
its own system. Local names and global names must follow standard name conventions (lengths, formats).
Example of addressing convention: Internet Address
someone@icars.lis.pitt.edm is a typical example of the Domain Name Service protocol.
The domain name server is the general purpose data query service. Domain Name Service is hierarchical. Periods are used to separate
components. Domain names are read from left to right.
 Take into consideration this email address: someone@icars.lis.pitt.edm
 someone is the logical user
 icarus is the host for the user called someone,
 lis is the net machine for icarus,
 pitt is the cluster for lis, and
 edu is the network for the university of Pittsburgh

Routing Strategies
Router: is an internetworking device which is primarily software driven. Routers direct traffic between two different types of LANs or
between two network segments (different protocol addresses). Routers generally direct traffic of data packets. Once the data is at the proper
network, the router makes sure that the correct node in the network receives it. The role of routers changes as network designs change…
(Network Layer operation). The router connects sites to other sites and Internet.
Router Functions include securing information generated in predefined areas, choosing fastest route from one point to another, and providing
redundant network connections.

Routing Protocol Considerations

Addressing, address resolution, message format, error reporting.
Address Resolution: allows a router to map the original address to a hardware address. (Maps hardware address)
Message Formats: Allow the protocol to perform its functions. Protocol functions include finding new network nodes, determining whether
network nodes work (perform testing), reporting error conditions, exchanging routing information, establishing connections (transmit data).
The most widely Used Internet Routing Protocols Are Routing Information Protocol (RIP) and Open Shortest Path First (OSPF).

Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

Path selection is based on node and hop number between source and destination. The path with smallest number of hops is always chosen.
This distance vector algorithm is easy to implement. However, the routing information protocol is not the best in today’s networking
environment because it does not take into consideration other more important factors such as bandwidth, data priority, or type of network. It
can exclude faster or more reliable paths from being selected just because they have more hops. Another limitation of the Routing
Information Protocol is the routing tables. The entire routing table is updated and reissued whether changes have occurred or not. This
increases internetwork traffic and negatively affects the delivery of messages. In addition, tables propagate from one router to another.

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

The network state is determined first, then the Transmission path is selected. Update messages are sent when changes in routing environment
occur. This reduces the number of messages in internetwork. This also reduces the message size: by not sending entire table. However,
Increased memory usage because OSPF keeps track of more information than RIP. Bandwidth savings offset by higher CPU usage needed for
the calculation of the shortest path.

Connection Models
Communication network is concerned about: moving data from one point to another, minimizing transmission costs, providing full
connectivity.

Circuit switching
Uses a Dedicated communication path. Established between two hosts before transmission begins. Circuit Switching can easily be observed
in telephone systems. Unfortunately, there is a delay before signal transfer begins while connection is set up.

Packet switching
Uses the Store-and-forward technique before sending a message. A message is divided into multiple equal-sized units (packets) at destination.
Packets reassembled into original long format, header contains pertinent packet information Packet switching provides greater line efficiency
because a single node to node circuit can be shared by several packets and does not sit idle over long periods of time. Packet switching allows
users to allocate message priority. Packet switching networks are more reliable because nodes are connected by more than one link, which
makes packet switching networks flexible.

Circuit Switching Packet Switching

 Transmits in real time
 Preferred in low-volume networks
 Reduced line efficiency
 Dedicated to a single transmission
 Preferred for voice communication
 Easily overloaded
 Transmits in batches
 Preferred in high-volume networks
 High line efficiency
 Shared by many transmissions
 Not good for voice communications
 Accommodates varying priority among packets

There are two ways of selecting the path: datagrams, virtual circuits
Datagrams: have packet destination and sequence number added to information. This allows for uniquely identifying message
to owning packet. Each packet handled is independently. The packet route is selected as each packet is accepted. At
destination all packets of same message are reassembled. Datagrams diminish congestion and provide reliability. Messages are
not delivered until all packets are accounted for. Receiving node requests retransmission of lost or damaged packets.
Datagrams send incoming packets through less heavily used paths and it provides more reliability because alternate paths may
be set up upon node failure.
Virtual circuit: In virtual circuit the complete path from sender to receiver is established before transmission starts. All
message packets use the same route. Any node can have several virtual circuits to any other node. Routing decision is made
once for all packets belonging to the same message. This speeds up transmission. There are disadvantages however, all virtual
circuits fail upon one failure. It is difficult to resolve congestion (in heavy traffic)

Conflict Resolution
Device sharing requires access control methods to facilitates equal and fair network access.

Access control techniques

Access control techniques include Round Robin, Reservation and Contention. There are also medium access control protocols,
which include carrier sense multiple access (CSMA), token passing, and distributed-queue, dual bus (DQDB). Round robin
access control technique every node is given certain time to complete transmission. Round Robin is efficient If many nodes
transmitting over long time periods. However, there is substantial overhead If few nodes transmit over long time periods.
Reservation is a good access control technique if there is lengthy and continuous traffic. The access time on medium is divided
into slots. Each node reserves future time slots. Reservation is a good technique for a configuration with several terminals
connected to host through single I/O port. Contention is better for short and intermittent traffic. No attempt is made to
determine whose turn it is to transmit, so nodes compete for access to the medium. Contention access control technique is
easy to implement and works well under light to moderate traffic; it works better for short and intermittent traffic. However,
performance breaks down under heavy loads

Carrier sense multiple access (CSMA)

This is a contention-based protocol. It provides for easy implementation (Ethernet). Carrier sense: Node listens to/tests
communication medium before transmitting messages. Prevents collision with node currently transmitting. Multiple access:
Several nodes connected to same communication line as peers. Same level and equal privileges. Disadvantages of CSMA is that
collision is likely to occur as two or more nodes transmit at same instant. Probability of collision increases as nodes get further
apart. CSMA is less appealing access protocol for large or complex networks. The original algorithm (CSMA) was modified and
named Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Detection CSMA/CD: It Includes collision detection. Ethernet is the most widely
known CSMA/CD. CSMA/CD reduces wasted transmission capacity. CSMA/CD prevents multiple nodes from colliding. Collision
detection does not eliminated collisions (they are reduced). A different modification is Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance CSMA/CA and was implemented in Apple’s cabling system: LocalTalk. Collision avoidance means that the
access method prevents multiple nodes from colliding during transmission. Collision occurrence involves small packet and not
actual data (in case of Apple CSMA/CA). There is no guarantee data will reach its destination. CSMA/CD ensures error free data
delivery.

Token Passing
A token is a special electronic message. It is generated and passed from node to node. Only node with token is allowed to
transmit, then passes token to the next receiving node. Two typical topologies are: Bus and Ring, and are popular because
access is fast and collisions are nonexistent.

Token-bus Network
The token is passed to each node in turn. Data is attached; and packet is sent to destination. The receiving node copies data;
adds acknowledgment; returns packet to sending node. The sending node passes token to next node in logical sequence. Node
order is determined by a cooperative decentralized algorithm. Turns are then determined by priority based on node activity.
There is higher overhead at each node than does CSMA/CD and nodes have long waits before receiving the token.

Token-ring
Is the most widely used protocol for ring topology. The token moves between nodes in turn. Token moves in one direction
only. To send a message, nodes must wait for free token to come by. Receiving node copies packet message in the packet and
sets copied bit indicating successful receipt.

Distributed-queue, dual bus (DQDB)

The Distributed-queue, dual bus (DQDB) protocol is intended for use with a dual-bus configuration, where each bus transports
data in only one direction. Transmission on each bus consists of a steady stream of fixed-size slots. Slots generated at one end
of each bus are marked as free and sent downstream where: they are marked busy and written to by nodes that are ready to
transmit data. Nodes read and copy data from slots, which then continue to travel toward end of the bus: where they
dissipate. The distributed access protocol is based on a distributed reservation scheme. DQDB advantages: This protocol
provides negligible delays under light loads and predictable queuing under heavy loads. This combination makes DQDB suitable
for MANs managing large file transfers and that are able to satisfy the needs of interactive users.

Transport Protocol Standards

Network usage grew quickly in 1980s, as did the need to integrate dissimilar network devices from different vendors; a task
that became increasingly difficult as the number and complexity of network devices increased. Creation of single universally
adopted architecture that would allow true multivendor interoperability. Two models are OSI reference model and TCP/IP

OSI Reference Model

This model provides the basis for connecting open systems distributed applications processing. The word “Open” means that
any two systems that conform to the reference model and related standards can be connected regardless of the vendor.
Similar functions collected together into seven logical clusters known as layers.

Layer 1: The Physical Layer

Layer 1 is at the bottom of the model. Layer 1 describes mechanical, electrical, functional specifications. Layer 1 is primarily
concerned with transmitting bits over communication lines. Examples of physical layer specifications: 100Base-T, RS449, CCITT
V.35.
Layer 2: The Data Link Layer
Establishes and controls physical communications path before data is sent. Layer 2 checks for transmission errors and resolves
problems caused by damaged, lost, or duplicate message frames. Problem resolution (on other side). Examples: High-level
Data Link Control (HDLC) and Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC)

Layer 3: The Network Layer

Layer 3 provides services such as addressing and routing that move data through the network to destination. The software at
this level accepts blocks of data from layer 4, the transport layer, resizes them into shorter packets, and routes them to the
proper destination.
Layer 4: The Transport Layer
This layer maintains reliable data transmission between end users. Example of transport layer protocol is Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP).
Layer 5: The Session Layer
The Session layer is responsible for providing user-oriented connection service and transferring data over the communication
lines. Example of session layer protocol TCP/IP
Layer 6: The Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is responsible for data manipulation functions common to many applications such as formatting,
compression, and encryption.
Layer 7: The Application Layer
At the application layer application programs, terminals, and computers access the network. This layer provides user interface.
The application layer provides the interface to users and is responsible for formatting user data before passing to lower layers
for transmission.

TCP/IP
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is probably the oldest transport protocol standard. It’s the basis for
internet communications and is the most widely used protocol today. TCP/IP is a file transfer protocol; large files can be sent
across sometimes unreliable networks with a high probability that the files will arrive error free. Transmission Control
Protocol /Internet Protocol emphasizes internetworking and provides connectionless services. Transmission Control Protocol
/Internet Protocol model organizes communication system with three main components: processes, hosts, and networks. The
TCP/IP model has four layers: Network Access Layer, Internet Layer, Host-Host layer, Process/Application layer.

Network Access Layer

The network access layer is equivalent to the physical, data link layer, and parts of the network layers of the OSI model.
Protocols provide access to a communication network. Some functions performed include flow control, error control between
hosts, security, and priority implementation.

Internet Layer
Equivalent to OSI model network layer performing routing functions. Implemented within gateways and hosts. Example:
Internet Protocol (IP) which provides connectionless service for end systems to communicate across one or more networks.

Host-Host Layer
The Host-Host layer is equivalent to the transport and session layers of the OSI model. Transfer data between two processes
on different host computers. Services provided by the host-host layer also include error checking, flow control, manipulate
connection control signals. An example is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which provides a reliable end-end data
transfer service.

Process/Application Layer
The process/application layer is equivalent to both the presentation and application layers of the OSI model. This layer includes
protocols for computer-to-computer resource sharing and terminal-to-computer remote access. Examples include FTP, SMTP,
Telnet.