STRATIGRAPHIC AND PALEOECOLOGIC SIGNIFICANCE OF

THE MESOZOIC AND CENOZOIC DIATOMS OF

CALIFORNIA AND NEVADN

KENNETH E LOHMAN
U S Geological Survey Washington D C

ABSTRACT

Many areas of both California and the Great Basin contain diatom bearing sediments
which range in age from Late Cretaceous to Recent The diatom assemblages in these rocks
contain both short ranging species that are useful for stratigraphic correlation and others
still represented in living assemblages elsewhere that are useful for paleoecologic interpre
tations Although thousands of square miles of diatom bearing sediments have been mapped
by petroleum geologists and have been penetrated and cored during drilling operations the
diatoms have been neglected as a stratigraphic and paleoecologic tool Some of the reasons
most often presented for this lack of attention are claims that Foraminifera are easier to
work with are better known and that laboratory manipulation of them is easier and more
suited to assembly line methods This is true in part only as assembly line methods have
been developed for handling large numbers of samples of diatomaceous sediments Further
more diatoms are often found in sediments that are completely barren of Foraminifera or
other fossils
The present interest in palynology by the oil companies indicates that new techniques are
no
longer received with disfavor As far as the necessary laboratory preparation and study
are concerned diatom samples can be prepared and significant species identified at least as
expeditiously as samples containing pollen and spores
Distinctive diatom assemblages are known from the Moreno Shale of Late Cretaceous
and Paleocene age and from many sedimentary formations in Eocene Oligocene Miocene
Pliocene and Pleistocene rocks in California from the San Francisco Bay area southward
These assemblages from rocks of Cretaceous through Miocene age are virtually all marine
Pliocene rocks in different localities contain either marine or nonmarine diatom assemblages
Pleistocene asemblages are dominantly nonmarine
Extensive areas of Miocene Pliocene and Pleistocene sediments in Nevada and other
parts of the Great Basin also contain distinctive nonmarine diatom assemblages In that
region diatoms are often the only fossils present Here also the diatoms can provide much
needed paleoecological information as the Cenozoic lake basins varied greatly in depth
temperature salinity pH and other factors of paleoecological importance

characteristic of
any particular time
INTRODUCTION

Fossil marine diatoms known from zone have wide geographic distribution
are

a great many stratigraphic units in Cali making these useful for stratigraphic
correlation between rocks originally de
fornia beginning with the Moreno Shale
of Late Cretaceous or Paleocene posited in widely separated basins
age and extending through the Tertiary Again because of their small size as
and Quaternary Systems Their siliceous semblages adequate for useful accurate
frequency counts can be obtained from
tests usually well preserved in many
are
small samples of rock thus reducing the
sedimentary formations of interest to load on the field geologist making the
petroleum geologists over this entire in collections as well as on the laboratory
terval By virtue of their small size and
staff preparing them for study Depend
the ease with which they may be trans
ing upon their concentration in the en
ported for great distances in a viable closing sediment from one to three cubic
state definitive assemblages of diatoms eentimeters of rock is adequate for ef
fective laboratory processing A total
by the Director
1
Publication authorized
collected in the field of about
U S Geological Survey sample as

S8
 DIATOMS OF CALIFORNIA AND NEVADA 59

200 cubic centimeters or 12 cubic inches leaching took place Several examples
is sufficient for all and they are not uncommon are given
practical
purposes
Diatoms have been found in virtually in a recent paper Lohman 1960 p

all 184 186

types of water laid sediments with
the Although diatoms small mostly
exception of very clean sandstones are

in size from less than 10 J to

and conglomerates As is true of many ranging
other types of fossils diatom concentra a maximum of about 250 J the larger

tion in sediments is dependent on 1 marine discoid species usually can be

the presence of an environment suitable seen with a 10 X hand lens in the field

for rapid growth and multiplication 2 particularly on fresh bedding planes so

the rate at which clastic material was the field geologist can collect with about
contributed to the basin of deposition the same certainty as is felt when col
and 3 the degree to which the siliceous lecting Foramini fera The nonmarine
tests have been subsequently leached by species are generally much smaller and
alkaline or silica starved solutions In virtually impossible to detect with a hand
diatoms in such lens
many places occur con

centrations as to form a diatomite made Diatoms often occur in the same strata

up almost entirely of diatoms with only asother small fossils particularly For
aminifera and perhaps more important
minor amounts of clay and other fine
clastic material The com often in strata containing no
as impurities they occur

minable diatomites in the other preserved fossils This is particu

mercially
and Formations of larly true in nonmarine strata in the
Monterey Sisquoc
California are examples Diatoms may Great Basin where Foraminifera are

also occur in smaller concentrations in never found Until recently few petro
shales claystones mudstones siltstones leum geologists have paid attention to
to occasionally note
clayey or silty sandstones and in both the diatoms except
bedded and their presence in cores or measured sec
concretionary limestones as
well as in water laid tuffs Their con tions Several arguments have been ad
centration in such sediments may pro vanced to explain this lack of attention

vide a clue to the rapidity of deposition the principal ones being that diatom

The absence of diatoms in sediments samples difficult to process than

are more

Foraminifera samples that high pow

particularly in fine grained ones is
the result of their having been ered microscopes are necessary that
commonly
leached out by alkaline or silica starved trained hard to find arid
personnel are

1959 9 has that the necessary literature is difficult

waters Krauskopf p
shown that the solubility of silica Si02 to obtain Many of these objections had

some validity when Foramini fera were

is essentially independent of pH for val
used in oil
ues below 9 but rises abruptly at higher the only microfossils com

is pany laboratories Now that oil compan

values Diatom silica Si02 nH20
much more soluble than amorphous ies have accepted palynology as a work
silica even at much lower pH values ing tool the picture has changed some

what have the

discovered that
Lewin 1961 p 184 fig 1 has shown They
a three fold increase in the dissolution high powered microscope is not as for
of diatom silica from pH 6 to pH 9 and midable as previously thought and that

a 50 fold increase from pH 2 to pH 9

3 even the complex processing of pollen
For this reason diatoms are commonly and spore samples can be put on an es

of
absent from sediments which contained sembly line basis The processing
Under certain circum diatom samples very is simpler much
them originally
stances however diatoms are preserved than that required for many pollen and
suited to
in calcareous concretions in such rocks spore samples and even better
formed before line methods The same meticu
if the concretions were assembly
60 KENNETH E LOHMAN

lous care in all stages of the processing which show no deterioration whatsocver
to prevcnt contamination from other
USE IN STRATIGRAPHY
samples or outside sources is necessary
in both Modern As do most other gronps of fossils
groups photo copying
make the di the diatoms both marine and nonmarine
procedures acquisition
of
atom literature much easicr and lcss havc in any assemblage a mixture of
ex
short
pensive than formerly ranging and long ranging species
Thus each
Thc diatoms have many advantages as assemblage with the possible
microfossils some of which are pos exception of those from rocks of very
sessed late Pleistocene will have
by no other group of organisms age some ex

tinct species and some still representcd

1They occur in virtually all bodies
in living assemblages Thc percentage of
of nontoxic water exposed to light and
extinct spccies of diatoms in rocks which
easily recognized taxa arc characteristic
are of Late Cretaceous through late
of many differcnt ecologic environments
Pleistocene age is roughly similar to
between truly marine conditions and pot
similar pcrcentages for mollusks as is
able fresh water and at widely varying
shown in a recent tabulation for marine
temperatures salinities pH and chemi
cal composition Similar fossil forms are species Lohman 1960 p 186 and for

found in sediments that were dcposited nonmarinc spccies Lohman 1961 p

D 235 fig 373 Although the short
under such cnvironmental conditions
ranging cxtinct species are the most
2 Their geometrically regular struc
both definitivc for
age determination and
ture primary and secondary ren
ders prccise biometric measuremcnts long range correlation those still repre
sented in Jiving assemblages elsewhere
meaningful in the delineation of specics
ha ve great value in determining maxima
and other taxa This greatly increases
in age assignments and are particularly
the certainty with which diffcrent work
identifications valuable in making paleoecological in
ers can agrec in the of
species terpretations
3 Diatoms
indigenous organ
are
PALEOECOLOGY
isms living in the watcr occupying ba
Although diatoms are now living in
sins of deposition Such organisms fOllnd
virtually all nontoxic natural water bod
as fossils in sediments reveal more ac
ies that are least partly exposed to
at
curately the paleoecological conditions and
sunlight presumably did so in the
existing during the sedimentation than geologic past they can be divided
do minute parts of terrestrial plants car
broadly into marine
and nonmarine
ried by wind or water currents from
types The differences between
ecologic
arcas remotc from the basin of deposi
marinc and nonmarinc habitats are much
tion It hardly need be labored that in
greater than one might suppose at first
digenous fossils are also better for age For
than introduced glance example such important fac
determination ones
tors as temperature salinity and pH
4 Satisfactory photomicrographs at to name only three are much more
magnifications up to and exceeding
nearly constant in the sea than in ter
1200X can bc made much more casily restrial bodies of water Diatoms are
for diatoms than for Foraminifera or
living today in nonmarine waters rang
even pollen and sporcs Such photomi ing in temperature from fresh water
crographs are valuable both for publi pools on ice floes Grunow 1884 to
cation and for laboratory records hot springs Lohman ill Nolan and An
5 Properly mounted slides of di derson 1934 p 227 in salinity from
atoms are permanent I have slidcs potable water supplies Rafter 1900 to
which I made more than 40 years ago Pyramid Lake Nevada which has a
 tJ o VJ o 1 Jt o J t t11 tJ C

Smith
Randichards Randichards Randichards Randichards Randichards
133
OXlring p

1943 1943 1943 1943 and

1946 1946 1940
19382 Fuge
L o h m a n L o h m a n L o h m a n L o h m a n S t e w a r t
Lohman 1940 Stewart Stewart Stewart Grant Stewart Grant and and and and and and
1929 1929
2

Ke w Ke w 1 9 5 9 1 9 5 9
Richards Long
Literaue 19292 Richards Vodring odring Vorling and Vocking and SGooociety GeoSociety p
3 3 3

pI pI
and
Vodring 1934
Grant and 19383 19383 Han a 19383 Han a Bramlet Bramlet Bramlet Bramlet Bramlet Bramlet 1946 1946 1928 1932 Stewart 1927B2 1957 1957
V

J
1938

Q46
L
144 4
1927

SHan a tewart Lohman 1940 Lohman 1940 Lohman 1940 Lohman 1940 ro dring Vo dring Vo dring Wodring Vo dring Vo dring Joaquin JSanoaquinBramlet Bramlet Bramlet lian a Han a ro drmg Han a 1940 Kan ya Kan ya Han a 1946
p

and
San

Uni distnc
Californa part sandtoe woe Sandstoe Membr Mudstone Diatome Diatome1 lartinezShaleShaleShale ember Shale ShaleCretacous
o t h e r
or
strat Cher
bed
M e m b r M e m b r part
Iaria

Diatomceus
in par par M
Santa
strat Membr Lower Tufaceos Up er Lower Tinaqu ic Up er Mal ga Valmonte Belridge Chico Gould Media Santos ndicator Up er Sidney Kelog Late
erita
V I
the
of

units
bearing Silt

Formatin Tulare Joaquin Joaquin Etchegoin Etchegoin MFoudxsetonne Sisquoc SiQUOC Montery Montery Montery MontervMontery Montery Tem Temblor Montery Round Temblor Kreynhag Kreynhag Kreynha Alarco
en

Mtn
hlor
diatom San San

late
straigphc
of

marine Pliocen Pliocen Miocen Miocen Miocen

Paleo
details diatoms
TyPical Pleistocn Pliocen Pliocen Pliocen Pliocen
to
and
late
mid le Pliocen early late gives
Age and m i d l e M i o c e n M i o c e n l i o c e n d i a t o m s water
and
and Iiocen Miocen liocen Miocen and and I i o c e n and
E o c e n E o c e n C r e t a c o u s which fresh
Mid le Mid le Mid le harly Mid le Pliocen Late Late Late Late Late Mid le Mid le Early Mid le Mid le Mid le Oligocen Late Late cene 1950 and
of
J

Pliocen Late Late

te

descripton
La

TABLE Cre k Cre k Cre k Cre k Cre k

ater

Hil s lIil s I il s Jil s Hil s Hil s Hil s Hil s lIil s Hil s lIil s Hil
Ridge Canyo
or

Bramlet brackish
Locatin Verdes Verdes Martinez Martinez Martinez Martinez Martinez Monte to th Gulc
I

and
both
62 KENNETH E LOHMAN

salinity
c
of 3400 parts per million
E
Hanna and Grant in pH vary1931
ci o

00
l
ing from less than 5 to over 11 Sover
s
g 1958
d
cd J
ro
eIgn By comparison the same
O factors have vastly narrower limits 111
0

j g the oceans The depth factor although

3 often very important 111 making paleo
fif
B e C e d e
ecological interpretations is not greatly
Q Q

l g
1Il
Ej u
different in the two broad habitats
O s g 0
marine and nonmarine here considered
cn
Oe hecallSe diatoms
E being photosynthetic
Q
E a s E E E E E orgal11sms can prosper only 111 the
c lU
UIl lU
Cl

ttlulG photic zone This limits their activity to

s al

the upper 100 meters of most water bod

l
1 8
p ies A diatom assemblage consisting
Co

5
1 c dominantly of pelagic species would in
E
l
1 dicate deposition either in water deeper
o
o

s than 100 meters in very turbid water

CoCo
or
1 0
tt
E 22 Some clue as to which of these alterna
00
1 woo l
tives is more nearly correct can often
be determined from the lithologic com
CItJ
position of the sediment containing the
d g g Ce ttI
d
il j diatoms On the other hand a prepon
E 8e derance of benthonic attached
0 a gj tl E species
8 B would indicate shallow
@ l J w al al
or exceptionally
a
clear water
iu @ Two examples of paleoecological inter
1j E
9 will be given A study of di
0
c
o pretations
0 atoms in a series of deep sea cores made
c
9
a lll E
across the North Atlantic Ocean Loh
5 c c
51
uu

2 0 man 1941 indicated a much warmer

g 9 00
l
1 cd

oU
u cu Q
i environment than obtained at the 500
U C C C Q
c
8 a o
e north latitude from which the cores were
9 9 g
9
0
9 lU
g u

E made A large percentage of the species

E
a5 o

22
0
l 1 l l l
0 111 the cores were warm water forms
characteristic of the equatorial Atlantic
S
Ocean The results of that study indi
s i 6
cated that these specIes had been car
c a1 S ried northward the Gulf Stream and
I g by
5 u c U 5
of the
N
o C
on account extremely long set
j
W
l d tling rate of the dead diatom tests III
E E
al c
BE such they had
reached the
o 8 gf cd deep water
J il al
bottom at 500 north latitude
al

An example of nonmar1l1e paleoecol

cd cd Go

i E u

ogy IS the case of some diatoms found

ttI
z
i c
j IIIsilty sand from pits dug for archeo
bZ bw U
e
c

9 logical investigations near Clovis New

J 8 ao Mexico Lohman 1935 Here the 111

5 a Q in percentage of saline species in

crease

8 y 88z nonmarine assemblages in successively

c e u 8 o tE
0
higher levels in the pit was considered
d Zi
Jlip I
 DIATOMS OF CALIFORNIA AND NEVADA 63

to indicate an increase in aridity of the TYPICAL NONMARINE DIATOM BEARING

region with consequent evaporation of STRATA IN CALIFORNIA NEVADA AND

the water and concentration of the salt ADJ ACENT STATES

content in the lake In many instances As mentioned earlier under Paleo

such paleoecological interprctations are ecology the nonmarine diatom assem

extremely valuable to the geologist at blages are representative of a much

tempting to reconstruct the environment
under which a sedimentary rock was de
posited
wider range of environments than are
marine assemblages Thus two contem
contain dif
poraneous formations may
ferent diatom assemblages if for exam

ple one is a fresh water floodplain de

TYPICAL MARINE DIATOM REARING STRATA

IN CALIFORNIA posit and the other consists of saline

beds For this caution
Sedimentary marine strata containing lake reason more

diatoms in in and experience are needed in mak

occur a grcat many areas more

assignments of nonmarine sedi

California and in rocks of all ages be ing age
Cretaceous and Recent To
Late ments on the basis of diatom assem
tween

attempt even to list all of such occur blages A number of nonmarine diatom
rences would be heyond the scope of bearing strata are tabulated in Table 2
selection of with pertinent references to the
this paper Therefore a together
of the in literature All of these strata have been
some more significant ones
which published dated means of adequate vertebrate
cluding those for re by
has been tabulated faunas with the exception of the Provo
ports arc available
with stratigraphic Member of the Little Cottonwood For
together pertinent
data in Table 1 In most cases these mation which has been dated by means

of carbon 14 the gamut

The strata
highly diatomaceous and con run
rocks arc

tain abundant wcll preserved diatoms of paleoecologic conditions from saline

In some cases howevcr the diatoms lakes Provo Member floodplain de
Glenns Formation shal
have been altered or even completely posits Ferry
lakes Thousand Creek
Icached from what was originally a low marshy
In such rocks beds of local usage to extensive lakes
shale or a mudstone
Esmeralda Forma
preserved diatoms can only be obtained of varying depth
from calcareous concretions occurring tion All of these environments are in

in the shale or chert Examples are the dicated by the diatom assemblages ob
tained from the sediments
Chico Martinez Chert of local usage
nonmarine diatom bear
and Gould Shale Members of the Mon Many other
in the western states
terey Formation and the Media Shale ing strata occur

and Santos Shale Members of local but the ones here considered are among
of the Tcmblor Formation all the best dated Van Houten 1956 has
usage
in Chico Martinez Creek in the Temblor summarized a number of additional lo
calities in Nevada
Range
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siliceous rocks U S Geol Survey Prof Paper 212 p 1 57 pI 1 19
BUWALDA J P 1914 Tertiary mammal beds of Stewart and lone Valleys in west central
363 pI 32 38
Nevada Cali fornia Univ Dept Geol Sci Bull v 8 n 19 p 335
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HANNA G D
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I
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 64 KENNETH E LOHMAN

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17
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