Introduction To Guidance and Counselling 2020

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INTRODUCTION TO GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING/ ISSUES IN GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
COURSE OUTLINE
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS
 Guidance, Counselling, guidance and counselling, Orientation. Psychotherapy, Psychiatry.

 Functions of a counselor.
 Relevance of Guidance and counseling in a school setting
 Counseling and classroom management.
 Promoting cooperation and classroom interaction.
 Discipline, Mutual respect among students-students, students-teachers, teacher-teachers and others.
 Strategies to enhance confidence and self-esteem among students.
 Qualities of a good facilitator:
 High level of preparedness.
 Warm relationship with the learners. –Price and motivate the learners.
 Quality of teaching material, lesson notes teaching aids, audibility, flexibility, confidence, reliability and
trustworthiness.
 Diagnostic skills of those with disruptive behavior, disabilities, etc
 Knowledge of individual difference: cultural, gender and age differences.
 Strategies to improve students’ academic performance:
 Teaching methods.
 Importance of Education
 Study methods or strategies.
 Time management techniques-individual reading time table.
 The different Science, Arts, technical, and commercial subjects and different series in high schools, Higher
institutions, Universities and the world of works.
 The importance of the choice of subject in respect to career choice.
 Sports, Hygiene and health - performance
 Follow-up- to ensure regularity, writing, reading, participation orderliness, etc.
 Examination Techniques:
 Preparatory stage.
 Confidence
 Time management/ Consciousness
 Selection of Questions
 Question interpretation
 Cheating
 Coping with stress, anxiety and depression.
 Teachers’ personality and the Teaching –Learned output:
 Discipline, Dressing, leadership skills or styles. attitudes and behaviour in the schools
What is Counselling?
Many people will, at some point in their lives, find themselves in the role of a counsellor without having a true understanding
of the concept of counselling or what the role of the professional counsellor entails.
There is a big difference between a professional counsellor and a person who uses some counselling skills as part of their
role, for example their role as a friend or colleague. A professional counsellor is a highly trained individual who is able to
Dr Nkengla John[Type here]
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use a different range of counselling approaches with their clients. Hence a teacher, experience person, pastor or priest are
not counselors.
'Counselling' can be a confusing term - it often has different meanings for different people.
The Concise Oxford Dictionary (9th Edition) gives at least two definitions of counselling, which appear to be conflicting,
adding to potential confusion: “give advice to (a person) on social or personal problems, especially professionally.”
And “the process of assisting and guiding clients, especially by a trained person on a professional basis, to resolve
especially personal, social, or psychological problems and difficulties.”
Counselling is:
 The process that occurs when a client and counsellor set aside time in order to explore difficulties which may include
the stressful or emotional feelings of the client.
 The act of helping the client to see things more clearly, possibly from a different view-point. This can enable the
client to focus on feelings, experiences or behaviour, with a goal to facilitating positive change.
 A relationship of trust. Confidentiality is paramount to successful counselling. Professional counsellors will
usually explain their policy on confidentiality, they may, however, be required by law to disclose information if
they believe that there is a risk to life.
Counselling is Not mere advising:
 Giving advice involves convincing an individual to buy your opinion unlike counselling which aims at enlightening,
educating an individual to have a clear understanding of his problem in order to draw a sound conclusion or solution.
 Judgmental.
 Attempting to sort out the problems for the client.
 Expecting or encouraging a client to behave in a way in which the counsellor may have behaved when confronted
with a similar problem in their own life.
 Getting emotionally involved with the client.
 Looking at a client's problems from your own perspective, based on your own value system.
Counselling and Psychotherapy
Both ‘psychotherapy’ and ‘counselling’ are terms that used for the same process. Both terms relate to overcoming personal
difficulties and working towards positive change.
Counselling is a helping approach that highlights the emotional and intellectual experience of a client, how a client is
feeling and what they think about the problem they have sought help for.
Psychotherapy, however, is based in the psychodynamic approach to counselling - it encourages the client to go back to
their earlier experiences and explore how these experiences effect their current ‘problem’.

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A psychotherapist, therefore, helps the client to become conscious of experiences which they were previously unaware
of. Counsellors, however, are less likely to be concerned with the past experiences of the client and are generally trained in
a humanistic approach, using techniques from client-centered therapy.
See our page: Counselling Approaches for more information about psychodynamic, humanistic and behavioural
approaches to counselling.
The Role of the Counsellor
First and foremost the counsellor is aware that no two people are alike. No two people understand the same language in the
same way; their understanding will always be linked to their personal experience of the world. Therefore, during the
counselling process, it is important that the counsellor does not try to fit clients into his/her idea of what they should be and
how they should act.
The role of the counsellor is to enable the client to explore many aspects of their life and feelings, by talking openly and
freely. Talking in such a way it is rarely possible with family or friends, who are likely to be emotionally involved and have
opinions and biases that may be detrimental to the success of the counselling. It is important that the counsellor is not
emotionally involved with the client and does not become so during counselling sessions. The counsellor neither judges,
nor offers advice. The counsellor gives the client an opportunity to express difficult feelings such as anger, resentment,
guilt and fear in a confidential environment.
The counsellor may encourage the client to examine parts of their lives that they may have found difficult or impossible to
face before. There may be some exploration of early childhood experiences in order to throw some light on why an
individual reacts or responds in certain ways in given situations. This is often followed by considering ways in which the
client may change such behaviours.
Effective counselling reduces confusion, allowing the client to make effective decisions leading to positive changes in their
attitude and/or behaviour. Effective counselling is not advice-giving and is not acting on someone else's behalf (these are
more the roles of a life coach). The ultimate aim of counselling is to enable the client to make their own choices, reach their
own decisions and to act upon them accordingly.
Counselling Skills
1,) Communication skills are obviously of utmost importance to counsellors, we have lots of further pages covering these
skills including: active listening, clarification, reflection and effective questioning skills.
 Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place to another, whether this be vocally
(using voice), written (using printed or digital media such as books, magazines, websites or emails), visually (using
logos, maps, charts or graphs) or non-verbally (using body language, gestures and the tone and pitch of voice).
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2. The counsellor should be able to establish a rapport with their client, but not to an extent that would allow them to
become emotionally involved.
Helpful Rapport Building Behaviours
 If you are sitting then lean forward, towards the person you are talking to, with hands open and arms and legs
uncrossed. This is open body language and will help you and the person you are talking to feel more relaxed.
 Look at the other person for approximately 60% of the time. Give plenty of eye-contact but be careful not to make
them feel uncomfortable.
 When listening, nod and make encouraging sounds and gestures.
 Smile!
 Use the other person’s name early in the conversation. This is not only seen as polite but will also reinforce the
name in your mind so you are less likely to forget it!
 Ask the other person open questions. Open questions require more than just yes or no answer
 Use feedback to summarise, reflect and clarify back to the other person what you think they have said. This gives
opportunity for any misunderstandings to be rectified quickly.
 Talk about things that refer back to what the other person has said. Find links between common experiences.
 Try to show empathy. Demonstrate that you can understand how the other person feels and can see things from
their point of view. When in agreement with the other person, openly say so and say why.
 Build on the other person’s ideas.
 Be non-judgemental towards the other person. Let go of stereotypes and any preconceived ideas you may have
about the person.
 If you have to disagree with the other person, give the reason first then say you disagree.
 Admit when you don’t know the answer or have made a mistake. Being honest is always the best tactic,
acknowledging mistakes will help to build trust.
 Be genuine, with visual and verbal behaviours working together to maximize the impact of your communication.
 Offer a compliment, avoid criticism and be polite.
Being polite means being aware of and respecting the feelings of other people. We may not always notice politeness
but we usually notice rudeness or inconsiderate behaviour.
This page takes a step back and covers some of the fundamentals of building and maintaining relationships with
others. We provide examples of the most common behaviours that are considered polite.
Politeness can and will improve your relationships with others, help to build respect and rapport, boost your self-
esteem and confidence, and improve your communication skills.
3. Counsellors need to be empathetic, seeing things from the client’s point of view, rather than sympathetic
(feeling sorry for their clients). Empathy can help the counsellor to ask appropriate questions and lead the client to
positive feelings and conclusions. See our page:
Meaning of Empathy? . 'Empathy is the ability to see the world as another person, to share and understand another
person’s feelings, needs, concerns and/or emotional state.'
 Empathy is Not Sympathy
 There is an important distinction between empathy and sympathy.
 We offer our sympathy when we imagine how a situation or event was difficult or traumatic to another person, we
may use phases like, ‘I am very sorry to hear that’ or ‘If there is anything I can do to help…’, we feel pity or sorry
for the other person. This is how many people would react to the famine example above, there is nothing wrong
with sympathy, and it can help to offer closure. Perhaps by sending a donation to a charity to help with the famine
we can think, ‘I’ve done my bit’ and forget about it. To empathise is to feel how others feel, to see the world as

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they do. Empathy with the people in the example above would require, for many of us living in the West, a leap of
imagination.
Approaches to Counselling
There are three main approaches used by professional counsellors, psychodynamic, humanistic and behavioural – there are
many more approaches but these three are the most commonly practiced.
While some professional counsellors use only one approach, others are more flexible and might use techniques from more
than one method.
Although untrained people may possess and develop some skills that are desirable to a counsellor, if counselling plays a
role in your work or personal life then you should undertake a recognised professional counselling course.
Psychodynamic Approach to Counselling

Psychodynamic counselling evolved from the work of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). During his career as a medical doctor,
Freud came across many patients who suffered from medical conditions which appeared to have no ‘physical cause’. This
led him to believe that the origin of such illnesses lay in the unconscious mind of the patient. Freud's work investigated the
unconscious mind in order to understand his patients and assist in their healing.
Over time many of Freud's original ideas have been adapted, developed, disregarded or even discredited, bringing about
many different schools of thought and practice. However, psychodynamic counselling is based on Freud’s idea that true
knowledge of people and their problems is possible through an understanding of particular areas of the human mind, these
areas are:
 The Conscious – things that we are aware of, these could be feelings or emotions, anger, sadness, grief, delight,
surprise, happiness, etc.
 The Subconscious – these are things that are below our conscious awareness but fairly easily accessible. For
example with appropriate questioning a past event which a client had forgotten about may be brought back into the
conscious mind.
 The Unconscious – is the area of the mind where memories have been suppressed and is usually very difficult to
access. Such memories may include extremely traumatic events that have been blocked off and require a highly
skilled practitioner to help recover.
Freud's main interest and aim was to bring things from the unconscious into the conscious. This practice is known as
psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis is used to encourage the client to examine childhood or early memory trauma to gain a
deeper understanding – this in turn may help the client to release negativities that they still hold, associated with earlier
events. Psychoanalysis is based upon the assumption that only by becoming aware of earlier dilemmas, which have been
repressed into our unconscious because of painful associations, can we progress psychologically.
Freud also maintained that the personality consists of three related elements:
Id, Ego and Superego
 Id - The Id is the part of our personality concerned with satisfying instinctual basic needs of food, comfort and
pleasure – the Id is present from (or possibly before) birth.
 Ego – Defined as “The realistic awareness of self”. The ‘Ego’ is the logical and commonsense side to our
personality. Freud believed that the Ego develops as the infant becomes aware that it is a separate being from it’s
parents.
 Superego – The Superego develops later in a child’s life from about the age of three, according to Freud. Superego
curbs and controls the basic instincts of the Id, which may be socially unacceptable. The Superego acts as our
conscience.
Freud believed that everybody experiences tension and conflict between the three elements of their personalities. For
example, desire for pleasure (from the Id) is restrained by the moral sense of right and wrong (from the Superego). The
Ego balances up the tension between the Id wanting to be satisfied and the Superego being over strict. The main goal of

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psychodynamic counselling, therefore, is to help people to balance the three elements of their personality so that neither the
Id nor the Superego is dominant.
Humanistic Approach to Counselling
In contrast to the psychodynamic approach to counselling, childhood events and difficulties are not given the same
importance in the humanistic counselling process. Humanistic counselling recognises the uniqueness of every
individual. Humanistic counselling assumes that everyone has an innate capacity to grow emotionally and psychologically
towards the goals of self-actualisation and personal fulfilment.
Humanistic counsellors work with the belief that it is not life events that cause problems, but how the individual experiences
life events. How we experience life events will in turn relate to how we feel about ourselves, influencing self-esteem and
confidence. The Humanistic approach to counselling encourages the client to learn to understand how negative responses
to life events can lead to psychological discomfort. The approach aims for acceptance of both the negative and positive
aspects of oneself.
Humanistic counsellors aim to help clients to explore their own thoughts and feelings and to work out their own solutions
to their problems. The American psychologist, Carl Rogers (1902-1987) developed one of the most commonly used
humanistic therapies, Client-Centred Counselling, which encourages the client to concentrate on how they feel at the present
moment.
Client-Centred Counselling
The central theme of client-centred counselling is the belief that we all have inherent resources that enable us to deal with
whatever life brings.
Client-centred therapy focuses on the belief that the client - and not the counsellor - is the best expert on their own thoughts,
feelings, experiences and problems. It is therefore the client who is most capable of finding the most appropriate
solutions. The counsellor does not suggest any course of action, make recommendations, ask probing questions or try to
interpret anything the client says. The responsibility for working out problems rests wholly with the client. When the
counsellor does respond, their aim is to reflect and clarify what the client has been saying.
A trained client-centred counsellor aims to show empathy, warmth and genuineness, which they believe will enable the
client's self-understanding and psychological growth.
 Empathy involves being able to understand the client’s issues from their own frame of reference. The counsellor
should be able to accurately reflect this understanding back to the client. You may also be interested in our page:
What is Empathy?
 Warmth is to show the client that they are valued, regardless of anything that happens during the counselling
session. The counsellor must be non-judgmental, accepting whatever the client says or does, without imposing
evaluations.
 Genuineness (sometimes termed congruence) refers to the counsellor's ability to be open and honest and not to act
in a superior manner or hide behind a 'professional' facade.

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Behavioural Approach to Counselling
The Behavioural Approach to Counselling focuses on the assumption that the environment determines an individual's
behaviour. How an individual responds to a given situation is due to behaviour that has been reinforced as a child. For
example, someone who suffers from arachnophobia will probably run away screaming (response) at the sight of a spider
(stimulus). Behavioural therapies evolved from psychological research and theories of learning concerned with observable
behaviour, i.e. behaviour that can be objectively viewed and measured.
Behaviourists believe that that behaviour is 'learned' and, therefore, it can be unlearned. This is in contrast to the
psychodynamic approach, which emphasises that behaviour is determined by instinctual drives.
Behaviour therapy focuses on the behaviour of the individual and aims to help him/her to modify unwanted
behaviours. According to this approach unwanted behaviour is an undesired response to something or someone in a person's
environment. Using this approach a counsellor would identify the unwanted behaviour with a client and together they would
work to change or adapt the behaviour. For example, a client who feels anxious around dogs would learn a more appropriate
response to these animals. Problems which respond well to this type of therapy include phobias, anxiety attacks and eating
disorders. Behavioural counsellors or therapists use a range of behaviour modification techniques.
Once the unwanted behaviour is identified, the client and counsellor might continue the process by drawing up an action
plan of realistic, attainable goals. The aim would be that the unwanted behaviour stops altogether or is changed in such a
way that it is no longer a problem.
Clients might be taught skills to help them manage their lives more effectively. For example, they may be taught how to
relax in situations that produce an anxiety response and rewarded or positively reinforced when desirable behaviour occurs.
Another method used involves learning desirable behaviour by watching and copying others who already behave in the
desired way. In general, the behavioural approach is concerned with the outcome rather than the process of change.
The behavioural counsellor uses the skills of listening, reflection and clarification, but rather than use them as a process of
revealing and clarifying the client's thoughts and feelings, the skills would be used to enable the counsellor to make an
assessment of all the factors relating to the undesirable behaviour.
Avoiding Stress | Laughter Therapy | Anger Management

Life Skills | What is Communication? | What is Life Coaching?
GROUP COUNSELLING
T-Groups: This is a group experience whereby individuals come together to learn how to work in a group and to effect
interpersonal change.
The Human Potential Movement: Began in the 1960’s and founded on the belief that most people only use a small
percentage of their capabilities but that within a group experience, they can recognize their full potential.
Encounter Groups: Designed to help normal individuals remove blocks that inhibited their functioning so that they could
lead more fulfilling and fruitful lives.
Group Therapy equally leads to group experience whereby individuals come together to learn how to work in a group and
to effect interpersonal change.

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Personal Growth Groups: These are any groups that promote the personal growth of the individual (e.g. Gestalt groups,
T-groups, encounter groups).
Types of Groups
Task Groups: A group that comes together to perform a task that has a concrete goal (e.g. community organizations,
committees, planning groups, task force).
Guidance/Psych educational Group: Preventative and educational groups that help group members learn information
about a particular topic or issue and might also help group members cope with that same issue (e.g. transition group to
prepare students to enter high school etc.)
Counseling/Interpersonal Problem-Solving Groups: These groups help participants resolve problems of living through
interpersonal support and problem solving.
Psychotherapy Groups: These groups focus on personality reconstruction or remediation of deep-seated psychological
problems.
Group Counseling Competencies

Competencies have been established by the Association for Specialists in Group Work (ASGW):
-Knowledge Competencies
-Skill Competencies
- Supervised Practice (10-20 clock hours
Advantages of Groups
-It provides a social atmosphere that is similar to the real world.
-Members can test out and practice new behaviors.
-Members can practice new interpersonal skills.
-They are cost effective.
-Groups help members see that they are not the only one who has that particular problem or issue.
-Groups provide members with support.
-Less individualized attention from the counselor.
-Confidentiality is more difficult to maintain.
-There are concerns with conformity and peer pressure.
-Not everyone can be in a group (e.g. those with issues too severe or those with poor interpersonal skills.)
-Scapegoating may occur.
-Group leaders are not always properly trained.
Therapeutic Forces in Groups
-Instillation of Hope -Universality
-Imparting of Information -Altruism
-Corrective Recapitulation -Modeling
-Interpersonal Learning -Group Cohesiveness
-Catharsis -Existential Factors
-Development of Socializing Techniques
Stages of Groups
Stage One (Orientation/Forming): Group members become oriented to the group and to each other.
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Stage Two (Transition/Storming): Anxiety and ambiguity become prevalent as group members struggle to define
themselves and group norms. This stage is often characterized by conflict.
Stage Three (Cohesiveness/Norming): A therapeutic alliance forms between group members. Trust between members has
been established.
Stage Four (Working/Performing): Group members experiment with newideas, behaviors or ways of thinking.
Egalitarianism develops.
Stage Five (Adjourning/Terminating): This is the time when the group disbands.
UNIT 1:GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION OF BASIC CONCEPTS IN

GUIDANCE & COUNSELLING
1.1. Introduction
This course is designed to introduce you to the main concepts of Guidance and counselling within the school and non-
school settings. This course equally aims at providing information which is needed by head teachers, principals of
schools, discipline masters, teachers, career masters and school counselors who are expected to assist and guide students,
and ensure the effective implementation of educational programmes.
The increasing student in Cameroon faces a host of problems, which may be academic, educational, vocational personal
and socio emotional. A brief discussion of some counselling theories and provision of some practical skills to teachers,
students and parents to seek solutions to some of the problems plaguing our schools is an urgent need.
1.2 Ojectives:
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 Define terms like: guidance, counselling, counselor, counselee, client, and psychotherapy.
 Explain the meaning of guidance and counselling
 Define and describe the concepts of guidance and counselling
 Differentiate between the concepts
 Discuss the implication and relevance of the concept of guidance and counselling in the school system.
1.3. The concept of Guidance and Counselling

The word guidance is derived from the Greek word “paide” whose meaning in Latin is “to guide”. Counselling is derived
from the Italian and Latin word “consignliare” which means to advice although counseling is not mere advising.
Guidance and couselling is as old as the existence of mankind. Man has always sought for guide and advice as well as
explanations to certain issues beyond his understanding. This agrees with the expression that “No man is an island”.
Human beings will always need or give assistance to other human beings.
The guidance and counselling of students is an integral component of the educational mission
of the school. Guidance and counselling service programs promote the personal/social,
educational, and career development of all students.
1.3.1. The meaning of Guidance

Guidance is a process of helping an individual to understand himself and his environment. The word “guidance” is
rooted from the word guide which simply means: to direct, steer, aid, lead, pilot and inform. Guidance is providing a
road map or detailed plan or explanation to guide you in setting standards or determining a course of action. The
economical, educational and sociocultural development of any nation depends greatly on her youths who are always
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confused on making the right choice and decision. Most students from basic to university level exert a lot of energy,
are intelligent and can be very creative. Guidance and orientation are therefore imperative to channel the potentials they
possess towards productive activities. Effective guidance should begin at the family level because the school is not a
factory that can transform a bad seed to a healthy crop. Misguided, unguided individuals especially the youth of today
direct their potentials and towards unwanted activities like drugging, stealing, gambling, scamming prostitution, raping,
bullying, etc.
What is the relevance of a guidance services in our schools?
Isakem & Mink (1963) feel that guidance is a programme of services provided by guidance specialists to students is
based on:
The needs of each student and a sound knowledge of the student’s peers, teachers, parents and the working environment.
The guidance programmes should be designed to;
 Enable each student to fully adjust to his environment,
 Enable he student to realize his potentials in realizing his goals’
 Develop the ability set realistic goals and
 Be capable of integrating himself faced with new experiences and
 Finally to make the educational programme to be efficient and effective.
Guidance can be considered as all that is done to protect, guide and to enable the individual to make right choices, adjust
to his or her new environment and be able to solve problems. The guidance service is not limited to the school or family
but it is equally relevant in all phases of life (churches, business, hospitals, in the government etc.).
To teachers and school administration:
Teachers need to understand and have a sound knowledge of all his students and it can be easy when he/she collaborates
with school counselors. The discipline masters should work with school counselor in order to correct students who
break the rules and regulations of the institution and not base on punishment only. Referral of identified cases should
be directed toward one another for effective counseling and guidance.
To parents:
Parents can have detailed information about their children for the school counselor and vice versa. Counselors equally
guide and counsel parents on how to follow up their children at home. Learners need financial, material and moral
support from their parents or guardians. Parents’ responsibility is not limited to registering, purchasing of uniform and
books but need to assist the learners in assignments and monitoring their activities out of school.
To the world of work:
Counselors should be well informed about the world of work. Identifying the needs of ministries, companies and
other organizations. This leads to effective guidance and orientation…..
1.3.2. The meaning of counselling
Counselling involves professional guidance of the individual by utilizing psychological methods especially in
collecting case history data, using various techniques of the personal interview, and testing interests and aptitudes to
enable the individual understand his or her problem and to take a decision. Everyone at a given point in time faces crisis
and needs another person to talk to, listen or advise him or her. This appends the adage that “problems shared are
problems solved”. Counselling is therefore defined as face to face encounter where an interpersonal relationship is
established to help an individual (the learner) resolve his or her problem.
1.3.3. Counsellor
A counselor is a person who is specifically trained to provide advice, or a person you turn to for advice. An example of
counselor is a professional who you go to talk about your problems and to learn solutions for coping with stress or
sadness.
1.3.4. Counselee: a person who is being professionally counseled. At times the individual is equally known as the client.

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1.3.5. Psychotherapy is the branch of psychiatry concerned with psychological methods. It is the treatment of mental
or emotional problems by psychological means. While counseling deals with individuals with minor psychological
problems, psychotherapy is for abnormal people with problems such as obsessions, phobia etc. Psychotherapists use
psychological methods in solving serious psychological problems.
1.3.6. Differences between Guidance and counseling.

Both Guidance and Counseling are process used to solve problems of life. The basic difference is in the approach. In
the process of guidance, the client's problems are listened carefully and readymade solutions are provided by the expert
where as in the process of counseling the client's problems are discussed and relevant information is provided in-
between. At the end of the counseling process, the client himself/herself is expected to have an insight to the problem,
and is empowered to take a decision or find a solution to the problem.
Since readymade solutions (taking decision for others) are provided in guidance, the client may or may not necessarily
follow it but most often decisions taken in the process of counseling are followed sincerely. The set of decisions comes
out from guidance and counseling process may be same but in the first process the decision is taken by the guide where
as the client take his/her own decisions in the later process. A guidance counselor is therefore expected to be well
informed in order to provide the right and reliable information to his clients.
1.4. Historical evolution of counseling.
Guidance counseling as a profession has been in the United States since the early 1900s. Although the field experienced
a brief decline during the Depression, it has become a staple of American education since the 1940s. Guidance
counseling dates back to as early as 1907, when Jesse Davis implemented the first guidance counseling program at
Center High School in Detroit, Michigan. Guidance counseling experienced a rise in popularity in the years leading up
to the Great Depression as educators focused on teaching students in a progressive environment.
As the Great Depression hit Americans hard, schools shifted away from guidance counseling. As the space race with
the Russians began in the late 1950s, guidance counseling re-emerged as an important part of the educational process.
Realizing the importance of guidance and counselling, it gradually spread out to other parts of the world.
Historical evolution of counseling in Cameroon
.The relevance of guidance and counselling service was recognized in 1944 during the Brazzaville conference, which
led to the creation of a polytechnic service in Douala in 1945. The service was responsible for the selection of personnel
for specific jobs in factories and industries. The above service gave rise to a psychological centre for orientation and
professional selection attached to the inspectorate of labour.
In 1963, the centre was transformed to a professional orientation service and psychological study unit for labour
employment problems, charged with the duty of carrying out psychological studies, documentation, and administration
of psycho-technique tests destined for the ministry of National education.
In 1968, an orientation service was created under the ministry of education, Youth and culture charged with the planning
of teaching and orientation of students in schools.
In 1974, the above centre was transformed into School, University orientation service (SOSUP) charged with the
orientation of students, experimentation of tests, selection of students, elaboration of a professional and career sheet
documentation and sensitization of the public.
In 1975, Few Cameroonian psychologists were trained in France as counsellors, and in 1982, a section for training
counselors was created in the Higher Teachers Training College (ENS) Yaounde. In 1984, the service was decentralized
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with the creation of services in the various provincial delegations of National Education by decree No.84/1054 of August
1984. Sub Delegation offices were created by decree No. 86/1586 of May 1986. These provincial called regional
structures today, were responsible for the orientation of students, schools and universities statistics, planning and
scholarship issues. Following circular letter No. 34/b2/1464/MINEDUC/SG/DPOS/SOUP of EH/ARH/93 (op.cit) that
trained counselors were sent to schools. Amending circular letter No 06/59/MINEDUC/SG/DPOS/SOUP of January
1989, trained counselors were sent to universities in the ministry of Higher Education.
1.5. Summary
The main highlights of this unit include: the meaning of Guidance and Counselling. The definition
of a counsellor, guidance, counsellee, psychotherapy and the historical evolution of counselling in
Cameroon
UNIT 2: FUNCTIONS OF A GUIDANCE COUNSELLOR
2.1. Introduction
The most challenging and provocative question, is that too many people are to answer the questions “who I am?” (Role)
and “what do I do?” (Function). The role of a counsellor as an adequately educated professionally competent functioning
person reacting and relating to the tasks of those he serves is obvious. Clarification of a counsellor’s role will lead to
the commitment to the task of his profession and occupation. It is necessary for school counsellors to differentiate their
services from others like the disciplinary service, teachers, principals Etc.
The job of a guidance counselor is to provide guidance and information to mostly high school students to assist them in
academic advancement. Guidance counselors administer tests to gauge occupational aptitudes and provide students with
information to help them choose an occupation.
They also assist students in the college application process, coaching them on how to take standardized exams and
choose a major. Finally, counselors help students in their social development by discussing topics such as teen
pregnancy and drug abuse. Guidance counseling duties vary by school district, but these functions are generally
universal.
2.2. Objective:
 Identify the functions of a counsellor in the school setting.
 Understand basic principles of Guidance and Counselling.
 Know the qualities of a guidance counsellor.
 Explain the techniques used in counselling.
Functions of the counsellor

Functions refer to the activities assigned to a counsellor. The following are some functions of
a counsellor:
 A guidance counsellor serves as an arm of the authority of the institution. In a school setting for
instance, he could contribute in disciplinary decisions, involve in examination, admission and
other activities for the wellbeing of the school.
 He assists students to know, understand and adjust to their school environment.
 The counsellor is expected to make referral when necessary. The school counsellor should be
capable of identifying and inviting students with problem for counselling. While clients can be

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referred by others like teachers, parents or friends, the counsellor could also refer cases they
can’t handle to competent specialists.
2.3. Principles of Guidance and Counselling

Guidance and Counselling
 Is concerned with overall development of the individual.
 Should not force people to come to him for counselling.
 Counselling involves everybody irrespective of age.
Guidance counsellors should place emphasis on the worth and dignity of the individual and
give him/her the right to choose
2.4. Qualities of the Guidance Counsellor
Qualities are the characteristics a Guidance Counsellor should possess as to better perform in
his/her functions.
Some of the qualities are:
2.4.1. Unconditional Acceptance of your client.

A Counsellor must be ready to accept the client without considering the client’s family status, age, level of education
or physical state.
2.4.2. Good Listening skills:
A Counsellor should develop good listening skills. He should listen while paying keen attention to the clients’ posture,
body movement, and facial looks, the tone of the voice and gesticulation.
2.4.3. Rapport
A warm rapport should be established between the counsellor and the client. A friendly atmosphere keeps the client
relax and confident with the counsellor. The friendliness should be limited within professional ethics without emotions,
assault nor abuse.
2.4.4. Empathy
This is the ability to understand the client’s problem, and perceiving the problem as if it was his. The counsellor
must be emotionally involved but not pitying the client.
2.4.5. Genuineness/Sincerity
This implies that the counsellor must be sincere, convincing, realistic and objective. This attitude establishes confidence
in the client who needs help from the counsellor.
2.5. Summary
The ability to listen & find the root of the message or problem. Learning about the person you are
counseling through their own eyes without making too many assumptions. Empowering the
person you counsel to help them to know where to find the solutions to their problem. The traits
possessed by a good counsellor includes: understanding, sympathetic attitude, friendliness, sense
of humour, stability, patience, objectivity, sincerity, tolerance, neatness, broad-mindedness,
socially intelligent, personal maturity, confidentiality. etc.

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2.6. Memory check

1. What is the relevance of a guidance counsellor in a school setting?
2. Discuss the roles of a counsellor.
3. Examine the qualities of a counsellor during a counselling session
4. Briefly discuss about the counsellor-client relationship during a counselling session.
2.7. References
Adams, J.F. (1982). Problems in counselling and psychotherapy. New York: Harper and Row
publishers.
Bertie, R.F et al., Testing in Guidance and Counselling. New York; McGraw-Hill Book Coy, Inc.
Petterson, C.H. (1962). Counseling and Guidance in Schools. New York: Harper and Brother
Publishers.
UNIT 3: SOME SCHOOL GUIDANCE SERVICES
3.1. Introduction
Unit 3 is designed to teach you the various guidance services in the school setting. The various services specialize in
handling different types of information and problems.
3.2. Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to;
 Identify the different counselling services.
 Understand the implications and functions of the different counselling services.
 Have a mastery of the different services and when a counsellor should use it.
3.3. Some counselling Services in schools

Counselling in schools provides students with answers to their questions and information for helping young people
pursue their goals. The mission of Guidance Services is to provide a structural comprehensive program that is preventive
and proactive in nature and focuses on each student's potential for growth within the context of his or her individual,
family, and multicultural perspective. This is normally achieved with the assistance of certified, professional guidance
counselors who assist students, parents, school staff, and outside agencies daily in each of our school.
3.3.1. Appraisal service: Appraisal refers to measurement and evaluation of human attributes like aptitudes, abilities,
interests and other personal attributes for which tests can be used to assessing an individual. The behaviour and
characteristics of an individual can be assessed by using non-test instruments. Examples if non-test instruments include:
interview, autobiographies, records and observational techniques and sociocentric devices to measure affective and
psychotechnic aspects of an individual. Tests are used mostly to measure the cognitive aspects of human beings. While
the results from tests are objective and precise, the non-test component is subjective and imprecise. Frequently and
related term highly used during the appraisal service include test, measurement evaluation and assessment. The appraisal
service is crucial in determining the uniqueness and similarities of an individual, to ensure effective teaching, learning
and counselling. According to Edward Thorndike, “If a thing exists, it exists in some amount,” and “if it exists in some
amount, it can be measured”.

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The counsellor is able to gather normative data administer standardized tests whose results when interpreted enable
the students, parents and teachers to better understand the uniqueness and complexities of each student. It seeks remedial
action for obvious curriculum deficiencies.
The purposes of appraisal include:

 Prediction: Tests are used to forecast what an individual can do in future.
 Selection: This is a means of screening out misfits for either recruitments or employment.
 Classification: Classification is used in categorizing individuals according to different personality
traits, abilities, vocational interest etc.
 Evaluation: Evaluation and assessment are strategies to ascertain whether or not set goals have been
achieved or not.
 Guidance and Counselling: Counselors can use the appraisal instruments to estimate the clients’
aptitudes, interests, abilities, self-concept personality traits, motivation, etc.
3.3.2. Information Service: Is a session when the counsellor is expected to furnish the students with the vital
information to students to be able to understand, identify, make plans, make adjustments and reach solutions to
difficulties or problems they face. In this circumstance, the counsellor must be adequately informed as to be informed.
3.3.3. Planning, Placement and Follow-up services: an important service offered by the counsellor by:
 Evaluating the school programmes;
 Carrying out research in the domain of occupational surveys and follow up studies in respect to the economic and
educational trends.
 It provides appropriate basis for studying students in order to discover directions, trends, rates and changes in
educational progress of the students. The data from this service guides school authorities to plan, select, and draw up
strategies for effective school management.
3.3.4. Referral Service: This is when the counsellor or other educational stakeholders refer students to other personnel
who are specialists and can best handle cases they are unable to handle. Here we are referring to medical officers like
optician, physiotherapist, audiologist, labour officer according to the needs of the client. With cases of severe health
problems, the parents’ concern is needed to agree on where to refer the child.
3.3.5. Counselling service: A counselling service in the school involves vocational counselling, academic counselling
and personal counselling.
3.3.6. Orientation Service helps students to better adjust and adapt to their new environment. It helps the students both
new and old to know their teachers, the administrative staff and the various offices, the available educational resources
like the library and how they can be used. It also makes the students get acquainted the school rules and regulation as
well as programmes.
3.5. Summary
This unit exposed you to some of the counselling services offered in our schools. A résumé of each
of the counselling service including the vocational, academic and personal services illustrates the
various ways which the guidance and counselling services contribute to the development of the
individual within a school setting.
UNIT 4: Counselling Approaches

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4.1. Introduction
This unit is designed to introduce you to a variety of approaches used in counselling. These approaches are called
differently by different psychologists and counselors. It is labeled by others as counselling modes and models,
counselling theories, systems of therapy etc. All these approaches are systematic ways of serving the counselling
process. In this unit, we will briefly examine eight basic counselling approaches;
The approaches are:

4.3. Client-centered Counselling
The client-centered approach in counselling was originally developed by Carl Rogers. At times it is called the “Non-
directive”, “ Rogerian Counselling”, “Self-theory’ but Carl Roger labeled it “Client-centered therapy”. Rogers believed
that the distinction between counselling and psychotherapy are unnecessary and artificial. Client-centered therapy lays
emphases on the counselee’s ability to determine the issues important to him and sort his own problems. The client is
capable of understanding his problem and self-directing himself. The counsellor’s main role is not to direct or prescribe
what the client should do but to establish a warm, positive and accepting relationship to create a conducive environment
in which the student can be relax and free to express his or herself fully. A climate of trust should be built between the
counsellor and the counselee, the counsellor through empathetic perceptions understands the client’s problem, so as to
assist in clarifying him.
According to Carl Rogers, personality change in the client is possible when the following six conditions are respected:
 The counsellor and the client should be in psychological contact.
 The client should be sincere and genuine in relating to the client.
 The counsellor should exhibit an unconditional positive regard to his client.
 He should show empathetic understanding of the client’s feelings.
The client centered counsellor will refrain from prescribing; giving advice or instructions, but let the client express his
or herself more by
 Actively listening
 Reflecting on your client’s feelings and thoughts,
 Clarify, and
 Act as a facilitator and not a decision maker.
Changes expected at the end of a successful client-centered counselling are that:
 The individual sees himself differently’
 He accepts himself and his feelings,
 He becomes more confident and self –directing’
 He becomes more the person he would like to be’
 He becomes more flexible in his perceptions’
 He adapts more realistic goals for himself’
 He behaves more maturely,
 He changes from maladjustive behaviours’
 He becomes more accepting to others,
 He becomes more open to changes’
 He changes in his personality characteristics in a constructive and positive manner.
Major criticisms of the client-centered view-point
 It lays emphases on the affective, emotional feelings and ignores the intellectual, cognitive and rational factors.
 While client-centered counselors are expected to be neutral, this is practically impossible in an interpersonal situation.
 The client-centered approach specifies that the counselee sets goals, counselling goals are at times established by the
setting in which the counsellor and the counselee are located.
4.4. Psychoanalytic Theory

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The psychoanalytic theory also known as psychoanalysis is a psychological way of treating individuals, which
originated from Sigmund Freud. The focus is on how the individual adjusts to the various conflicts in his development.
Freud’s psychoanalysis is a procedure for examining the unconscious part of the human mental process. He divided the
mind into three parts, consisting of the id, the ego and the superego.
The id according to Freud is the source of the instinctual drives. It is the primitive or animal part of the human being.
The id seeks immediate gratification (pleasure) for motives without regard to the realities of life. It operates solely on a
pleasure principle, irrespective of the norms values or morals o the society.
The ego is the regulator or mediator between the drives and the environmental demands. The ego is the only rational
part of the personality. It provides realistic and logical thinking, thus regulating and maintaining a state of balance
between the id and the superego. The superego controls our actions or responses. It permits us to reason before reacting
to a situation. Note that the conscience punishes a person by making him or her feel guilty while the ego-ideal rewards
the person by making you feel proud.
The superego is seen as the conscience or the moral arm of personality. The superego reminds us of the cultural norms,
ethics, morals, and values. This aspect of personality enables an individual to decide whether behaviour is “good or
bad”, or “right or wrong” according to the moral standards of the society. The main functions of superego are:
 To inhibit the drives of the id, especially aggressive sexual drives which can push an individual into rape or adultery
acts.
 To enable the ego to substitute moralistic goals for realistic ones, and
 To strive for perfection
According to Yoloye (1979), “the ego is the boss. It is responsible for taking the final decisions. It is sometimes said
that the superego fights with the id, the ego being the battle ground”.
4.5.1. Criticism of the psychoanalytic theory:

 Freud viewed man more as ugly and driven much by animalistic instincts, needs and wants.
 He stressed more on early childhood experiences and tends to overshadow individual responsibility. It
renders an individual powerless in determining his life style.
 Freud minimized the fact man is a rational being.
4.6. Rational- Emotive approach

Also known as the Rational –Emotive therapy (RET), holds that individuals get disturbed and malfunctioned due to
their irrational attitudes, beliefs, values and philosophies. Developed by Albert Ellis, RET is a psychotherapy procedure
which teaches people with emotional problems personality formation and disturbance creation. According to Ellis, every
person who is disturbed is because he or she has internalized false ideas which results to emotional disturbances.
4.7. View of Human nature

The Rational-Emotive Therapy affirms that certain ideas about the nature of human beings and the sources
of their emotional disturbances can be summarized as follows:
 A man’s mind is not disturbed by events but the individual’s interpretation or judgment of the event.
 The individual has power over his actions and feelings. He has considerable control over what he thinks,
feels, and does.
 Some of our illogical ideas may result from biological limitations, but most of the ideas are from our
interaction with the environment (taught from parents, teachers, friends, mass media and the society.
 When you allow yourself trapped by irrational ways of thinking, you will always feel intense, hostile, angry,
anxious, uncontrolled, guilty and defensive.
 RET holds that Human beings are responsible for their lives and have the choice to be disturbed or not.
4.8. Behavioral Counselling viewpoint

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For behaviourists, counselling involves a systematic use of a variety of procedures that are intended specifically to
change behaviour in terms of mutually establish goals between a client and a counsellor. The procedures encompass a
wide variety of techniques drawn from knowledge of learning process. Counselling as a learning process can be seen
from the studies carried out by Ivans Pavlov, B.F. Skinner, Joseph Wolpe and Car C. Thoreson. They define behavioural
counselling as the function of interaction of heredity and environment. Behaviourists maintain that observable
behaviour is what the counsellors are to be concerned with. They differ on the construct that Man is supposed to
be at the mercy of his “unconscious” or drives.
4.9. Trait and Factor or Rational Viewpoint:
This approach aims at identifying the variables as aptitudes, ability intelligence, interests, attitude of individual to match
them with the right jobs. The theory seeks to “put the round pegs in round holes”. The theory proposes that when an
individual’s personality is identified, better decisions can be made in respect to their career choice. This strongly ties
with Anne Roe’s Needs theory as well as Holland’s Personality theory. Though the Trait and Factor view point is
relevant to career development, it doesn’t quite address the socio economic and environmental demands.
4.10. Eclectic Viewpoint
This counselling view point acknowledges the fact that no single theory in counselling is universally accepted and no
one approach explains all the facts of development. (Santrock, 1995; Papalia et al., 2001; Nsamenang, 1999). None of
the approaches provides a complete explanation of counselling. Each view point has an important contribution to the
understanding of a counselling process, but the eclectic approach selects and uses the best aspect from all the
approaches. The main proponent of the eclectic approach to counselling is Frederick Thorne. Eclectic means choosing
or selecting the appropriate method from various approaches. The eclectic view point reveals that all the approaches are
interrelated. It allows each counsellor to construct his or her own theory or method by drawing inspiration from
established theories.
Criticisms of eclectic counselling

 The eclectic approach is regarded by many people as not consistent.
 Since counsellor can construct their own approach, it is difficult to establish standards.
 Acquiring knowledge from a wide spectrum of theories and methods can result to a hodge -podge of contradictory
assumptions and incompatible technique.
 Most counsellors are likely to function in a biased way using approaches that may not be generally accepted.
4.11. Traditional Counselling approach
According to Oladele, “Traditional counselling practice is based on the assumption that man is rational as well as social;
that he does not exist alone in the world and needs assistance of others to achieve competence”
Traditional counselling is indigenous. In Cameroon for instance, examples of traditional counsellors include: the
“Ngambe men, Mallams, Nkumshi and very elderly people in the community. In a traditional set up, most people
rush to them for help and solutions to their problems. The indigenous counsellors like modern counsellors have various
strategies for gathering information from their clients. Some of them like the “Ngambe” people use cowries and cola
nut peelings to communicate mystically to interpret the nature and causes of their client’s problems. Others use mean
Like: incarnation, hypnotism, invoking of spirits and spiritual books. Solutions to problems in this situation are in form
of instructions. The causes and solutions to clients’ problems are predicted, dictated and provided by the indigenous
counsellors. The causes of a student’s poor academic performance for instance, can be said to due to witchcraft from
step mothers, uncles or classmates, while pouring of libations and offering of sacrifices, ‘protection’ of oneself, could
be prescribed as solutions. The counselling approaches here are not standardized, nonscientific, but often based on
cultural beliefs and practices. Progressively, elders and other recognized personalities in the community like teachers
and clergy men are consulted by those with problems, who give them advice.
4.12. Activity
 Which of the above counselling approaches is the best and why?

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 Why is it necessary for a counsellor to have a sound understanding of the various types of counselling
approaches?
 Explain the weaknesses and strengths of the eclectic view point in counselling.
4.13. Summary
This unit exposed you to the different counselling viewpoints. A synopsis of each of the approaches was
discussed beginning with Client-centered Counselling, Psychoanalytic Theory, Behavioral Counselling
viewpoint, Trait and Factor or Rational Viewpoint, Traditional Counselling approach. A discourse on the
eclectic viewpoint in counselling reveal that there is no one unique appropriate theoretical orientation but
that all have their merits and demerits and have all contributed to our understanding of a counselling
process.
UNIT 5: Individual and Group Counselling
5.1. Introduction
Unit 5 is designed to teach you the two main types of counselling. This unit will focus on individual and group
counselling. Attention in this unit is given to : why counsellors cherish group counselling; definition, terminology, and
classification employed in group counselling, practices involved in group and individual counselling and the values and
limitations of group and individual counselling.
5.2. Objectives
 describe individual and group counselling
 Understand the terminology, and the classification employed in group counselling.
 Know what type of counselling to use in a given situation
 Know the similarities and differences between individual and group counselling. Commented [D1]:
5.3. Individual Counselling

Counseling is a process whereby the relationship and communication provided allows development of understanding
of one's self, explore possibilities, and initiate change. It is motivated by care and concern for the well-being of the
recipient, and aim at bringing about behavioral change, problem-solving, personal growth and development when
properly implemented.
Individual counselling is a one to one relationship of the counsellor and the counsellee. The counsellor should
unconditionally accept the client, but no necessarily moralizing, directing, advising or judging his or her client. The
goal for individual counseling is to enable the student to better understand him or herself so as to personally
sought solutions to their problems. For a successful counselling process to take place, the following conditions need to
be established:
 The client must be willing to participate.
 The counsellor should possess appropriate training, expertise and personal attitudes of a professional.
 The counsellor and the environment must provide assurance of confidentiality.
 The counsellor and counselee must establish a warm relationship which permits subsequent meetings or appointments.
5.3.1Advantages of Individual Counseling
The advantages of an individual counseling as opposed to group counseling are multiple:
 First, it allows the counselor to work in isolated issues.

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 Second, the counselor caters only to one client.

 Third, the information gathered is easier for the counselor to figure out and to be able to apply which treatment approach
is most useful to the client and target behavior that needs improvement.
 The client’s thoughts and behaviors may not be distorted compared with group counseling as several pattern of thoughts
and behaviors from other group members in making choices and decision making.
 The client has the power to change his life for the better based on the choices he makes.
 In addition to this, he can control his behavior and that the level of commitment and how hard he is willing to work will
dictate how successful he will be in developing new behaviors that clearly communicate his needs.
5.3.2. Disadvantages of Individual Therapy
 The disadvantages of an individual therapy include the client’s choice is solely from him.
 The client may not able to generate ideas from other members' pattern of thoughts and behaviors just like in a group
setting especially if others have similar issues and experiences which could help him make better choices and decision
making.
5.3.3. Attitudes and skills of the Counsellor
Basic attitudes and skills which permit a counsellor to establish a helping relationship with his or her client are:
 Acceptance: A counselling session can not be successful through threats or pressure. Students come to the counsellor
for help, assistance and acceptance. In this respect, a warm regard for the client enables him to be confident of himself.
The right of the student to take his personal decision is accepted. Counsellors should acknowledge the fact that the client
has the potential to choose wisely and is responsible for his decision.
 Ethical Behaviour: Counsellors must demonstrate a high sense of professional attitude towards his work by respecting
the rules and ethics of the profession.
 Flexibility: The counsellor is expected to be alert and vigilant to changes in the attitudes of his client. The counsellor
should be ready to follow the client’s rhythm i.e. moving forward and backward just to better understand the client’s
problem.
 Intellectual Competence: The counsellor cannot help the client if he is not intellectually sound. Counsellors should
have a good knowledge of human behaviour, ability to analyze and integrate present events with training and experience.
 Understanding: the counsellor must clearly understand the client’s problem and what he or she is trying to convey. He
needs to be sensitive and aware of what is happening during the counselling process from the counsellee’s verbal and
non-verbal behaviour. The non-verbal behaviour conveys the feelings moods and the conflicts of the counselee.
5.4. Group Counselling
The obvious question is what Group counselling is all about. Group counselling involves counselling individuals with
common problems. Individual guidance on one hand involves counselling of individuals who have different problems.
For group counselling to be effective, a maximum of ten members is recommended. Practically in our schools
counsellors usually handle larger numbers of students due to the counsellor- student ratio. Group counselling is
indispensable since our cultural standards are transmitted through group activities.
5.4.1. Definitions of Group Counselling
Group counseling is a form of therapy, which posits that people benefit from shared experiences. Usually group
counseling is focused on a particular issue, for example obsessive-compulsive disorder. While a therapist usually
manages group counseling, contributions from other members in the group are considered valuable since all in the group
share similar issues.
5.4 2. Advantages of Group Counselling
 Group counseling is better than individual counseling when it comes to developing new behaviors that clearly
communicate their needs and help in attaining fulfillment in the reality. Group therapy considers the key elements of

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what the group are looking for and what will make their life better, what the group will do to bring about what they
want and how they are able to make alternative options and come up with common plan.
 Group counseling also provides members with the opportunities to learn with and from other people and to be able to
understand own patterns of thoughts and behaviors, as well as those of others. Other people may see attitudes and
behavior patterns that are limiting and difficult to see in self.
 A group is an opportunity to receive genuine support, honest feedback, and useful alternatives from peers. It also enables
members to experiment and work towards improved attitudes and ways of coping with stress.
 A group may also help individuals with relationship concerns and general difficulties in dealing with other people,
hence easing socialization.
 Group counseling attempts to counteract isolation of individuals with specific problems by assembling people with
similar issues to enforce that difficulties are not singular to one person. Additionally, knowing other people with similar
troubles can be comforting to each other.
5.4.3. Disadvantages of Group Guidance Counselling
Group counseling has some disadvantages:
 Too much reflection on different problems, too many feelings, and listening to far too many long stories;
 Insufficient group member movement and involvement ;
 The counsellor cannot use creative techniques to get and hold the attention of the group members;
 No supporting techniques with theory and focusing the group sessions insufficiently.
 Dealing with specific issues may cause isolation, and a feeling that one is alone in facing one’s problems.
 Your problems will not be adequately addressed. It might also be frustrating and no solutions or positive insights may
come out of it because of the group dynamic. The members of the counseling group may rub each other the wrong way
and the session may turn out counter-productive.
 It may be difficult to choose the members of the group you will be counseling with.
 Some members may be defensive, (aggressive or silly); others will not share, although an experience leader may find
ways to circumvent the negatives. Both are forms of avoidance.
 No Privacy, very limited one on one help. Numerous distractions due to noise, rendering the session difficult to control,
UNIT 6: Types of Counselling
6.1. Introduction
This unit is aimed at discussing the various types of counselling. A sound knowledge of the counselling types will
permit you know how to best handle some particular counselling problems. These types of counselling consist of:
personal counselling, vocational counselling, academic counselling and educational counselling.
6.3 Personal counselling

It aims at dealing with interpersonal problems and problems of adjustment with peers, parents and teachers.
It enables students to know and understand their environment better so as to make good use of the available
human and material resources.

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6.4. Vocational counselling

Deals with problems of selection, training for and adjustment to occupations. Vocational counselling helps
youth to understand themselves, their strengths and weaknesses, aptitudes, qualification, interest,
dispositions and circumstances in relation to world of work. It should be noted that specific occupations
require workers with specific personality traits.
6.5. Academic counselling

It deals with problems of learning, teaching and education generally. Academic and vocational counselling
are closely related because both are aimed at helping the individual make maximum use of his or her
educational opportunities preparing them for effective and efficient participation in active life.
6.6. Educational counselling

This is concerned with the different educational systems and sub-systems, examining their weaknesses and
strengths and how relevant they can be within a given context. Examples are the English and French sub-
systems of education in Cameroon, the general, commercial and technical educational systems. Educational
guidance also focuses on the following:
 Development of effective study skills.
 Right choice of subject combination.
 Coping with examination anxiety.
 Enhancing confidence in classroom interaction.
 Improving reading skills.
 How to seek assistance from friends teachers, parents and significant others.
.
UNIT 7. SOURCES OF INFORMATION ABOUT THE COUNSELLEE
7.1. Introduction
Unit 7 is designed to teach you the various ways by which a counsellor can get information about his client. The
techniques include personal files or cumulative record folders, referrals, interview, invitation, observation the
questionnaire, and observation techniques.
7.2 Objectives
 To illustrate the various techniques for information collection about a counselee.
 Identify the importance of using a particular technique,
 Know the reasons for using a particular technique or a combination of techniques as sources of information.
7.3. Personal Files/Cumulative Record Folders

These are confidential reports written by an authority like the counsellor or principal about a client. These files or folders
contain detailed information about the student and can be accessed by a counsellor when necessary. In some cases,
information in these files may be too general without detailed explanation. When a student is described as bad, good or
average without reasons, the counsellor will be unable to understand his client. The personal or cumulative folders

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contain information concerning health, academic progress, and the parental as well as sociocultural background of the
student.
7.4. Referrals
These are cases to be better handled by other specialists. A confidential report is sent to the specialist, or he is briefed
before receiving the client. Then pre-information permits him to have a better understanding of the client and his
difficulties.
7.5. Interview
This is oral question and answer session. An interview can take place face to face or by other means of communication
like telephone, television, radio etc. During interview, the counsellor skillfully asks questions whose responses will
unveil the causes or nature of the problem. This at time is done with the help of an interview guide or the responses
guides what to ask next.
7.6. Invitation
This is when the client is invited either verbally or by way of summon to the counselling for a counselling session. At
times parents or caregivers are invited to give more information about the client.
7.7. Observation
The counsellor in this situation watches the client keenly as he/she interacts with his/her environment. This is common
in the school setting especially when the client is interacting or relating with others. The problem with this technique is
that the client may easily modify his behaviour or attitude if he notices that he is being watched by an authority.
Counsellors need to be tactful during observation, not to let the client discover that he or she is being watched. By
observing, the counsellor can create impressions about the client’s personality traits, like being an introvert, extrovert
gregarious etc. Observation can be either passive, when the observer watches the client(s) from a distance while active
participation is when you are taking part in the activity.
7.8. Questionnaire technique
A questionnaire is an instrument used in investigating some aspects of an individual’s personality. This may include his
or her attitudes, interests, aptitudes etc. A questionnaire is temporal and serves only situational functions. Since two
individuals cannot suffer from the same problem, a questionnaire used for client A cannot be used for client B.
7.9. Psychological Tests
Psychological tests like intelligence, aptitude, interest, and personality inventories can be used to elicit particular
characteristics of an individual. Class tests (written, oral or practical) can be used as a source of information in
counselling. Teachers are more concerned with achievement tests while counsellors and psychologists are interested in
intelligence and aptitude tests aimed at testing inherent or innate abilities.
7.9.1Typical performance tests deal with assessment of personality which has to do with interests, attitudes,
motivation and other emotional characteristics of the person.
7.9.2 Vocational tests are a type of tests used in testing aptitudes. Vocational tests seek to find out whether the client
has the abilities and personality traits which a vocation demands.
For example if a student wishes to become a medical doctor, it will be important to find out the relevant physical, mental
abilities and aptitudes expected in the medical field. A medical doctor to be must be very good in science subjects like
biology, chemistry, physics and mathematics. Irrespective of the client’s achievement in sciences, the counsellor should
equally test the personality traits of the client. A client who is suffering from hearing and vision impairments cannot be
good medial doctors, no matter their performance in the required subjects. Other types of tests include:
7.9.3 Achievement test measures the learner’s degree of learning success or performance in a subject matter e.g.
reading, mathematics, language and others.
7.9.4 Creativity test which assess subject ability to produce new ideas or artistic creations. Others include: Personality
tests, interest tests, etc.
Uses of Tests
An understanding of the different psychological test types and interpretation of the test results will be helpful in
counselling in the following ways:
1. Placement: It is used to sort persons into different programmes appropriate to their needs or skills.

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2. Screening: It is used to identify persons who might have special characteristics or needs.
3. Diagnosis and treatment: Psychological tests play an important role in diagnosis and treatment planning.
4. Admission: the most common is of aptitude test is to determine college admissions. Examples include the common
entrance and competitive exams into schools.
The above tests is therefore one of the sources of information from which a counsellor can take a sound decision.
7.11. Memory check

 What is the meaning of information?
 Differentiate between information and data.
 Write short notes on: a) tests, b) questionnaire, c) interview and d) observation.
UNIT 8: THE PROCESS OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT AND CHOICE
8.1. Introduction
Choosing the right career can be a very daunting task especially in a world which offers an array of paths, all of which
seem to be leading to a golden goal. Careers can actually make or break one’s life, so it is important to make the right
choice. Career guidance can help you in pursuing the right courses, in the right colleges or institutes and can guide you
in choosing a suitable career.
Choosing a career can be very satisfying if you have made the right choice. Like the famous adage goes, if you choose
the job you love, you don’t have to work a single day in your life. On the other hand, a wrong decision can leave you
with disappointments and feelings that you have taken the wrong path. While doing a career search it is imperative to
have the correct career information. An informed choice is always a better bet than an uninformed one. The right career
advice can help you to choose a career to suit your personality as well as your aspirations.
Education, of course, plays an important role in getting you the right job in your chosen field. The stepping stones or
pre-requisites for choosing your dream career are of course, the qualifications required to achieve it. With the right
qualifications, the top careers are open to you and the power of choice would be with you.
Career counseling can guide you in selecting the courses suitable for you. It could be an undergraduate course or an
Associate Bachelor’s, the choice depends on various factors including convenience and requirements. For some careers,
a Bachelor’s degree will do, but others may require a Master’s or even a Ph.D.
The choice of the university is vital as well, as each one differs in its outlook and approach. The choice offered by
various universities is also vast; with some of them offering Associate Degrees and online degrees, which make pursuing
the requisite qualifications that much easier. This is especially so, if you are already in a job, and looking for a career
change. The same is also helpful, if you are planning to pursue multiple courses at the same time.

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With proper career coaching, a job search would be easier and you would be able to bridge the gap between job-
availability and your qualifications. Whether one is looking for a new career or a career change, career guidance can
help in smoothening out this important path of transition.
Definitions of Terms used in Career Guidance and Placement

Guidance: All activities involved in helping an individual to understand himself in such a way that he can often adjust
to his environment.
Counselling: A trust worthy relationship between two or more people base on exchange of ideas in order to fashion
out an acceptable approach in life settings.
Vocation: Whatever kind of works a person engages in; usually and most often than not, serving as a stepping stone to
what the person wants to become in future.
Occupation: Whatever kind of work a person engages in; but obviously involving the use of some skills, as a means of
earning a livelihood.
Placement: The procedure involved in matching an individual’s aptitudes and interests with his abilities in order to
provide him with an ideal environment suitable for his needs.
Career: The total life-long experience of a person in the world of work which has come to serve as his means of
livelihood.
Career Guidance: All activities involved in helping an individual to understand his own potentialities in the world if
work.
Career Counselling: Establishing reciprocal relationships in forums where the world of work and individuals’
potentialities in them are appraised for a positive decision.
Careers Officer: Anybody engaged in the duty of supplying information about the world of work, professional courses
in schools and counselling individuals’ about their aptitudes and interests in the world of work.
Career Opportunities: The chances that keep opening up for an individual to continue to shape his life occupation.
Career Development: Continuously channeling ones interests, aptitudes, endeavours and opportunities towards a given
life occupation.
Career Aspiration: The kind of occupation one cherishes to live with for ever.
Career Education: Providing all the necessary experience and guidance a person requires for engaging in the world of
work.
Career Placement: The provision of appropriate environment conducive to an individual’s abilities, aptitudes and
interests in the world of work.
Career Decision Making: Arriving at an agreement on a life-long occupation to pursue, based on career guidance and
counselling.
Careers Guidance Competence: The skills and attributes expected of a careers guidance officer for effective guidance
and counselling of counsellees for the world of work.
Careers Guidance Programme (C.P.G.): An outline of all activities meant to stimulate occupational motivation and
development in individuals.
Careers Resource Centre (C.R.C.): The library for sorting information about the word of work, professional courses
and schools. Most other terms one comes across in careers guidance planning and activities can always have its meaning
derived from the list above.
8.3. Constructs in Career Guidance

8.3.1. Career
Career is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as a person's "course or progress through life (or a distinct portion
of life)". It is usually considered to pertain to remunerative work (and sometimes also formal education).
counseling advisors assess people's interests, personality, values and skills, and also help them explore career options
and research graduate and professional schools. Career counseling provides one-on-one or group professional assistance

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in exploration and decision making tasks related to choosing a major/occupation, transitioning into the world of work
or further professional training. The field is vast and includes career placement, career planning, learning strategies and
student development. There are lacks of careers in this modern age.
8.3.2. Career choice:
There are hundreds of career options out there. How do you make a career choice when you don't really know what you
want to do? Does it seem like an insurmountable task? It's not. Yes, you will have to put some time and energy into
making your decision, but your effort will be well worth it in the end. Follow these steps to making a good career choice.
Before you can make a career choice you have to learn about yourself. Your values, interests and skills, in combination
with certain personality traits, will make some careers especially suitable for you and some particularly inappropriate.
You can use self-assessment tools, often called career tests, to gather this information and, subsequently, to generate a
list of occupations that are deemed appropriate. Some people choose to have career counselors or other career
development professionals administer these tests but many opt to use free career tests that are available on the Web.
8.3.3. Profession: A profession is a vocation founded upon specialized educational training, the purpose of which is to
supply disinterested counsel and service to others, for a direct and definite compensation, wholly apart from expectation
of other business gain.
Classically, there were only three: divinity, medicine, and law the so-called "learned professions."
The main milestones which mark an occupation being identified as a profession are:
1. It became a full-time occupation;
2. A long term training is required after which a certificate is given;
3. At times professionals have an association to identify member;
4. The codes of professional ethics are introduced;
5. They may be protected and have certain rights specific to the profession.
With the rise of technology and occupational specialization in the 19th century, other bodies began to claim
professional status: pharmacy, veterinary medicine, nursing, teaching, librarianship, optometry and social
work, all of which could claim, using these milestones, to be professions.
Although professionals enjoy high status and public prestige, not all professionals earn high salaries, and
even within specific professions there exist significant inequalities of compensation; for example, a trial
lawyer specializing in tort litigation on a contingent-fee basis may earn several times what a prosecutor or
public defender.
Formation of a profession
A profession arises when any trade or occupation transforms itself through "the development of formal
qualifications based upon education, apprenticeship, and examinations, the emergence of regulatory bodies
with powers to admit and discipline members, and some degree of monopoly rights.
8.3.5. Job
Part of the "American Dream" is to make a great living doing what you love. A job is a regular activity performed in
exchange for payment. It refers to what you can do at a given time to earn a living. A job in most cases is based on short
term contract.
8.3.6. Work
Work may refer to human labour, Employment, a contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other
being the employee. Work involves manual labour, physical work done by people.
8.4. Theories of Occupational Choice
Occupational choice like (career choice, job selection, and vocational choice) is an area in which psychological
expertise can be usefully employed. By helping people clarify their [[occupational interests] and preferences they can
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be helped towards making these important decisions. This may be at the beginning of their working lives but is also
useful if people want to change or develop their careers or to explore options around professional specialization.
Career counsellors can administer interest inventories to help people clarify their own interests and develop a short list
of suitable occupations.
Occupational guidance (or career counseling, career guidance, or vocational guidance) is the provision of help in career
selection and career development. It usually involves the assessment of abilities, aptitudes and occupational interests as
a basis for discussion.
8.5. Holland’s Theory of Vocational Choice:
Of the many career counseling theories, the most studied is John Holland's theory. His ideas, elaborated on in his
Making Vocational Choices: A Theory of Vocational Personalities and Work Environments are both straightforward
and widely applicable.
Assumptions behind the theory include:
 The selection of an occupation can be a reflection of a person's personality.

 An interest inventory can be a personality inventory. This is because Holland holds that perceived abilities, anticipated
success, and expected satisfaction help in defining interests.
 In our culture, there exist six different personality types against which we evaluate ourselves. Most people are a
combination of types, not a pure type.
 There exist six distinct working environments; each is dominated by a specific type.
 People are motivated to seek out jobs that complement their personalities, thereby maximizing their individual strengths
and minimizing their weaknesses.
 Specific career related behaviors, such as success, satisfaction, and job stability, can be reasonably predicted by
examining a person's P/E (personality/environment) fit.
Holland's Typology:
 Realistic Type, known as mechanical, practical, technology/outdoors type. R- Types are often pragmatic and like to
work with their hands.
 Investigative Type also called scientific or logical. I -types are often engineers or scientists and like problem-solving
and working alone.
 Artistic Type also referred to as artistic, literary, and expressive. These Types often have jobs in the visual or
performing arts, or as writers. They are known for their high degree of creativity often. They have jobs in the visual or
performing arts, or as writers. They are known for their high degree of creativity.
 Social Type also called helping or service-oriented. S -Types often have jobs in the health or social fields. They are
often altruistic people with an intuitive sense for reading others' feelings.
 Enterprising Type, sometimes called persuasive or assertive. They enjoy influencing others. E Types are drawn to
positions in management and politics.
 Conventional Type, also known as socialized, clerical, computational, or organizational. They enjoy order and are
often mathematically inclined. C Types are often found doing highly procedural work such as filing or bookkeeping.
Holland believed that the greater the congruency (or compatibility) between a person and their work environment, the
greater that individual's chance of success. Also, the greater the consistency, or degree of similarity, between the first
two letters of the code (as determined by their proximity on Holland's hexagon), the easier it is to make a career choice.

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It is easier to decide on a career when there is a high magnitude of difference between the highest and lowest types
instead of flat line. Holland held that if the difference between the scores the first two codes was less than 8, they could
be used interchangeably. However, if the difference was less greater than 8, then the first code is dominant.
8.6. Trait and Factor Theory/Personal model
The Trait-Factor theory of career development goes as far back as the early 1900’s and is associated most
strongly with vocational theorists like Frank Parsons and E.G. Williamson. Some of the basic assumptions that
underlie this theory are:
Every person has a unique pattern of traits made up of their interests, values, abilities and personality characteristics,
these traits can be objectively identified and profiled to represent an individual’s potentials.
Every occupation is made up of factors required for the successful performance of that occupation. These factors
can be objectively identified and represented as an occupational profile.
It is possible to identify a fit or match between individual traits and job factors using a straight forward problem-
solving/decision making process.
The closer the match between personal traits and job factors the greater the likelihood for successful job performance
and satisfaction.
Trait-factor theory has been around for a long time and is still being used by many career practitioners in one form
or another. Many of the aptitude, personality and interest tests and occupational information materials that emerged
from this approach have evolved and remain in use today (e.g., True Colors, General Aptitude Test Battery, Data-
People-Things Interest Test, occupational profiles and the ever expanding computer-based career guidance programs).
8.7. Factors influencing Vocational Development and Choice
Career development of students is generally influenced by many factors. Some of the factors include:
1. Intellectual ability- Some occupations require a considerable level of educational qualification.
2. A training school- where individuals acquire experience through its organized curricular, co-curricular activities and
internships.
3. Aptitude – is the ability to use your initiatives to succeed in the quality of work they are able to perform.
4. Personality – Particular occupation may require specific personality traits. This is affirmed in Holland personality
theory and Pearsonian Model of occupational choice.
UNIT 9. CAREERS GUIDANCE ACTIVITIES FOR STUDENTS
9.1. Introduction
For a trained counsellor, his duties, not only in career guidance are very numerous. Therefore, it will not be easy to list
the entire activities a school counsellor has to undertake even for career guidance purpose alone. However, for a
designated or trained career master/counsellor or even a counsellor assigned for career counselling per-se (i.e. where
a school is blessed with more than one Counsellor) the following activities are for any functional career guidance.
9.3. Career activities within the school milieu:

These are career activities carried out within a school milieu in order to create awareness among students and
educators.
9.3.1. Careers information dissemination
Simply, a lot of information has to be passed to students about career opportunities, prospects and courses through
various attractive or attention-catching devices like using bulletin boards or careers library and sessions.
9.3.2. Deliberate efforts at stimulating Teachers towards career guidance

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Mini-seminars or workshops in the school can be organized from time to time to enlighten teachers on techniques of
career guidance and how they can use their lesson to evolve career guidance. Free dialogues, say in the staff-room
could also be another means of promoting teachers sensitivity to the career guidance needs of students.
9.3.3. Placement service for career guidance purposes
This is very specific to form four and form five students. For lower sixth students, their previous results have to be put
into consideration when they are entering for any subjects. For form four students, not only their previous results, but
also their abilities and potentialities have to be considered in allowing them to read either science, arts, technical or
commercially oriented subjects.
9.3.4. Organizing careers conventions
This takes the form of organizing either day-long or week-long activities in the form of lectures, symposia debates etc
in order to highlight varying professions to students.
9.3.5. Careers club activities
This takes the form of organizing articulate students capable of stimulating career prospect activities and career
identification amongst other students. Thus, the club functions as an extra-curricular activity in the school talent.
9.3.6. Organizing work visits
Educational and industrial excursions or visits are a relevant component of career guidance activities. Such trips have
to be undertaken once in a while with full support from the school.
9.3.7. Organizing career simulation exercises for the whole school
This can take the form of Dramatizing, role-playing or showing films on given professions for the benefit of both
teachers and students alike. This shows an insight on how and what the profession requires.
9.3.8. Teaching Job-search skills to students
This entails deliberately teaching students where and how to look for jobs. Manner of presentation and interview skills
need to be taught to interested students.
9.3.9. Form-filling skills
Many students need to be taught how to fill job, course, or school forms appropriately. This is very essential, now that
everything is being computerized.
9.3.10. Acquisition and administration of vocational test inventory scales
Quite a number of suitable inventories or scales have to be sorted, acquired, and stored for use in the school. Such
inventories have to be relevant ones that can be administered easily in the school setting.
For the purpose of further clarification, some of these activities will be discussed in the ensuring units.
9.4. CAREER GUIDANCE COMPETENCES
For one to be successfully undertaking career guidance in any setting, certain attributes are essential. Makinde and
Alao (1987) listed quite a number of such attributes as expected of career masters or career counsellors.
9.4.1. Possession of all characteristics of any counsellor: Such characteristics include empathic in nature, intelligent,
current, diligent and adjective.
9.4.2. Mastery of career guidance theories and adapting them for counselling when necessary: Career counsellor
should be conversant with such theories like trait-factors, Super’s, Roe’s and Holland’s theories.
9.4.3. An ability to assess career development of individuals: This entails being able to link the career aspiration of
counsellees to career development stages and utilizing career inventories like the Vocational Interest Inventory
developed by Bakare.
9.4.4. Being current about career information and systematically making it available to clients: The skill here is
to be able to gather relevant career information from many sources and grouping them (i.e. the information) in to
simpler forms that can be easily grasped by students.
9.4.5. An ability to conduct placement guidance for students: Here, the career counsellor is expected to be able to
categorize subjects in to career needs. Hence, students should be placed in to classes and registered for subjects that
match their career choice.
 Being able to play the role-model of an interviewer and interviewee in simulated job interview sessions.

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 Being able to plan and manage a set out career guidance programme. (Career guidance programmed strategies to
be discussed in the sections ahead).
 Being able to monitor career adjustment developments of old clients: This is very vital towards the success of
present career guidance orientations and serves as a reference for career counsellees.
9.4.6. Being able to promote career-decision making skills in students: Here, the career counsellor should always
be able to outline for counsellees, steps to be taken in order to help them arrive at a rational decision. Of course, this
entirely entails a systematic counselling session in helping the clients needing career counselling.
These competencies are in no way inexhaustible. Taking any rational decision about career prospects of students entails
all kinds of career guidance competences.
9.5. SUMMARY
The main issues highlighted in this unit included discussions on career activities in schools, dissemination of
career information, and the ability to access career potentialities in an individual.
9.6. Self check exercise

Discuss how a career Guidance programme in organized in schools.
Write short notes on the following:
 . Careers information dissemination
 Deliberate efforts at stimulating Teachers towards career guidance
 Placement service for career guidance
 Organising careers conventions
 Career guidance competences
Introduction
Just like a comprehensive school guidance and counselling service needs a programme of operation, so does careers
guidance in schools need a programme of action.
10.1. Objectives
By the end of this unit, you be able to:
Explain the meaning of a career a guidance Programme (C.G.P) .
State and discuss the components of Career Guidance Programme.
Describe the steps to be taken to develop a C.G.P in a school.
10.2. What is Career Guidance Programme (C.G.P)?
Career guidance programme is the blue-print of policies on which the school curriculum is expected to enable
students to be helped to realize their occupational potentiates with a view to making worthwhile career decisions
via appropriately channeled career development paths.
Makinde and Alao (1987:93) listed the following aims of any school-based C.G.P.
a) Getting students aware of educational and vocational opportunities of the word.
B) Making students to become aware of their personal abilities, interests and limitations in all their endeavours.
c) To help students to make rational decisions and choices in terms of courses and career pursuits.
d) To make the entire school fully and continuously aware of careers and educational opportunities as well as the
competences, interest, and limitations of its students.
e) To prevent maladjustment that may arise from mistaken and wrong choices by students.
f) To identify, assess and diagnose such cases of maladjustment and providing adequate counselling and therapy.
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10.3. Components of Career Guidance Programme (C.G.P).

1. The entire C.G.P. must deliberately be made up of activities that will help students to understand themselves; and
thus realizing their abilities, interests and capabilities as they relate to the world of work.
2. A C.G.P. should be composed of activities that help students to utilize decision making cycles i.e. collating
information, formulating plans about careers, test-trying the plan and evaluating them for reformulation of new
plans.
3. An important part of any C.G.P. is that component which makes students continually sensitive to their
environment. Thus, information about jobs and career opportunities does not elude them.
4. Job enhancement skills forms that part of the C.G.P. which involves teaching students job hunting and interview
skills.
5. The placement component of C.G.P. entails allocating students to classes based on their career aspirations.
6. Every C.G.P. should have an evaluation and re-appraisal component which seeks to assess progress of the aims
of the C.G.P. Hence, adjustments for better results of the C.G.P. can be got.
10.4. The following steps need to be taken to develop a C.G.P in a school
1. Seeking a go-ahead from the school head by explaining the aims.
2. Asking the school administration to select a C.G.P. Committee.
3. Orientation or enlightening of all staff about the C.G.P. i.e. explain the role expected of everybody.
4. Design a career guidance model---i.e. the plan of action itself. In other words, earmark all strategies to be used
to meet the aims of the C.G.P.
5. Acquisition of career guidance assessment inventories. Otherwise, seek the opinion of test experts and improvise
inventories to suit your school and environment.
6. Inaugurate the C.G.P. for teachers and student in a light ceremony. This opportunity could be used to release the
year’s career guidance activities programme and to launch the career guidance club.
The following strategies can be used to evolve C .G.P. in a school.

1. set out the roles of all teachers in the C.G.P. and co-ordinate their activities.
2. Ensure adequate flow of information about career opportunities and the C.G.P. itself.
3. Initiate the process of students formulating tentative career aspirations to be tried out.
4. Initiate a survey study of students career-choice problems to give you a scope if where to begin.
5. Conduct case-counselling sessions using therapy methods and watch outcomes and effects on the C.G.P.
These done, the C.G.P. would of course have taken off.
Reference
Peterson, C.H. (1999). Counselling and Guidance in Schools. New York; Harper and brother Publishers.
Unoh, S.O. (1993): Principles of Guidance and Counselling. Unpublished paper, C.O.E. Port Harcourt.
Williamson, E.G. (1999): How to Counsel Students. New York: McGraw-Hill.
UNIT 11: ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF GUIDANCE AND

COUNSELLING PROGRAMME
11.1. Introduction
This unit will focus on the organization of school counselling and to illustrate the relevance of guidance theories and
practice as compared to Para-counsellors who attempt the practice of guidance and counselling without any theoretical
knowledge.
11.2. Objectives

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The responsibility of any parent or nation is to educate and develop their children and youth to become
more performant, productive and above all of good conduct.
It is based on this premise that the following objectives of a guidance counsellor are pertinent for any
sound education system.
 Provision of personal, social and career counselling to promote students emotional, health and
adjustment in school.
 He is expected to collect and effectively inseminate educational and occupational on regular basis.
 The counsellor should keep and maintain personal cumulative records or folders on each student
wherein the student’s continuous Assessment is always updated.
 Referral should be made to students with problems the counsellor cannot handle to specialists.
 Common topics like discipline, sex education, time management, study techniques, etc., should be
provided through group counselling.
 Administration and interpretation of standardizes and locally adapted psychological test to diagnose the
students’ individual problems.
 Carrying out research and communication of academic and occupational information to keep the
students with the present changes.
11.3. Requirements for setting up a guidance service

To set up guidance, the following structures and conditions should be put in place:
11.3.1. Accommodation
Viewing the need for an organized and good Guidance and Counselling service in any school milieu, with trained
qualified counsellors, there is a need for space. An equipped office with the necessary facilities will permit the
counsellors to function effectively and efficiently.
A well-equipped counsellor needs an office with a table. Good chairs for visitors, bookshelves for reference
materials like psychological tests, cumulative folders, information board for the students and public etc. In an emerging
economy, he should be exposed to internet, radio and other means of communication. Practically in Cameroon and
many developing nations, these facilities may not be readily available hence counsellors posted to schools without these
facilities have to maximize what is available. If not they are expected to improvise or have personal initiative before
convincing the authority to provide the essentials.
11.3.2. Time
A school counsellor limited time to effectively carry out individual and group counselling, attend class councils,
administrative and staff meetings as well as research for useful information for the students and others.
It is equally important though not imperative for counsellors to be provided slots in the school timetables. Regular
classes permit the counsellor to better know the students and their difficulties considering the huge student – counsellor
ratio. The normal student-counsellor ratio is supposed to be 300:1.
11.3.3. Finance
The counselling service needs financial support. They are expected to constantly be on research to be abreast with the
changing world of work and education. They need to attend and participate as well as organize seminars, workshops,
conferences etc., to update and develop modern counselling skills. Working tools like tape recorders, psychological
tests, books, pamphlets, transport fares, filling of cumulative folders or records, allowances for invited guest speakers
during career days or National Guidance and counselling day etc. The guidance counsellor should be provided funds to
run the service and he/she has discretion on how to use the funds with the approval of the principal or head of institution.
11.3.4. Career Information

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The counsellor should have access to Career Information Source-Libraries and pay regular visits to occupational
establishments for information. To better guide the students, counsellors are expected to search for the appropriate and
accurate information about training centers, professional schools, job opportunities, and requirements. The media is an
important source of career information. Organizing trips to work places with students and negotiating for internship widens
the knowledge and aspirations of students about occupational establishments.
UNIT 12: IMPORTANT ELEMENTS WHICH FACILITATE COUNSELLING
12.1Introduction
Unit 10 is designed to teach you the various elements which facilitate counselling process within a school setting. This
chapter will illustrate the significance of privacy, confidentiality, and establishing a good counselling relationship. The
relationship depends on the counselor’s attitude, his values, understanding, and unconditional acceptance. Finally the
factors of empathy, rapport, attentiveness and their effect upon the relationship will be examined. It is likely that a
counselling session may not be successful if one or more of these factors are absent. A counselor should develop
excellent listening skills. This is the watch words for cousellors:
<<Oh Lord, Help Me to Keep my Big Golden Mouth shut , until I know what I am Talking about And To Whom
I am Talking , At any Given Point and Time in My Life.>>
12.3. External conditions influencing Counselling

The physical setting in which you want to conduct your counselling has a significant role to play in the success or failure
in the relationship.
12.3.1. Physical setting
The counselling office should be comfortable and attractive. Counselling facilities should be designed for comfort and
relaxation. The office should carry enough information on guidance and counselling in form of pictures, information
charts etc.
There should be good seats and a table for your clients, a bookshelf with updated materials like brochures, adverts for
jobs and employment opportunities, competitive entrance into professional and high schools etc. A pleasant
environment is friendly. A well not fancifully dressed counsellor and an organized office enables a cordial relationship
between the counselee and the counsellor.
12.3.2. Privacy
An important aspect of the physical setting is privacy. Every counselee has a right both to auditory and visual privacy
from peers, teachers and others when they are in a counselling relationship. The relationship can easily be terminated if
the counselee suspects that others are able to hear or see what is being said or taking place. It is sufficient to declare
here that confidentiality is an essential condition for counselling and that physical facilities which safeguard it also
encourage the development of a counselling relationship.
12.3.3. Video taping or Tape recording
Video taping and recording has been an issue of controversy in counselling. Formally the recording of counselling
interview was a common practice. Recently, much clamor center around the ethics of mechanically reproducing the
content of counselling information when such information should be safeguarded. One provision attached to the
question of ethics is that all recordings are made with the counsellee’s permission and subsequent use of the recordings
is made only with the counsellee’s consent. According to the counselling code of ethics, “The counselling relationship
and information resulting there from must be kept confidential.”
The use of machines like tapes can likely thwart the counselling relationship. Experience indicates that recording
of the session keeps the counselee uncomfortable hence preventing total disclosure of vital information to be exploited.
12.3.4. Notes Taking
Note taking like taping has an influence on the quality of the relationship. When a counselee realizes that the
professional is constantly writing any little thing he/her says, he becomes suspicious. Most of the information can be
withheld because of fear for implicating oneself. Notes taking should be done intelligently if highly necessary.
34
12.4. Counsellor’s Attitudes that influence counselling

The counsellor’s attitudes, his approaches to others, and what he does all influence the counselling relationship to
a greater extent. The beliefs, values and religious orientation of the counsellor may influence the counselling
relationship. A counsellor who indulges in deviant behaviour like drunkenness, smoking and poor sexual behaviour
cannot pretend to effectively counsel.
12.5. Counsellor’s skills that influence Counselling
The skills of a counsellor consisting of: rapport, empathy, attentiveness can either further or inhibit the couselling
process. These skills are based upon and highly related to acceptance and understanding.
12.5.1. Rapport
Rapport can be seen as a condition essential to a comfortable and unconditional relationship between counsellor and
counselee. A sound relationship is established and maintained through the counsellor’s genuine interest and acceptance
of the client. A warm rapport is a technique used in the initial interview which creates mutual understanding between
the counsellor and the counselee. It is a bond characterized by interest, responsiveness, and a sensitive emotional
involvement. A good rapport means an appropriate working relationship established between counsellor and counselee.
12.5.2. Empathy
Empathy is an aspect of a counsellor’s skill. Empathy can be described as putting oneself in other person’s shoes.
Most definitions indicate that empathy is the apprehension of the emotions of another person without feeling completely
what he/she feels. Note that empathy is not sympathy.
12.5.3. Attentiveness
Attentiveness is a fundamental skill of a counsellor. Attentiveness requires interest and listening skills. By consciously
making an effort to attend closely to what the counselee is expressing (verbally and non-verbally) the counsellor is able
to participate in the counsellee’s communication. Attentiveness permits the counsellor to understand not only what the
counselee says but how he says it and why. Listening is the means by which the counsellor sustains, extends, and
deepens his knowledge of the client. The counsellor’s keen listening and attention tells the client that the counsellor is
interested in and sensitive to the problem he seeks to convey. The counsellor needs to be keen and observant to the non-
verbal behaviour of the counselee. The client’s physical appearance, body movement like chewing of fingernails,
movement of eyes and head transmits vital information.
UNIT 13: GUIDANCE COUNSELLING AND EDUCATIONAL PROVISION TO

CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS AND STUDENTS AT RISK.
Comprehensive guidance and counselling programs and services are inclusive. They are intended to help all students
realize their full potential regardless of physical, social, emotional and other challenges.
The function of school counsellors with students who have exceptional learning needs may include:
 working as a team member with other support professionals;

 intervening with students with difficult behaviour;
 providing guidance, counselling and prevention services, including crisis counselling, group guidance and counselling,
family support, and consultation;
 providing in-service support presentations to staff;
 providing specific curriculum-related programs to strengthen personal and interpersonal skills such as problem-solving,
decision-making, understanding feelings and self-acceptance;
35
 Providing referrals for additional specialized support services and mediating and facilitating effective behaviour change.
 providing social skills training individually and in small groups;
 assisting in establishing appropriate individual behaviour programs;
 serving as a consultant and resource to parents, teachers, and other school personnel;
 promoting workshops for staff and students on various disorders affecting school success;
 supporting parents and families;
 providing career planning;
 making referrals to appropriate specialists; and
 assisting in the completion of funding application
13.2 Meaning of Education
The definition of education cannot be with precision but generally education can be regarded as an aggregate of all the
processes by means of which a person develops abilities, attitudes and other aspects of behaviour of positive or
sometimes negative values in the society in which he lives. Education enables us develop our talents fully. It is evident
that individuals differ in intelligence and ability. It is true that some individuals are disabled in one way or the other. It
is true that the goals of most nations are to have education for all. If this goal is to be attained, the disabled children
with physical, mental, and emotional handicaps need special help and assistance.
Because of these children suffering from a number of handicapping conditions, the term “special education had to
be used to describe the kinds of educational services that are being provided for them. From a counselling point of view
certain critical issues involved in the provision of educational services must be examined.
13.3. Meaning of Special Education
The term special education is used to indicate those aspects of education which apply to those with special needs and
gifted children. This may lead to modifying, supplementing, and refining the regular school programme employing the
services of specially trained teachers as well as using specialized equipment, materials and techniques. The school
counsellor is better placed to inform the authority of the number and types of handicapped children and propose
conditions.
13.4. Timely Identification and Diagnosis of Handicapping Conditions in Children.
Early identification of those with a particular disability can be cured or controlled. When those with special need are
identified, special attention and assistance is paid to them. Parents should be keen and observant to their children during
the first three years. Early diagnoses will enable us;
 To gain an insight into the magnitude of the problems associated with the handicapping conditions. We can be able to
know whether the situation is curable, severe or mild.
 To know whether an early therapeutic programme that can minimize the effect of the handicap on the child.
 Early diagnoses can enable us prevent the spread of physical or sensory impairment among children. In Cameroon, the
provision of diagnostic services for our children is grossly inadequate. Problems with most children are only discovered
during primary or secondary schools and most often already acute and severe.
13.5. Placement of Handicapped Children.
Educational placement of children with special needs is very challenging. Since these children suffer from a variety
of needs, such needs can only be met in diverse ways and under diverse conditions. The common kinds of educational
environments into which those with special needs could be placed are:
 Hospital and treatment centers.
 Residential schools
 Special day schools;
 Special classes with specialized trained teachers.
In Cameroon these schools are not common and the few existing are owned privately by some individuals or the church
13.6. Further Education and Employment of those with special needs:
In Cameroon, the number of those with special needs receiving education is on the rise. This is glaring in our
secondary schools, the number at the G.C.E Ordinary and Advance levels. It is an obligation to the state not only to
assist and promote the education of those with special needs but equally to prepare the learners to be productive in
36
active life. They need guidance and counselling and orientation to enable hem know themselves, what they can do and
how they can do it. Over the years in Cameroon, the limited educational opportunities available to the disabled and the
corresponding lack of career guidance have often limited their employment opportunities of those with special needs.
Most employers in Cameroon tend to discriminate and underestimate the skills and output of the disabled. Some people
do not like to socialize with disabled people. However, if those with special needs most achieve their full potentials and
have increased job opportunities, their education must be considered and planned in recognition of employment
possibilities that will provide them with best opportunities.
13.7. Teacher Training.
Many educational systems face the problem of lack of qualified teachers. Cameroon is no exception especially in
the area of special education. The need of well trained teachers to the benefit of all children in our schools is crucial.
There is an urgent need for the revision of the training curriculum to involve the identification of the needs of
handicapped children and techniques in providing guidance and counselling services for the children with special needs
and their families.
13.8. Parent Counselling Service
A counselling service for parents of the young handicaps is imperative for them to have effective education. Despite
the efforts by the Cameroon government to foster the education of those with special needs, most parents still lack
adequate information regarding the disabled conditions of their children. They are ignorant of the fact that the
handicapping conditions could be referred to specialists, diagnosed, and cured. The situation gets worst when the
disabled children are abandoned to themselves. Some parents consider them worthless and see no reason wasting money
to educate them.
It is then reasonable to suggest that parents of those with special needs be educated, encouraged, counseled, guided,
and supported during periods of crises with their children. Awareness should be created in the society about the
wellbeing of those with special needs. School counsellors can organize individual or group counselling with parents of
disabled or handicapped children to advice and inform them of the care and assistance their children need.
13.9. Counselling the Handicapped individuals.
It is equally important to counsel handicapped children. The presence of handicapping condition in an individual can
negatively affect both the social and psychological development of the individual concerned. This can lead to
maladjustment of such individuals to the society in which they live. It is true that children with a disability such as
auditory, visual, or physical impairment usually affect their adequate functional ability, and can likely evoke a negative
psychological reaction in the individual concerned.
13.10. Informational Counselling
This strategy involves educating the handicapped individuals to know the causes and the implication of their disability
helshe is suffering from. It is the duty of the counsellor to use his expertise to educate the children with special needs
and their parents and society to remove the myths that surround the presence of disability in some individuals. In some
cultures in Cameroon for instance, albinos are regarded as curse in the family and they are only good for sacrifice to the
‘Gods’. The counsellor should let the society know that the conditions of most of the disabled children could be cured,
improved upon through training, medication, and assistive technology.
13.11. Personal adjustment counselling
This approach is aimed at helping the handicapped individual to accept his or her situation and cope with it. Since the
disabled or handicapped person feels bad about his/herself, the counsellor has a task of letting the individual know
his/her strengths and weaknesses. The individual should be guided and counseled on what profession or job best
suitable.

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1

INTRODUCTION TO GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING/ ISSUES IN GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

 Guidance, Counselling, guidance and counselling, Orientation. Psychotherapy, Psychiatry.

Counselling is Not mere advising:

Counselling and Psychotherapy

Dr Nkengla John[Type here]

The Role of the Counsellor

Dr Nkengla John[Type here]

Helpful Rapport Building Behaviours

Dr Nkengla John[Type here]

Psychodynamic Approach to Counselling

Dr Nkengla John[Type here]

Humanistic Approach to Counselling

Dr Nkengla John[Type here]

Behavioural Approach to Counselling

Avoiding Stress | Laughter Therapy | Anger Management

Dr Nkengla John[Type here]

Group Counseling Competencies

UNIT 1:GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION OF BASIC CONCEPTS IN

1.3. The concept of Guidance and Counselling

1.3.1. The meaning of Guidance

What is the relevance of a guidance services in our schools?

Dr Nkengla John[Type here]

1.3.6. Differences between Guidance and counseling.

1.4. Historical evolution of counseling.

Historical evolution of counseling in Cameroon

UNIT 2: FUNCTIONS OF A GUIDANCE COUNSELLOR

Functions of the counsellor

Dr Nkengla John[Type here]

2.3. Principles of Guidance and Counselling

2.4. Qualities of the Guidance Counsellor

Some of the qualities are:

2.4.1. Unconditional Acceptance of your client.

Dr Nkengla John[Type here]

2.6. Memory check

UNIT 3: SOME SCHOOL GUIDANCE SERVICES

3.3. Some counselling Services in schools

Dr Nkengla John[Type here]

The purposes of appraisal include:

UNIT 4: Counselling Approaches

Dr Nkengla John[Type here]

The approaches are:

Dr Nkengla John[Type here]

4.5.1. Criticism of the psychoanalytic theory:

4.6. Rational- Emotive approach

4.7. View of Human nature

4.8. Behavioral Counselling viewpoint

Criticisms of eclectic counselling

Dr Nkengla John[Type here]

UNIT 5: Individual and Group Counselling

5.3. Individual Counselling

 First, it allows the counselor to work in isolated issues.

Dr Nkengla John[Type here]

 Second, the counselor caters only to one client.

5.3.2. Disadvantages of Individual Therapy

Dr Nkengla John[Type here]

5.4.3. Disadvantages of Group Guidance Counselling

Group counseling has some disadvantages:

UNIT 6: Types of Counselling

6.3 Personal counselling

Dr Nkengla John[Type here]

6.4. Vocational counselling

6.5. Academic counselling