Vol. 4 No.

3 November 2006

SIPS IN
RESIDENTIAL PROJECTS

PUSHING THE ENVELOPE

WITH ICFS
SPRAYFOAM
AND STRUCTURAL SUPPORT

MM_Nov06.indd 1 9/29/06 4:59:42 PM

 ECO SPEC
4C AD

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 CONTENTS November 2006 • Vol. 4 No. 3
A supplement to The Construction Specifier

4 ME S S A G E FROM THE APC

KENILWORTH MEDIA INC.
289—266 Elmwood Avenue, Buffalo, NY 14222
Tel: (866) 572-5633 toll free Fax: (866) 572-5677
sales@constructionspecifier.com

5 PLASTIC POSSIBILITIES
Soy-based polyols and polyurethane/polyurea defensive
coating—innovations are changing the ways plastics are
made and the applications for which they are used.
PRODUCTION OFFICES
15 Wertheim Court, , Suite 710
Richmond Hill, ON L4B 3H7, Canada

EDITORIAL DIRECTOR
Blair Adams, ext. 216 editor@constructionspecifier.com

6
EDITOR
SIPS AND RESIDENTIAL Erik Missio, ext. 223 emissio@constructionspecifier.com
APPLICATIONS
Zero-energy homes (ZEH) produce as much energy as ASSISTANT EDITOR
they consume. They often take advantage of foam Jacquie De Almeida, ext. 238 jdealmeida@constructionspecifier.com
plastic insulation building assemblies, such as structural
ART DIRECTOR
insulated panels (SIPs). Jennifer Ko jko@kenilworth.com

12 PUBLISHING THE ENERGY

ENVELOPE WITH ICFS
Although insulating concrete forms (ICFs) were developed
as below-grade foundation walls, their energy-saving
possibilities quickly moved above the surface.
DESIGNER
Mark De Jesus, ext. 248

PRODUCTION MANAGER
Kimberley Cowper, ext. 251
mdejesus@kenilworth.com

production@constructionspecifier.com

CIRCULATION MANAGER
Anjo van Vark, ext. 217 avanvark@constructionspecifier.com

17 SPF BEYOND ENERGY INSULATION VICE PRESIDENT

Not only can spray polyurethane foam (SPF) help Rudy Kral, ext. 236 rudykral@constructionspecifier.com
enhance a building’s energy efficiency, but it can CONTROLLER
also potentially improve structural integrity—making Michael Usser, ext. 234 musser@constructionspecifier.com
it a viable choice for high-wind regions.
DIRECTOR OF SALES
Cora Golden, ext. 221 cgolden@constructionspecifier.com

20 SBIC AS AN ENERGY RESOURCE

The Sustainable Buildings Industry Council (SBIC) began
as an energy organization—the Passive Solar Industries
Council. Despite the name change, low-energy use
remains one of their focuses for achieving a high
GROUP SALES MANAGER
Erik Tolles, ext. 228

SALES MANAGER
Peter Vos, ext. 220
etolles@constructionspecifier.com

pvos@constructionspecifier.com
performance building. SALES
Paolo Commisso, ext. 230 pcommisso@constructionspecifier.com

22 LIFE CYCLE THINKING Louise Kelly, ext. 244 lkelly@constructionspecifier.com

Only by looking at all the data, from cradle to grave, Randi Segal, ext. 218 rsegal@constructionspecifier.com
can one determine a building material’s impact over SALES COORDINATOR
time. Life cycle inventory (LCI) data being supplied by Anna Taratuta, ext. 240 ataratuta@constructionspecifier.com
the American Plastics Council (APC) will help make
this possible. PUBLISHER
Ellen Kral, ext. 214 ellenkral@constructionspecifier.com

24 PLASTIC PIPES AND ENERGY

Plastic piping products can offer advantages in efficiency
and design. However, they can also potentially help the
nation reduce its energy consumption.
ASSISTANT TO THE PUBLISHER
Krista Taylor, ext. 237 ktaylor@constructionspecifier.com

American Plastics Council (APC), Kenilworth Media Inc., or the

Construction Specifications Institute does not approve, endorse,
or promote, nor does it assume any liability for damages
arising from the use or application of the products, services,
or technologies discussed or advertised in Modern Materials.

27 ENERGY EFFICIENCY, SUSTAINABLE

DESIGN, AND XPS
Extruded polystyrene’s (XPS’s) closed-cell structure and
lack of voids not only imparts durability and strength,
but also helps the foam resist moisture penetration.
APC, Kenilworth Media Inc., or the Construction Specifications
Institute assumes no liability for errors or inaccurate information
in the text, charts, or advertisements, or for reliance upon any
information provided by the authors and vendors.

APC, Kenilworth Media Inc., or the Construction Specifications

ON THE COVER
The optimal energy performance of the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental
Protection in Cambria led to its certification as Gold under the Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design (LEED) program. The L. Robert Kimball & Associates project relies
on a thermal envelope of insulating concrete forms (ICFs)—combining the insulative
qualities of polystyrene plastic with the strength and durability of concrete.
Photo © Jim Schafer (www.jimschaferphotography.com)
Institute assumes no responsibility for statements and opinions
advanced by third-party contributors to the publication. Views
expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily
represent an official position of the Council, Kenilworth Media Inc.,
or the Construction Specifications Institute nor do they endorse
or not endorse a particular product or vendor.
Contents of Modern Materials are copyrighted and may not be
reproduced without written consent. All articles are available at
www.greenbuildingsolutions.org.

modernmaterials November 2006 3

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 Message from the APC
The Energy Issue
T
he ‘energy crisis’ was not an event of the 1970s—it is today and
tomorrow. Much has been said on the need for a sustainable
future. Rising gas prices and utility bills, new energy policy
legislation, and a mainstream embrace of resource conservation and
sustainable design are indicative of energy’s importance. The question
is, how can we make a difference—not only as professionals working
in the built environment, but also as citizens of the world?
When it comes to environmental impact, studies show the
imprint of the design/construction world is much larger in the
use stage than it is in the production of construction materials. In
other words, to have an impact in curbing energy consumption, we
must examine ways of making entire buildings more efficient once
occupied (rather than focusing on individual products). If all owners
reduced their buildings’ energy use by even a fraction, the overall
impact could be resoundingly positive.
From roofing to piping, the plastics industry has long touted the
resource advantages of its products. However, thinking in terms of
energy efficiency often comes down to one thing—wall performance.
By improving the walls’ thermal efficiency, electricity (i.e. fossil fuel
use) demands during peak times can be lowered, even reducing
the size of some HVAC systems. Lowering energy use during the
building’s life span can be better for the environment, and better for
the builder’s and owner’s wallets.
Clearing Up Misconceptions
I W
read your introduction (“Message from the APC—Is Foam Insulation
‘Plastic?’ Welcome to the Knowledge Issue II”) in the June 2006 issue of
Modern Materials. However, I disagree with you—all foam insulation
is not plastic. For example, I know of at least one foam insulation made
from soybeans, with no formaldehyde or out-gassing like many of the
petrochemical foams. I think you should be giving out correct ‘knowledge’
and not just promoting your plastic products.
Edward J. Cazayoux, AIA
EnvironMental Design
©Image from BigStockPhoto.com
4 November 2006
MM_Nov06.indd 4
This special Energy Issue of Modern Materials explores the
numerous ways in which plastics can help keep homes and buildings
warmer in the winter and cooler in the summer. Zero-energy houses
(ZEHs) are explored, along with components like structural insulated
panels (SIPs) and insulating concrete forms (ICFs)—products
described in last issue’s wall study article. We also take another look
at how the American Plastic Council’s (APC’s) provision of life cycle
assessment/inventory (LCA and LCI) data will enable designers to
make smarter choices about selecting energy-efficient materials.
Please let us know your thoughts—as some did last issue—and we
will look forward to responding in the publication.
Robert Krebs
Executive Editor
American Plastics Council
1300 Wilson Blvd. 13th Floor
Arlington, VA 22209
Tel: (703) 741-5626
Fax: (703) 741-6626
rob_krebs@plastics.org
www.greenbuildingsolutions.org
hile we appreciate your comments, you should be aware the
word ‘plastic’ does not denote a petroleum- or natural gas-based
product. In fact, the first plastics were made from cellulose. In
any case, there is considerable development underway with the use of soy
and other renewable resources as the starting materials for polyurethane
polyols in rigid insulation, flexible cushioning, and engineered wood
applications. (For more information, see the next page.) Still, it is important
to note these emerging products typically use only a certain percentage of
soy-based material, with the rest of it petroleum-based.
With regard to these petrochemical foams, there are some
misconceptions in your letter that should be cleared up. First,
formaldehyde foams were phased out in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
No U.S. company should be producing them at this time, but it is our
understanding there are some formaldehyde products still available on
the market. As such, many geographic areas mandate a disclosure at the
time of sale if formaldehyde is used in residential construction.
Also, within the building products industry, the terms ‘off-gassing’ and
‘out-gassing’ often relate to leakage of a substance into the environment
where a product is placed. This understanding is not to be confused with
manufactured or plant processes. Emissions during manufacture can
be restricted by plant process changes or captured using environmental
controls. Rest assured both in-plant processes and on-site installations are
monitored to meet and comply with strict health and safety regulations
to benefit us all.Thank you for your note and thank you again for your
continued interest in Modern Materials.
modernmaterials
9/29/06 4:59:55 PM
 Plastic Possiblities

Testing
by New Mexico
Tech’s Energetic Materials
Spray-on Plastic Provides Research and Testing Center
Blast Defense (EMRTC) consisted of detonating
more than 90.7 kg (200 lb) of
TNT and 2.3 kg (5 lb) of C4 plastic

T
he same plastic that is sprayed as a lining for
truck beds is now being used to protect U.S. explosives at a stand-off distance of
troops. The durable polyurethane/polyurea approximately 9 m (30 ft). The room
coating can withstand the blasts of varying sizes and protected with the plastic coating
standoff distances. As such, it helps reduce one of remained virtually intact, while its
the greatest threats from an explosion—the shrapnel unprotected counterpart was
of walls, windows, fixtures, and equipment flying at destroyed.
high speeds.
The coating is being used on the armor plating
around the machine gun mounts on Hummers and
light-armored vehicles in the Middle East, and also
in the ballistic vests protecting more than 50,000
soldiers in Iraq and Afghanistan.
The U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) also
selected the proprietary bomb blast coating application
for the renovation of the Pentagon in the event of
another terrorist attack. To date, the plastic has been
applied to more than 18,580 m2 (200,000 sf) of
building surface.

Harvesting Plant/Plastic Composites

A
s surprising as it may sound, using soybeans to manufacture
plastics is not a new idea. In 1933, Henry Ford replaced
a small portion of the rear of one of his automobiles with
soy-based phenolic plastic. He then took a sledgehammer to the rear
panel, demonstrating the material’s strength and flexibility.
A soy-based polyol combined with isocyanate creates a
polyurethane resin system. This ingredient can then be used in both
rigid and flexible polyurethane foam applications for everything
from construction materials (e.g. spray foam insulation and carpet
backing) to agricultural and household uses (e.g. shoe soles and
tractor cushions).
When the soy-based insulation is sprayed, the open-cell, semi-rigid
foam expands 100 times its original liquid size. The insulation forms
©Image from Bigstockphoto.com

a virtually airtight seal as it expands to fill in every crevice, reducing

heating and cooling costs. Additionally, the soy-based spray foam is not
believed to be affected by time or moisture and will not settle, according
to the United Soybean Board (www.unitedsoybean.org).
While these plant/plastic composites are not a silver bio-bullet
they have had success in niche applications—further research and
refinement will determine its best application purposes.

modernmaterials November 2006 5

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 and Residential
SIPS
Applications
CUTTING ENERGY DOWN TO ZERO
By Chris Schwind

A
lthough often overlooked, U.S. homes account for 15 percent
of the nation’s energy use. As such, the Department of Energy’s
(DoE’s) Building Technology program has made its goal to
reduce residential consumption through the development and market

Photos courtesy Structural Insulated Panel Association

adoption of the zero-energy home (ZEH) concept.1

ZEHs produce as much energy as they consume—a quality depending

heavily on foam plastic insulation building assemblies, such as structural
insulated panels (SIPs), to form an airtight building envelope that cuts energy
used for heating and cooling. Relying on both plastics and traditional building
materials, the combination of SIPs and other energy-efficient technologies brings
the ZEH concept closer to the mainstream than many design professionals
might think.

6 November 2006 modernmaterials

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 Plastics can be an important part of these in Lenoir City, Tennessee. The homes, which ranged
zero-energy homes, as they only result in the in size from 98 to 241.5 m2 (1056 to 2600 sf),
use of about five percent of all fossil fuels, were built as part of a Habitat for Humanity
according to 2005 information from the Energy subdivision and designed with construction costs
Information Administration. suitable for the non-profit organization. ORNL
specified structural insulated panels for walls and
Conceptual ZEH development roofs in all five homes; this decision was based
Hand in hand with the zero-energy concept is on the performance of SIPs in ORNL tests of
the successful integration of energy-efficient whole-wall R-value and air tightness for various
technologies and renewable energy sources. wall assemblies.
Roof-mounted photovoltaic (PV) arrays convert In 1996, ORNL began studying the whole-wall
sunlight to energy that can be used in the home. R-values of more than 400 wall assemblies.
During off-peak hours and during ideal, sunny Whereas insulation R-values measure the thermal
conditions, these PVs produce more electricity
than necessary. The excess is sold back to the local
utility through the grid and credited to the home’s
account to purchase energy during peak times or
at night when consumption exceeds generation.
These homes have the potential to
significantly affect energy consumption across the
nation if the concept can be readily and affordably
incorporated into the U.S. housing industry.
The DoE recognizes affordability is the primary
hindrance barring the widespread acceptance
of ZEHs. For this reason, it sponsors continuing
research and development, and implements tax
credits for PVs and ‘whole-house’ energy savings
under the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct 2005)
to make energy-efficient homes an economical
option for builders and homebuyers.2
Photovoltaic units account for a large
portion of the incremental cost of a ZEH versus a
conventional home. In recent years, these arrays
have become increasingly more efficient and
economically justifiable, but the price still hovers
around $6500 to $10,000 per kWp.3 Due to
the high costs of photovoltaics, ZEHs must rely This photo shows a structural
heavily on a high-performance building envelope resistance of insulation in a cavity, whole-wall insulated panel (SIP) test room
and other energy-efficient technologies to reach testing gauges the insulating ability of an entire wall being constructed inside Oakridge
the goal of net-zero energy use. section, taking into account the thermal bridging National Laboratory’s (ORNL’s)
In other words, ZEH is not a single technology, of studs and other structural members in the walls. large-scale climate simulator. At
but rather an assembly of integrated systems As much as 45 percent of a home’s energy use is 50 Pa (1 psf) of negative pressure,
carefully specified to achieve cost-effective for heating and cooling, making a well-insulated this 3.3 x 3.3-m (10.9 x 10.9-ft)
energy savings. An airtight envelope and other building envelope a critical ZEH component.5 test room leaked 4.2 L/s (9 cfm),
technologies can reduce home energy use by SIPs are composed of a rigid foam core of insulation 14 times less than a 2x6 framed
approximately 70 percent, leaving the remainder sandwiched between two structural skins. Different room under identical conditions.
of energy savings to be supplied by a small PV core materials can be used, including expanded
system.4 (Savings may vary. Suppliers should be polystyrene (EPS), polyurethane, polyisocyanurate
consulted to understand the energy trade-offs.) (polyiso), and extruded polystyrene (XPS). All these
materials provide high levels of insulation and are
Structural insulated panels entirely consistent within the panel, interrupted by
Between 2002 and 2005, Oak Ridge National minimal framing lumber. SIP skins are typically made
Laboratory (ORNL)—the DoE’s test facility— of oriented strandboard (OSB), but can also be made
built and monitored five zero-energy test homes of other materials for specific applications.

modernmaterials November 2006 7

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 “
The EPA recognizes the
advantages of SIP homes
and does not require a
blower door test to check
for air leakage to qualify
“
for Energy Star.

Habitat for Humanity volunteers prepare to

place roof panels for a zero-energy home (ZEH).
The spanning capabilities of SIPs allow a single
ridge beam to support the roof, meaning less
joints and an overall airtight structure.

Panel joints need to be sealed with a continuous bead of SIP sealing
mastic provided by the manufacturer or expanding polyurethane foam.
SIPs derive their structural properties from
the skins and their laminated construction,
meaning they can be assembled with little
dimensional lumber. Traditional framed walls
in residential construction average a framing
factor (i.e. ratio of stud area to whole opaque
exterior wall area) ranging from 25 to 27
percent, depending on seismic requirements,
while SIP walls average three percent.6
In the ORNL tests, the advantages of
consistent foam insulation in SIPs showed
a clear advantage over stud-framed walls.
A wall with R-19 fiberglass insulation and
2x4 studs 406.4 mm (16 in.) on center (oc)
tested at R-9.6 in ORNL’s rotatable guarded
hot-box apparatus in accordance with ASTM
International C 236, Steady-state Thermal
Performance of Building Assemblies by Means of
a Guarded Hot-box.
A 114.3-mm (4.5-in.) SIP wall with
0.131-kg/m3 (1-pcf) EPS insulation measured
at R-14. With conventionally framed homes
subject to sizeable energy loss through
thermal bridging, advanced foam insulated
building systems such as SIPs or insulating
concrete forms (ICFs) play an important
role in the development of ZEHs (although
individual performance may vary).7
In addition to requiring high R-value
insulation, a functional ZEH needs the
building envelope to be effectively sealed. Air
infiltration can have an extremely detrimental
effect on energy efficiency, with convective
loss accounting for as much as 30 percent of
a home’s heating and cooling expenses.8
“When you are talking about high-
performance homes even approaching zero
energy, you’ve got to have airtightness,”
says Jeff Christian, ORNL director of the
laboratory’s Building Technology Center.
“It is easy to get an airtight envelope with
SIPs because you can measure the final
airtightness of a house with SIP walls and
roof prior to installing drywall.”
Establishing an air barrier can be simple
and effective with OSB rated at 0.9 perms
laminated on both sides of the panel.9 OSB-
faced SIPs can be manufactured as large as
2.4 x 7.3 m (8 x 24 ft), with far fewer joints
to seal than conventional framing. The U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
recognizes this advantage of SIP homes and
does not require a blower door test to check
for air leakage to achieve qualification for the
Energy Star program.
According to Sam Rashkin, the national
director of Energy Star for Homes, “a SIP
house has less cracks, less joints, and less
complicated interfaces between conditioned
and unconditioned spaces, and is dramatically
easier to make tight.”
Joints between panels are sealed with
insulated splines, SIP sealing mastic, and/or
expanding polyurethane foam at every edge
where panels meet. A specially designed self-
adhesive SIP tape is available for application
to interior roof joints to reinforce the seal and
prevent the intrusion of warm moist air from
the interior into panel joints.
Tests in ORNL’s large-scale climate
simulator of a small 3.3 x 3.3-m2 (10.9 x
10.9-ft) SIP room showed it to be 14 times
tighter than an identical room with 2x6
framing, batt insulation, and sheathing.10
While performance may vary, the low air
infiltration test results capable with structural
insulated panels were replicated in the ORNL
zero-energy homes and contributed to their
energy savings.
Each Oak Ridge home underwent a blower
door test before completion to measure
airtightness. The natural infiltration rate in

8 November 2006 modernmaterials

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these houses is less than 0.1 air change per
hour (ach), while other conventional frame
homes of similar size built by the same
Habitat for Humanity affiliate ranges from
0.2 to 0.25 (see Table 1, page 11).
Low levels of air infiltration can enable
better indoor air quality (IAQ), in addition to
reducing convective energy loss. SIP homes
require mechanical ventilation per American
Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-
conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) 62.2,
Ventilation and Acceptable Indoor Air Quality
in Low-rise Residential Buildings, to supply
fresh air to occupants. Tight homes can also
be effectively dehumidified to reduce mold
growth, especially in hot/humid climates.
Energy savings
Each ZEH built by ORNL used a different
combination of energy-efficient technologies.
All five homes used either 114 or 165-mm
(4.5 or 6.5-in.) SIP walls and a SIP roof of 165,
203, or 254 mm (6.5, 8, or 10 in.) thickness.
Photovoltaics ranging from 1.98 to 2.2 kWp
provided the homes with renewable energy.
Other energy-saving equipment used included
high-efficiency windows, HVAC, appliances,
and lighting. Two homes used a geothermal
heat pump, four relied on a heat pump water
heater, and one employed a solar water heater.
modernmaterials
MM_Nov06.indd 9
BASF Near-zero Energy Home (Paterson, NJ).
Plastics and Near-zero
T
he BASF Near-zero Energy Home in
Paterson, New Jersey, is a demonstration Sample of cement/polystyrene ceiling
house for innovative sustainable building (with space for wiring and conduit).
technologies, promoting the use of energy-
efficient measures in new house design.
The project, which opened this past spring,
shows how plastics can help make a house faster
to build, more affordable to own, and better
fortified against natural disasters. Houses like
this can also be eligible for energy efficiency
mortgages and reduced insurance rates.
The home incorporates zero-energy housing Entrance with engineered plastic decking.
(ZEH) concepts from Oak Ridge National
Laboratory (ORNL) and the building science
principles of Steven Winter, AIA. It has been
selected for the U.S. Green Building Council’s
(USGBC’s) pilot testing for the new Leadership
in Energy and Environmental Design for Homes
(LEED-H) rating system. It was also designed
to achieve EnergyStar certification from the
U.S. Department of Energy (DoE) and the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). With Family room with ample natural daylight.
the inclusion of solar panels, it also supports
New Jersey’s solar initiative program.
On a more local level, the Near-zero Energy
Home is serving as a proposed template for the
city’s ongoing project to build 3000 affordable
housing units. Paterson is one of the state’s largest
and most economically challenged cities. Local
home builders and unskilled labor forces have
been encouraged to participate in the project Super-insulated solar and hot water tanks.
to learn about new energy-saving construction
techniques that can be applied to other projects
within the region.
The home is also a philanthropic exercise.
Following the construction and demonstration
phases, it will be donated to St. Michael’s Housing
Corp., a local non-profit charitable organization,
which will then turn over the home to the family
of Richard Sosa, a quadriplegic boy. Water-efficient facilities
Energy Star-rated appliances.
November 2006 9
9/29/06 5:00:05 PM

SIPs arriving at the job-site.
Oak Ridge scientists installed between 30 and 80 sensors in each
home to monitor energy use for the first year of habitation. The occupants
were given basic direction in energy-saving measures and were free
to operate equipment in the house as they wished. Results from these
homes resemble real-world conditions for future ZEHs (Table 2).
The homes were serviced by the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)
at a local rate of $0.068/kWh and were able to sell all the solar power
back to the utility at $0.15/kWh. The first four homes (data for ZEH 5
was unavailable at the time this article was written) had average energy
costs between $0.75 and $1.00 a day, falling short of net-zero energy,
10 November 2006
MM_Nov06.indd 10
ZEH 3 uses SIP band joists and jumbo wall panels
up to 7.3 m (24 ft) in height, reducing the amount
of joints that need to be sealed.
but achieving significant energy reductions and
taking a major step towards achieving the goal of
zero energy by 2025.
ZEH 4 was the most efficient home, despite
being one of the largest. The 111.5-m2 (1200-sf)
home features a walk out basement of polyiso T-mass
foundations and more doors and windows than the
smaller homes. ZEH 4 used only 9934 kWh the first
year, amounting to $275 in annual utility costs or
an average of $0.75 daily. The highly efficient SIP
building envelope cut heating and cooling costs to
$0.49 daily.
Forecasting the future
Although the concept of a net-zero energy home
is now feasible, the high costs of PV arrays keep
the goal of zero energy slightly out of reach for
the average homebuyer. This year’s Energy Value Housing Award
(EVHA)-winning home, by Anderson Sargent Custom Builder LP,
used net-zero energy at a construction cost of $171/sf. The home
used 8 kWp of PV array and sold for $1 million.11 In comparison,
ZEH 4 was constructed for $93/sf.
A recent survey conducted by the National Association of Home
Builders (NAHB) Research Center showed 83 percent of homebuyers
would be willing to purchase a ZEH if the utility savings offset
increased mortgage payments.12 The NAHB Research Center claims
modernmaterials
9/29/06 5:00:07 PM
 it would be possible to produce ZEHs to
meet such a buyer requirement, assuming
research and development continues to
lower the costs of PVs and if federal or state
governments offer a 30-percent tax credit on
photovoltaics similar to EPAct 2005.
Market research into this hypothetical
scenario predicts ZEHs would reach 67 percent
market penetration into new housing starts
by 2050, accounting for 17 percent of the
cumulative single-family housing stock. If
each home uses net-zero energy, ZEHs would
reduce national energy use by approximately
three Quads, or 2.55 percent of the nation’s
total energy use.
Structural insulated panels and other
highly efficient plastic insulation products
play an important role in the nation’s energy
state. The concept of zero-energy homes is
impossible without the enabling building
envelope. Whether used in ZEHs or simply
to increase the efficiency of the average
home, multifamily structure, or commercial
building, SIPs can help reduce energy
consumption and push the United States
toward a sustainable future.
Notes
1 The program works in partnership with states,
industry, and manufacturers to improve the
energy efficiency of the nation’s buildings. Visit
www.eere.energy.gov/buildings.
2 For more on EPAct 2005, see Jared Blum’s
“Plastics and the 2005 Energy Policy Act” in
the June 2006 issue of Modern Materials.
3 See the Florida Solar Energy Center’s Improved
Specifications for Federally Procured Ruggedized
Manufactured Homes for Disaster Relief in Hot/
Humid Climates (August, 2006).
4 See the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory’s (NREL’s) The Potential Impact of
Zero-energy Homes (February, 2006).
5 Visit www1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/tips/
heating_cooling.html. For more on whole-
wall testing, see Craig Drumheller’s “Plastics
Takes Improvement to the Wall: New NAHB
Research Center Wall Study About Heat
Flow—R-value not the whole story” in the
June 2006 issue of Modern Materials.
6 See the California Energy Commission’s
(CEC’s) Characterization of Framing Factors
for Low-rise Residential Building Envelopes in
California (P500-02-002, December 2001).
7 For more on ICFs, see Vera Novak’s
“Pushing the Energy Envelope with ICFs”
on page 12.
modernmaterials
MM_Nov06.indd 11
Jeff Christian, director of building technology for ORNL, discusses the
fourth zero-energy home constructed with polyisocyanurate core panels.
Table 1
House Air changes per hour Natural air changes
at 50 Pa per hour at 4 Pa
1 1 0.08
2 2 0.07
3 3 0.03
4 4 0.07
Table 2
House Savings of model Annual utility
energy code costs*
1 51 percent $343
2 57 percent $484
3 57.5 percent $413
4 62.5 percent $275
*Savings may vary
8 For more information, you can visit
w w w. n y s w d a . o r g / WA P M a n a g m e n t /
DirManual/WHouseEnergy/EnergyBasics.htm.
9 See the APA−The Engineered Wood Association’s
TT 068-94, Water Vapor Permeance. The first net-zero energy research home built by
10 See T.W. Petire and Jeff Christian’s Heating Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Lenoir City,
and Blower Door Tests of the Rooms for the Tennessee, with structural insulated panels.
SIPA/Reiker Project (Oak Ridge National
Laboratory [ORNL], 2002).
11 These awards are presented by the National
Association of Home Builders (NAHB)
Research Center. Visit www.nahb.org/news_
details.aspx?newsID=2070&print=true.
12 See the NAHB Research Center’s The
Potential Impact of Zero-energy Homes (Report
EG5049 020606 01).
Chris Schwind is the communications manager for
the Structural Insulated Panel Association (SIPA).
He can be reached via e-mail at chris@sips.org.
November 2006 11
9/29/06 5:00:09 PM
 L. Robert Kimball
& Associates’ LEED
Gold-rated Clearview
Elementary School
(Hanover, Pennsylvania)
Photo © Jim Schafer (www.jimschaferphotography.com)

Pushing One of the technologies that has emerged to meet these

market demands in residential and commercial construction
is the insulating concrete form (ICF). Combining the thermal
qualities of expanded and extruded polystyrene (EPS and
XPS) plastic with the strength and durability of concrete is
being seen as an economical solution.

the Energy Envelope Since its development in the 1950s, the formulation
of EPS has been refined to enhance product performance

ICFs
while maintaining cost-effectiveness. For example, minimum

with performance properties for EPS insulation can be referenced

by specifying standardized test protocols (such as ASTM
International C 578, Standard Specification for Rigid, Cellular
Polystyrene Thermal Insulation).
Although ICFs were first developed as a below-grade
B y Ve r a N o v a k foundation wall forming system, they quickly moved above
the surface—it can now be used for interior walls, sound

E
nergy consumption may be regulated by code, but
it is increasingly driven by client demand. With the
rising costs of utilities, heightened efficiency goals
are surfacing as key design guidelines. Additional parameters
of sustainability and protection against natural disasters place
even higher requirements on the building envelope’s design.1
barriers, storm shelters, and structural elements. Plumbing
and electrical chases are generally cut into the interior foam
face once the concrete has been placed. (While large pipes are
not usually designed to be inside exterior walls, they can be fit
into the ICF formwork prior to concrete placement.) Electrical
conduit can be preset into the concrete for easier access for
rewiring, while service penetrations are also generally preset
prior to concrete placement, with an acrylonitrile butadiene
styrene/polyvinyl chloride (ABS/PVC) pipe.

12 November 2006 modernmaterials

MM_Nov06.indd 12 9/29/06 5:00:10 PM

 R-value and energy performance
A seemingly easy parameter for choosing insulation
would be to consult the tested R-value of the
material.2 The term ‘R-value’ was developed to
represent the ability of an insulation material to
restrict heat flow. It is tested in accordance with
ASTM C 518, Standard Test Method for Steady-state
Heat Flux Measurements and Thermal Transmission
Properties by Means of the Heat Flow Meter Apparatus.
The test specimen usually consists of 0.09 m2
(1 sf) of material 25.4-mm (1-in.) thick, whose
surfaces have a temperature differential of 0.56 C
(1 F). The thermal conductivity (k) of a material is
expressed as the rate of heat flow in BTUs per hour,
stated as its ‘R-factor.’ Thus, R-value is the R-factor
of an insulation material multiplied by the amount
of material used.
However, this is tested in laboratory conditions,
which only represents the potential of the material
in the center of the cavity, or the ‘clear wall value.’
It takes into account neither the actual conditions
of installation, nor product continuity (as in the
‘whole-wall value’). Test data has demonstrated
materials with similar R-values do not exhibit the
same thermal performance in field applications.3 In
the case of ICF construction, three factors enhance
the effectiveness of thermal performance beyond the
stated clear wall R-value:
• continuity of insulation;
• reduced air infiltration; and
• thermal mass.
In frame construction, the relative lower R-values and
the thermal conductivity of the framing membrane
must be factored into the clear wall values of the
insulation. By comparison, the very nature of the ICF The creation of insulating
concrete forms (ICFs)
foam as a concrete forming system means complete involves pouring concrete
continuity of the insulation, which then provides a into expanded or extruded
consistent R-value without a thermal break. polystyrene (EPS or XPS).
The result is a composite
The other key factor in improved thermal building component that
performance is the typical absolute air barrier can combine concrete’s
provided by the monolithic concrete wall. ICF homes durability and strength
with plastic’s potential
consistently show results of 0.15 air changes thermal advantages.
per hour (ACH) or less.4 Intake vents provide
supplementary filtered and conditioned air to meet
requirements of the applicable American Society
of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-conditioning
Photo courtesy Jack B. Parson Companies (Utah)

Engineers (ASHRAE) 62, Ventilation for Acceptable

Indoor Air Quality.
Continuous insulation and reduced air
infiltration are key factors for reducing the size of
the HVAC equipment. While commercial HVAC
modeling software can calculate these parameters
for wall assembly components, this has only recently
been introduced to residential HVAC contractors. It
is solely in the most recent (i.e. eighth) edition of the
Air-conditioning Contractors of America (ACCA)
Manual J that there are allowances for specifying the

modernmaterials November 2006 13

MM_Nov06.indd 13 9/29/06 5:00:13 PM

 air leakage of the building envelope. Default values range from
0.45 to 1.05 ach for average construction on heating loads.5
Another advantage for Entering the significantly lower ICF values of 0.15 ach can
buildings constructed with reduce HVAC equipment sizing significantly.
ICFs lies in the material’s
There is yet another element increasing the effectiveness of
ability to absorb heat
and delay the transfer ICFs as energy-efficient envelopes—the benefit of thermal mass.
of this energy to the This refers to the concrete’s ability to absorb heat and delay the
interior environment. The transfer of this energy to the interior environment. In geographic
thermal mass wall acts as areas with cool nighttime temperatures, this stored heat is then
a buffer to control indoor
diffused at night.
temperature fluctuation,
reducing peak loads and The mass wall acts as a buffer that moderates indoor
decreasing HVAC needs. temperature fluctuation, which reduces peak loads and allows for
a decrease in the sizing of HVAC equipment. Current residential
sizing software does not factor in the savings from thermal mass.
In response, the Portland Cement Association (PCA) developed
an Excel program that uses DOE-2 software to estimate the
required heating and cooling system capacity for single-family
concrete homes based on a user-defined thermostat set point,
house dimensions, construction materials, and location.6

Additional construction opportunities

Code requirements for ICF construction is covered in Chapter 19
(‘Concrete’) and 26 (‘Plastics’) of the 2006 International Building
Code (IBC), and Section R 611 (‘ICF’) of the 2006 International
Residential Code (IRC). For a tight building envelope, window
installation per ASTM E 2112, Standard Practice for Installation
of Exterior Windows, Doors, and Skylights, and careful detailing
of the continuity of insulation at the wall-to-roof connection is
recommended. Further, IRC requires flashing per Section R703.8
to prevent entry of water to the building structural components.
This ‘standard’ ICF construction is already a substantial step
toward several energy incentive packages. For example, for an
Energy Star designation from the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) and the Department of Energy (DoE), a home must
be 15 percent more energy-efficient than the 2006 International
Energy Conservation Code (IECC). The insulative qualities of ICF
construction contributes to achieving this designation. Additional
specifications of thermally effective windows, efficient lighting
and appliances, and the sealing and placement of ductwork in
conditioned spaces provide the remaining savings. A new ‘Energy
Star with Indoor Air Package’ program is being developed to
take into account water management to prevent moisture-related
problems. ICF construction in compliance with the 2006 IRC is
already in line with many of these requirements.
Additional code requirements apply to minimum construction
for governing design wind loads. For example, IRC Section 611.8
Photo courtesy Jack B. Parson Companies (Utah)

specifies the wall-to-floor connection, with prescribed size and

spacing of anchor bolts for high-wind areas. Some state codes
may have stricter measures or provide alternative guidance—
the designer should always check with the authority having
jurisdiction (AHJ).
Generally, buildings must be designed to withstand a wind
speed that has an approximate 500-year return period. While
this is not equivalent to the force generated by tornadoes,
ICF buildings designed and constructed in accordance with
contemporary codes have withstood such events, along with
hurricanes.7 For additional protective measures, the Institute

14 November 2006 modernmaterials

MM_Nov06.indd 14 9/29/06 5:00:15 PM

 for Building and Home Safety (IBHS) has developed the ‘Fortified...
for Safer Living’ program, which specifies construction, design, and
landscaping guidelines to increase a home’s resistance to natural
disasters.8 ICF construction already has substantial wind-load capacity
and structural integrity, as well as the benefits of fire resistance and
reduced water damage to meet the program requirements.
In some states that already have requirements based on the wind
tables of American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 7, Minimum
Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, the additional measures
necessary to achieve the ‘Fortified’ designation may be recognized by
insurance companies for reductions in insurance premiums.
Federal tax incentives
The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct 2005) established tax incentives
for energy efficiency measures on buildings or systems placed in
service from January 2006 through December 2007. Legislation is
pending that would extend this program.
Under the current bill, a residential builder can receive a $2000
tax credit for each home with a performance calculated to exceed
IECC’s heating and cooling use by 50 percent.9 The building envelope
component improvements must account for at least one-fifth of this
50 percent. Houses built with ICF exterior walls have been found to
require an average of 44 percent less energy to heat and 32 percent
less energy to cool than comparable frame houses—well within the
parameters of the EPAct 2005 bill requirements.10
For residential projects, the homeowners are directly eligible
for credits on renewable energy sources, such as photovoltaic (PV),
wind, or geothermal technology. With the energy needs of a home
greatly reduced by ICF walls, the remaining energy requirements are
smaller, making renewable packages more economically feasible.
Both the Energy Star designation and the tax credit criteria must
be verified by a third party, using EPA-approved software based
on DOE-2. Qualified raters can be found through the Residential
EXTERIOR
Fluctuating
Outdoor
Temperature
Photo courtesy RESNET
modernmaterials
MM_Nov06.indd 15
Energy Services Network (RESNET), which has accredited rating
programs in all 50 states and more than 2000 raters certified across
the country.11
EPAct 2005 also offers businesses a deduction of $1.80 per
0.09 m2 (1 sf) for commercial buildings that achieve a 50-percent
reduction in annual energy, compared to ASHRAE/ Illuminating
Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) 90.1-2001, Energy-
efficient Design of New Buildings Except Low-rise Residential Buildings.
Since the energy load of a building is extremely dependent on
the nature of the application (e.g. cooling for occupant ventilation
in a school versus cooling for manufacturing equipment), partial
deductions of $0.60 per 1 sf are available for improvements to the
building envelope, lighting, or heating/cooling system that reduce
total energy consumption by one-third the 50 percent goal.
ICF points to LEED
A review of the 69 possible points within the U.S. Green Building
Council’s (USGBC’s) Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
for New Construction (LEED-NC) identifies energy savings as the
most heavily weighted criteria, with up to 10 points achievable for
buildings designed for energy savings over requirements set in the
benchmark ASHRAE/IESNA 90.1.
This strong focus on energy savings is appropriate considering the
bulk of a building’s environmental footprint is caused by the natural
resource consumption for utilities over the structure’s life. The high-
performance thermal envelope of ICF construction can offer a significant
contribution towards achieving all 10 of the points available within
Energy & Atmosphere (EA) Credit 1, Optimize Energy Performance.
While these are some of the most difficult to achieve, two LEED Gold
projects using ICFs have already earned all 10—Clearview Elementary
School (Hanover, Pennsylvania) and the Pennsylvania Department
of Environmental Protection in Cambria. A third ICF LEED project,
Xanterra Yellowstone National Park, has earned seven of them.
INTERIOR
Controlled Moderate
Indoor Temperature
Moderating
Thermal
Mass The photo at left depicts the
blower door test used to
gauge the effectiveness of
a thermally efficient system.
For more on blower doors,
see the article on structural
insulated panels (SIPs) on
page 6. The diagram at right
explains the basic properties
of an ICF wall.
November 2006 15
9/29/06 5:00:17 PM

© Image from BigStockPhoto.com
Additional potential point categories include:
• Sustainable Sites (SS) Credit 5, Reduced Site Disturbance;
• Materials and Resources (MR) Credit 2, Construction
Waste Management;
• MR Credit 4, Recycled Content;
• MR Credit 5, Local/Regional Materials;
• Indoor Environmental Quality (EQ) Credit 2, Increased
Ventilation Effectiveness;
• EQ Credit 3, Construction IAQ Management Plan ;
• EQ Credit 4, Low-emitting Materials; and
• EQ 7, Thermal Comfort.
The ICF package
Often the best solutions are the simplest ones, with multifaceted
characteristics meeting a wide range of expectations. The same
straightforward construction techniques apply to both residential ICF
dwellings and high-rise commercial projects. ICF construction can
not only easily conform to structural requirements set by code, but
can also offer energy savings, safety, and sound insulation.12
The durability of both the plastic EPS and the concrete shell can
help lengthen the life of the ICF envelope. Increasing incorporation
into U.S. and Canadian codes would indicate the continued growth
of this construction technology.
Notes
1 For more on the possible roles of plastics and natural disasters, see
“SPF Beyond Energy Insulation” by Mason Knowles on page 17.
2 As plastic formulations can vary by manufacturers, design
professionals should consult their suppliers’ specification sheets to
understand the chosen product’s exact properties.
3 See the Portland Cement Association (PCA) SN 2518, Energy Use of
Single-family Houses with Various Exterior Walls, by John Gajda, CTL.
For more on whole-wall studies, see “Plastics Takes Improvement to
the Wall: New NAHB Research Center Wall Study About Heat Flow—
R-value not the whole story,” by Craig Drumheller, in the June 2006 issue of
16 November 2006
MM_Nov06.indd 16
Homes that reap the
benefits of energy-efficient
wall systems, such as those
created with ICFs, can also
earn developers and building
owners tax incentives under
the Energy Policy Act of
2005 (EPAct 2005).
Modern Materials. Additionally, as insulation formulation may vary from
manufacturer to manufacturer, design professionals should consult the
suppliers’ specification sheets to understand the exact properties over
time, including the actual R-values. Factors affecting the R-value include
thickness of application (i.e. the thicker the foam, the better the aged
R-value), the substrate, and the covering systems used (i.e. the lower the
perm-rated covering and substrate, the higher the aged R-value).
4 See PCA CD 025, Energy in Thermal Mass Walls.
5 See Section 8 Infiltration Loads, Table 5A in the Manual J. For more
information, visit www.acca.org/tech/manualj.
6 The DOE-2 software was developed by James J. Hirsch & Associates
in collaboration with Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
(LBNL), mostly under funding from the Department of Energy
(DoE). For more information, visit www.DOE-2.com. Also, see
HVAC Sizing Methodology for Insulated Concrete Homes, by the U.
S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) Office
of Policy Development and Research. Visit www.toolbase.org/PDF/
DesignGuides/HVACSizingMethodology.pdf.
7 See “Solutions for Natural Disasters—Using concrete and plastic insulation
for safety and energy efficiency in residential design,” by Cecile Mutton,
P.Eng., in the November 2004 issue of Modern Materials.
8 Visit www.ibhs.org.
9 Credits can be claimed using Internal Revenue Service (IRS) Form
8908. For more information on HR6, Federal Tax Incentives for
Building Energy Efficiency, visit www.energytaxincentives.org. See
also Jared Blum’s article, “Plastics and the 2005 Energy Policy Act,” in
the June 2006 issue of Modern Materials.
10 Access the Concrete Homes Technology Brief 1 by visiting www.
cement.org/homes/brief01.asp.
11 Visit www.resnet.us.
12 For more on the benefits of ICFs, visit the Insulating Concrete
Form Association (ICFA) Web site at www.forms.org.
Vera Novak is the Technical Services Manager for the Insulating Concrete
Form Association (ICFA), a trade group representing all levels of the industry.
modernmaterials
9/29/06 5:00:19 PM
 SPF
BEYOND
ENERGY
All photos courtesy SPFA
INSULATION
By Mason Knowles
P
revious issues of Modern Materials have examined
some of the myriad advantages to specifying spray
polyurethane foam (SPF), especially its insulation
value and air barrier qualities. This spray-applied, insulating
foam plastic is installed as a liquid and then expands many
times its original volume. These spray foam formulas can be
tweaked to have many different physical properties depending
on their desired use. For example, the same basic raw materials
can make an insulation foam that is semi-rigid and soft to the
touch, but can also create a high-density roofing foam resistant
to foot traffic and water.1
modernmaterials
MM_Nov06.indd 17
The photo at the upper left
shows a tile roof destroyed by
flying debris during Hurricane
Charley. The main photo
illustrates a shingle roof with
spray polyurethane foam (SPF)
from the same event, but with
minimal damage.
As building insulation, SPF can provide high levels of R-value,
while serving as an air barrier and offering assistance in moisture
control.2 In roofing, it insulates and helps eliminate thermal
bridging (e.g. through fasteners or gaps in decking), while helping
to provide a long-lasting roofing assembly.
Whether by prolonging a roof’s service life or by improving
the thermal performance of a building, spray polyurethane
foam can enhance a building’s energy efficiency. However, one
added bonus is the material’s ability to help improve structural
integrity—a particularly salient advantage in areas facing the
potential of high-wind events.
Riding out the storm
Marelene Hillen of Port Lucie, Florida, initially faced skepticism
in getting her homeowners’ association to approve the installation
of an SPF room over her existing shingle roof. However, her
persistence in educating those about the possibilities of plastic
products paid off.
“In my neighborhood, more than 40 of my neighbors lost
their roofs and most of their belongings last season from three
hurricanes hitting us in six months,” she says. “My roof that was
sprayed with SPF didn’t leak a drop.”
November 2006 17
9/29/06 5:00:22 PM
 Tales from Texas
This author insulated more than 100 buildings on Texas’ South Padre
Island from 1976 to 1980. When Hurricane Allen blew into town
in 1980, packing more than 193-km/h (120-mph) winds, most
buildings on South Padre (and in the nearby mainland town of
Port Isabel) sustained significant damage. However, of the more than
100 buildings treated with spray polyurethane foam (SPF), only
two leaked. (Both were easily repaired within two days.) Two other
examples demonstrating SPF’s structural benefits are discussed below.
Port Isabel RV Park Office was sprayed with spray polyurethane
foam (SPF) in 1979 and survived without leaks and significant
damage during Hurricane Allen in 1980. Below is the same
building in 2006—no reported leaks in 26 years.
Port Isabel RV Park
In 1979, John Denney constructed a wood-framed office building
at his mobile home park in Port Isabel, but driving rain during
frequent tropical storms regularly leaked through the walls. The
owner decided to spray the entire outside envelope with SPF. Soon
after, Hurricane Allen hit and the building weathered the storm
with only superficial damage (easily corrected with a little sealant)
and, more importantly, no leaks or structural damage. As shown in
this photo taken May 2006, the building still looks the same as the
day it was sprayed—it has not leaked since the SPF was installed.
White’s Lumber
A small section—15.2 x 15.2 m (50 x 50 ft)—of the lumberyard’s
post frame building (wood trusses and corrugated metal walls and
roof) was being insulated with SPF just before a tropical storm hit.
Afterward, the sections with SPF were the only ones still intact. Due
to the foam’s performance, the owners installed the material to the
underside of the metal roof and walls and have not reported any
leaks since.
18 November 2006
MM_Nov06.indd 18
A related example can be found in David Gautier’s Pascagoula Ice
and Freezer Plant in Mississippi. The ice plant is a 4180-m2 (45,000-sf)
complex consisting of the original turn-of-the-century building with
additional sections added every 20 years or so. The original construction
comprised brick walls with wood tongue-and-groove decking.
With its Category 4 winds—200 to 233 km/h (125 to 145 mph)—and
an accompanying 7.6 to 9-m (25 to 30-ft) storm surge, Hurricane Katrina
destroyed a vast area of the Mississippi Gulf Coast. However, the
Pascagoula Ice and Freezer Co. sustained no damage in the SPF-
insulated sections. (In places that lacked SPF, pressurization from the
high winds blew out portions of the roof deck.)
“These building have not only survived Hurricane Katrina, but also
three other major storms—Frederick, Elena, and George,” explains
Gautier. “The spray foam definitely helped keep the buildings together.”
Structural integrity
Building owners who request SPF be installed for thermal efficiency
reasons could also benefit when more building officials recognize the
material’s advantages in terms of structural integrity. By examining
the characteristics of SPF, a better understanding can be gained of
how this plastic product helps hold materials together, while also
assisting in making the building more energy-efficient.
Tenacious adhesion
SPF is sprayed on as a liquid and then expands to form a rigid
foam plastic with great adhesive characteristics. Since it bonds so
tightly to a substrate, it is very hard to pull off in high winds. When
installed over concrete panels, SPF resisted up to 47.4 kPa (990 psf)
of pressure in Factory Mutual’s (FM’s) wind uplift pull test. It glues
the whole structure together, increasing the structure’s rigidity with
around 172.4 kPa (25 psi) of tensile strength. However, it still has
some flexibility to allow building movement without cracking.
Monolithic water barrier
SPF is installed as a liquid and then rises and expands to fill in
cracks and crevices. Closed-cell SPF has been approved by the U.S.
Coast Guard and Army as a water-resistant flotation material and is
accepted as a roofing system. The Federal Emergency Management
Agency (FEMA) has added SPF as a recommended building product
to reduce flood damage in buildings.3
Adds structural strength
The National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) Research
Center tested SPF and determined spray foam-insulated wall panels
increased the racking strength of both wood and metal stud walls 70
to 200 percent, depending on the type of sheathing used. The NAHB
report concluded, “in a racking event such as a hurricane, there
would be less permanent deformation of the SPF-insulated walls.”
(See “NAHB Racking Research.”)
Versatile
When installed to the outside of buildings, SPF reduces the profile
and minimizes building movement so high winds are less likely to
catch a corner or tear the substrate. When added to the inside of a
structure, spray foam ‘glues’ the whole building together, enhancing
overall wind and pressurization resistance.
Natural shock-absorber
modernmaterials
9/29/06 5:00:25 PM
 NAHB Racking Research
Average Maximum Racking Load Supported by Each Panel Configuration
Table 1
Spray
polyurethane Non-SPF
foam (SPF) SPF panels Non-SPF panels
panels with (5/8-in.) with panels (5.8-in.) with
Stud spacing vinyl sheathing plywood with vinyl plywood
406 mm (16 in.) 2800 lb 5300 lb 913 lb 2890 lb
610 mm (24 in.) 2420 lb 6387 lb
813 mm (32 in.) 2588 lb
1219 mm (48 in.) 2298 lb
16 in. braced 3853 lb 5262 lb

Table 2
Maximum Maximum racking Maximum
Specimen racking load deflection racking set
oriented strandboard 4800 lb 1.045 in. 0.516 in.
(OSB) with R-19
OSB with SPF 6000 lb 0.767 in. 0.142 in.
drywall with R-19 2400 lb 0.856 in. 0.413 in.
drywall with SPF 5380 lb 0.945 in. 0.407 in.
At the Pascagoula Ice Plant in Mississippi, the
deck was destroyed by pressurization in areas
The information within this article comes from two tests conducted by the National where no SPF was installed. However, spray
Association of Home Builders (NAHB). Table 1 draws on information from the foam installed to the interior kept the section
group’s 1992 wall performance testing of 2x4 wood stud panels, while Table 2 of the building in one piece. The exterior also
references the association’s 1996 racking performance study of metal wall panels. had SPF installed. It shows no damage.

SPF is a natural shock-absorber; even heavy wind-blown items such as R-value), the substrate, and the covering systems used (i.e. the lower
tree limbs, metal panels, and concrete tiles usually only superficially the perm-rated covering and substrate, the higher the aged R-value).
damage spray foam substrates. When wind-driven debris damages 3 Visit www.hurricaneconstruction.net/files/FEMA%20Technical%20

the surface of the foam, it resists peel off and often continues to Bulliten%202-93.pdf
provide water resistance to the interior of the building.
Mason Knowles is the executive director of the Spray Polyurethane Foam
Reduced pressurization Alliance (SPFA). A frequent contributor to Modern Materials, he can be
Some deck and roof membrane failure occurs when high air pressure contacted via e-mail at masonknowles@sprayfoam.org.
forced into, or developed inside, the building literally blows up the
roof deck or roof membrane. SPF eliminates air infiltration that
can let high air pressure inside the building. By ‘air sealing’ the
building, SPF minimizes the potential for interior pressurization and
its ensuing damage.

Easily repaired
Typically, damaged SPF can be easily repaired with a compatible sealant
or by cutting out the damaged portion and installing more foam.
Notes
1 As spray foam formulations vary by manufacturers, design
professionals should consult their suppliers’ specification sheets to
understand the chosen product’s exact properties.
2 As insulation formulation may vary from manufacturer to
manufacturer, design professionals should consult the suppliers’
specification sheets to understand the exact properties over time,
including the actual R-values. Factors affecting the R-value include
thickness of application (i.e. the thicker the foam, the better the aged
FM Wind Uplift Results
FM Global conducted Class 1 roof coverings tests in
January 2005. For the 3.6 x 7.3-m (12 x 24-ft) Wind Uplift
Pressurization Test, the sample met 10.1 kPa (210 psf) for
minimum approval for FM I-210, Windstorm Classification.
The construction failed six seconds into the 10.8 kPa (225 psf)
‘round,’ due to fastener pullout from the supports.
In the 1.2 x 1.2-m (4 x 4-ft) Wind Uplift Pull Test, the
sample over concrete met the minimum of 47.4 kPa (990 psf) for
approval requirements of FM I-990, Wind Uplift Classification.
(In this case, 990 psf was the capacity of the equipment.)

modernmaterials November 2006 19

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SBIC
as an
as an
Energy
Resource By Helen English
N
ow that sustainability has lost its ‘fringe’ status and has become
accepted in the mainstream, building industry leaders are
trying to deepen their awareness about the many diverse
facets of environmentally responsible design and construction. Energy
efficiency stands out as one of the most important of these, as it not only
allows the potential for reduced demands on the nation’s utilities, but it
can also help building owners save money over the long term.
Design professionals—who rely on both traditional building products
and modern construction materials such as plastics—need to know
which industry groups they can turn to for guidance as they navigate the
maze of sustainable strategies. One example is the Sustainable Buildings
Industry Council (SBIC), an organization comprising architectural/
engineering (A/E) firms, contractors, consultants, manufacturers,
utilities, universities, and organizations such as the American Plastics
Council (APC), the National Association of Home Builders (NAHB), and
the American Institute of Architects (AIA).
Whether it is modeling, policy, controls, or distribution, energy-
20 November 2006
MM_Nov06.indd 20
related subjects are at the heart of SBIC’s three main
activities: advocacy, education, and outreach.
Advocacy
At the time this article was written, SBIC and many of
its trade association members were continuing to urge
the U.S. Department of Energy (DoE) to implement
Section 914 of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct
2005).1 This section calls for an assessment of the
current voluntary consensus standards and rating
systems related to buildings.
It is estimated there are more than 3000 standards
governing the United States’ built environment.
Nevertheless, with all this guidance, many new
buildings still turn out to be poor performers in terms
of energy consumption. Congress has recognized there
is currently no overarching standard for measuring the
various attributes even though owners are increasingly
requiring guidance in reducing energy costs and
improving occupant comfort, health, and security.
The assessment called for in Section 914 would
identify any missing or incomplete elements. Then,
in a second phase, the assessment would establish a
science-based program to support the development
of a unified standard that would address all the
elements of a high performance building:
• energy efficiency;
• stainability;
• safety and security;
• durability;
• lifecycle performance;
• value; and
• productivity.
Implementing Section 914 would build on DoE’s
‘High Performance Roadmapping’ activity in which
industry participants recommended the development
of building performance metrics.
Education
SBIC’s commitment to education is clear. From the
creation of software training tools to the development of Web-based
learning programs, SBIC has been a leader in the whole building design
movement.
In 1997, the Naval Facilities Engineering Command (NAVFAC)
Engineering Innovation and Criteria Office was looking for ways to
leverage the shrinking technical and financial resources they used to
update hundreds of paper-based criteria documents. SBIC’s members
and staff helped conceptualize the Whole Building Design Guide
(WBDG) website to help address this growing problem.2
This portal provides government and industry practitioners
with access to updated information on a wide range of building-
related guidance, criteria, and technology. Currently organized into
two major categories—design guidance and project management—
the portal includes ‘resource pages’ that are reductive summaries
on particular topics. An advisory committee of representatives
from federal agencies, private sector companies, and nonprofit
organizations guides the development of the WBDG.
modernmaterials
9/29/06 5:00:28 PM

SBIC’s portfolio of training courses targets
a broad range of users, including building
professionals, students, consumers, and
government decision-makers. For example,
“Low-Energy, Sustainable, Secure Building
Design for Federal Managers” is a two-day course
covering security, water conservation, material
selection, acoustics, and energy. (It can also be
tailored to meet the needs of other audiences
such as private sector developers.) Nearly one
third of the course touches on various aspects
of energy use including daylighting, efficient
HVAC and lighting, insulation, glazing, shading,
and photovoltaics (PVs).
Another educational program is centered
around the ENERGY-10 software, helping
identify the best combination of nearly a
dozen energy-efficient strategies.3 The
software covers daylighting controls, passive
solar heating, and high-efficiency mechanical
systems, to name a few. Attendees learn it
usually takes less than an hour at a project’s
outset to produce a simulation, but that
small investment of time can result in energy
savings of up to 40 to 70 percent.
Norm Weaver, a professional engineer
from Steamboat Springs, Colorado, has been
involved in the development of ENERGY-
10 since 1999, continually improving
the software to keep pace with evolving
technology and construction practices.
“Among the many updates in Version
1.8, the biggest feature is the introduction of
integrated PV and solar domestic hot water
[DHW] modeling. With the growing interest in
‘zero-energy’ buildings, ENERGY-10 can be used
to rapidly close in on workable alternatives.”
modernmaterials
MM_Nov06.indd 21
The software also:
• allows users to integrate and assess dozens
of energy-efficient design decisions;
• quantifies and illustrates the impact of
design decisions on first cost, operating
expenses, and pollution prevention; and
• helps a design team with the submission
process for the U.S. Green Building
Council’s (USGBC’s) Leadership in Energy
and Environmental Design (LEED)
program via output reports for both
daylighting and total-building energy-use.
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory
(NREL) supported the addition of two
modules in Version 1.8 of ENERGY-10: PV
and solar water heating.
Outreach
One outreach activity SBIC has championed
for many years is the construction of high-
performance schools. The council has created
tools (such as the High-performance School
Buildings Resource and Strategy Guide) as a
means of educating design professionals and
education professionals about the benefits of
‘whole building’ design for K-12 schools.
Among the many other valuable
resources available through the SBIC site
are two online training videos. The “High
Performance School Buildings Video Series”
provides an introduction to the necessary
design components (including energy
efficiency), while the “Circuit Rider Training
Video Series and Presentation Tools” offers
resources and tips to help local advocates
bring high-performance school buildings
into their communities.
This July, Sustainable Buildings
Industry Council (SBIC) executive
director Helen English addressed
a packed congressional briefing at
the Dirksen Senate Building on
Capitol Hill. She spoke about the
council’s long history promoting a
‘whole building approach,’ which
has led to its support of Section
914 of the Energy Policy Act of
2005 (EPAct 2005).
Conclusion
For more than 25 years, SBIC has been
bringing together unusual bedfellows—glass
and mass, wood and steel, plastics and
fiberglass, concrete and bricks—underpinned
by an integrated ‘whole building approach to
design’ and an unwavering commitment to
reducing energy use in buildings.4
Notes
1 For more on the implications of EPAct 2005,
see Jared Blum’s article, “Plastics and the 2005
Energy Policy Act,” in the June 2006 issue of
Modern Materials.
2 Visit www.wbdg.org.
3 ENERGY-10 Version 1.8 is currently available
through SBIC at www.energy-10.com.
Upgrades, along with academic/professional
licenses, can also be purchased at the site.
4 Visit www.sbicouncil.org for more information.
Helen English is the executive director of the
Sustainable Buildings Industry Council (SBIC). She
has more than 20 years of experience in management,
training coordination, information dissemination,
and technology transfer, specifically focusing on
housing, construction, energy efficiency, and resource
conservation issues. English was instrumental in the
development of the Energy-10 software design tool,
the Whole Building Design Guide (WBDG), and
various other initiatives. She can be contacted at
henglish@sbicouncil.org.
From December 5 to 7, SBIC will hold workshops,
along with its annual Super Thursday program (with
keynote speaker, Ed Mazria, AIA), Forum 2006, and
Best Sustainable Building Awards Ceremony at the
Ecobuild Federal Conference in Washington, D.C.
November 2006 21
9/29/06 5:00:30 PM
 ©Image from BigStockPhoto.com

Life Cycle Thinking

By Mike Levy

I
t can be hard to figure out whether a building product is sustainable when you
do not have access to any scientific measurements of the energy and natural
resources necessary for its creation. This has been one of the big issues with
plastics over the last few years. The polymer industry felt it was apparent it was a
leader in energy resource efficiency, and the information to back this up will soon
be publicly available on the Web.
For the past decade, other material industries have contributed their proprietary
life cycle assessment data to national and international databases. Plastics has not,
until now. This year, current life cycle data will be available for the processes from
the raw materials all the way to the pellet. With this information, molders, formers,
shapers, and fabricators can determine the complete life cycle inventory for
their products—and design professionals can see first-hand how energy-efficient
plastics can be.

Life cycle assessment (LCA) analyzes a product’s environmental impact throughout

its ‘cradle-to-grave’ life span. This involves a holistic look at the ‘big picture’—the energy
consumed, the raw materials used, and the extent of environmental impact at various
stages of a product’s manufacture, use, and end-of-life.
Through a diagnostic look at quantitative measurements of these inputs and outputs, it
is possible to provide a benchmark of these important criteria from which efficiencies can be
identified and improvements can be made across the product life cycle. This assessment involves
coming up with improved processes, cleaner technologies, and an overall optimization of raw
materials, energy, and emissions.

22 November 2006 modernmaterials

MM_Nov06.indd 22 9/29/06 5:00:32 PM

 As discussed in previous issues of Modern Materials, the American
Plastics Council (APC) recognized the growing need for a database of
information about various product life cycles.1 As such, it employed
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 14000, Life Cycle
Assessment, which is based on a three-component model:
• an inventory of materials/energy used and environmental
effects released from all stages in the life of a product or
process—from raw material acquisition to ultimate disposal;
• an impact assessment examining potential and actual
environmental and human health effects related to the use of
resources and environmental releases; and
• an interpretative analysis of the changes needed to bring about
environmental improvements in the product or process.
This methodology was used for nine major polymers (i.e. cradle
to pellet) and four polyurethane precursors. This data provides
current information, which can then be used as a tool to optimize
the energy efficiency of a product’s use-phase, minimize the
environmental impact of its production, and allow comparisons
between similar products in categories like greenhouse gases and
climate change.

“ Consumers are increasingly

interested in the world behind
the products they buy. Life cycle
thinking implies that everyone in
the whole chain of a product’s
life cycle, from cradle to grave,
has a responsibility and a role to
play, taking into account all the
relevant external effects.
”
— K l a u s To e p f e r, f o r m e r U n i t e d N a t i o n s
Environment Program (UNEP) executive director
The need for providing life cycle data that is up-to-date and
publicly accessible, but aggregated to protect proprietary and
individual company data, has been a driving force in the creation
of the U.S. Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) National Database project—a
collaboration of industry, government, and consultant groups. The
goal of this national project is to develop an accessible database for
commonly used materials, products, and processes.
Using a ‘cradle-to-grave’ focus, data from the aluminum, steel, and
wood products industry provide the important transformation process
information to conduct a full product life cycle (Figure 1). The new LCI
Table 1 Table 2
data from the APC will provide the basis for completing the ‘upstream’
data for the life cycle of plastics products (as this can sometimes be
difficult to obtain). As shown in Figure 2, the APC project now sets
the stage for the collection of specific plastic product fabrication, use
phase, and end-of life data for the majority of plastics made today.
LCI data has become increasingly available, given the instant access
of the Internet and the development of commodity databases through
consultants and private studies. The U.S. LCI database project, with
more and more transformation processes for key raw materials, provides
a number of users and uses with key data, such as:
• LCA tool developers;
• manufacturers who wish to benchmark against others in
the industry;
• companies and certification firms for product assessment
and labeling;
• researchers and students; and
• the general public, along with non-governmental agencies,
and think-tanks who want to use actual LCA information.
Only when we can look at all the data from cradle to grave can we
determine the impact a product has over time. With this knowledge,
we should be able to make comparative judgments about sustainable
building products.
Notes
1 See this author’s “The Future of Life Cycle

Assessment” and “Plastics & the LCI Project” in

the November 2005 and April 2006 issues of
Modern Materials, respectively.

Mike Levy is the life cycle management

coordinator for the American Plastics Council
(APC). He can be contacted via e-mail at mike_
levy@americanchemistry.com.

modernmaterials November 2006 23

MM_Nov06.indd 23 9/29/06 5:00:34 PM

 Photos courtesy Vinyl Institute
Plastic Pipes
&Energy
P
lastics play a vital role in providing dependable piping service.
In applications such as landscape irrigation systems, drain,
waste, and vent (DWV) systems, and sewage transport,
polymer-based products can offer myriad advantages.
Modern materials, such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorinated
polyvinyl chloride (CPVC), and high-density polyethylene (HDPE),
are increasingly being specified for large-diameter, buried pipelines
installed by water and wastewater utilities, as well as for smaller
diameter DWV applications and cold-water delivery systems. This
article examines not only the advantages and design considerations
of these products, but also the ways in which using plastic piping can
help curb energy consumption.
The effect of leaks on energy
Leaking and broken water and wastewater infrastructure causes more
than 8.3 trillion L (2.2 trillion gal) of water to be lost annually in the
United States. In many distribution systems, the amount of water
lost or unaccounted for can be between 20 and 50 percent.1 Beyond
water loss, pipe damage, and the resulting billions of dollars in repair
and replacement costs, there can also be public health issues should
contaminants enter the system when pressure is reduced.2
For both small and large water distribution applications, various plastics
are being specified for various reasons, including their non-susceptibility
to corrosion. Corrosion of traditional materials can cause numerous water
quality problems, ranging from a reduction in hydraulic carrying capacity
to health concerns to damaged infrastructure that requires replacement.
24 November 2006
MM_Nov06.indd 24
B y Ve s o S o b o t , P. E n g .
Corrosion of pipes made of traditional materials can cause numerous
water quality problems. Not only does corrosion reduce the pipe’s
hydraulic carrying capacity, but the resulting deposits can also help
harbor nuisance and pathogenic microorganisms. Leaching of metals
can impart a metallic taste to the water and stain the plumbing, with
some pipe failures prompting extended ‘Boil water’ notices.
As if these impacts were not enough, broken and decaying pipe
infrastructure exacts yet another significant cost in terms of energy.
Pumping water represents as much as seven percent of the nation’s
total electricity consumption and accounts for 70 to 90 percent of
municipal water utilities’ operating costs.3
The pumping process is energy-intensive for several reasons. Water
has a density of almost 1000 kg/m3 (62.4 pcf), requiring significant
work to transport. Additionally, friction from passing water through
conduits results in energy loss—the higher the flow velocity, the
larger the losses. This is especially important when treated water
is moved over great distances at high velocities. As the population
increases, aggregate demand for water is expected to rise, along with
the energy needed to provide it.
Leaks increase a piping system’s energy consumption by imposing
extra demands—water must be continuously pumped from the
source to the leak location. To have sufficient pressure at the point of
demand, upstream pressures must be increased to compensate for the
pressure lost from leaks. Moreover, the water escaping from a buried
water main can erode the surrounding soil and possibly damage
nearby infrastructure.
Deteriorated pipes are not very hydraulically efficient, so more
energy is needed to force water through their rough, interior surface,
as compared to newer, smoother piping. The combined effect of poor
hydraulics and leakage in older piping is a doubling or tripling of the
energy needed to operate the system when compared to the same
system made of new pipe. In one example, an un-rehabilitated pipe
network incurred daily energy costs for pumping of $3380, while
the rehabilitated version of the same system had an energy cost of
$1245.4 (Savings may vary.)
modernmaterials
9/29/06 5:00:35 PM

Since a large portion of the energy used to pump water and drive
it through the distribution systems is likely to come from fossil fuel
combustion, each unit of energy consumed also entails a certain
amount of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In other words, leaks
arguably and indirectly contribute to greenhouse gases by increasing
the energy demands from the nation’s water systems.
Advancements in plastic piping
One way to help make the nation’s piping systems more energy-efficient
would be to minimize the number of leaks in pipe networks. Replacing
and rehabilitating current water distribution systems made of traditional
materials with plastic products could help reduce leakage and, in turn,
improve energy efficiency. The installation of HDPE, PVC, and CPVC
piping products is generally much easier than that of traditional piping
materials. Additionally, some below-ground installations of plastic
piping can be done non-invasively, further minimizing construction
time and energy use.5 At the same time, technological advances have
made plastics more economical. These polymer-based materials are not
The International Code Council, the International Association of
Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO), and the Plumbing-
Heating-Cooling Contractors Association (PHCC) all approve
the use of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe without limitation in any
water service, sanitary drain, waste, and vent (DWV), and storm
drainage system. (Design professionals should always determine
local requirements in the specification process.)
modernmaterials
MM_Nov06.indd 25
Plastic pipes not only allow
the potential for increased
design flexibility, but also
serve to make the nation’s
energy consumption more
efficient. Less leakage means
reduced demands on the
United States’ water systems.
subject to corrosion, which helps them maintain their flow capability
over time and be less prone to leaks.
The durability and reliability of plastic piping, and its ability to meet
stringent water quality and fire performance standards, have made it
an established alternative to more traditional piping products. Plastic
piping products come in a variety of lengths, diameters, wall thicknesses,
and pressure classes, along with a full complement of standard fittings,
valves, and couplings. They are almost always compatible with other
pipe materials and can be specified for system upgrades.
Indoors, plastic piping can offer specifiers and building owners
protection against costly leakage and breaks caused by corrosion.
In public utilities applications, the material’s durability is reflected
in its low break rates when compared to alternatives. For example,
a National Research Council (NRC) of Canada study found PVC
water distribution pipe experienced on average 0.5 breaks per
100 km (62 mi) annually, compared to 32.6 breaks for cast iron and
7.9 breaks for ductile iron.6
Plastic piping’s smooth surface is neither electrically conductive
nor affected by extremely hard or soft water, pH changes, or chemical
constituents of wastewater. Plastic piping resists attack by cleaners
and other household chemicals, and can withstand pressure surges,
shock impact, general wear, and abrasion. It can deliver water as
clean and pure as it receives, imparts no taste or odor, helps maintain
uniform water temperature, preserves its high flow efficiency, and
can cost less to maintain. As it is lightweight, plastic pipe costs less to
ship, and generally can be fabricated, cut, and installed more quickly
than alternatives.
Design issues
As with any construction material, it is advisable to follow the
manufacturers’ specifications when installing a plastic piping system
(and to select a location protected from sharp objects, rough handling,
and high heat sources). This allows the materials to be used in the
most energy-efficient manner, regardless of whether it is a residential
project or a utilities application.
Short-term exposure to sunlight during installation is typically not
a problem for PVC pipe due to ultraviolet (UV) inhibitors added to
the material. PVC piping may also be used in outdoor applications
when painted with a light-colored, water-based acrylic or latex paint
chemically compatible with the plastic. The manufacturer may also
recommend another type of coating or protective device, depending
on the application.
November 2006 25
9/29/06 5:00:37 PM
 Noise containment
Sounds produced by water running through pipes in the walls is a
common concern for the design team in residential and commercial
projects. The physics of water flowing through pipe should be
considered to reduce the effect of noise on building occupants.
Acoustical isolation issues should also be investigated and addressed
at the earliest stages of project design.
In plastic piping, vibration caused by the flow of water can
be managed by appropriate de-coupling to isolate the pipe from
contact with structural elements, or by specifying thermal or rubber
isolation for sound/vibrational absorption.7 ‘Water hammer’—the
concussion of moving water against the sides of a pipe—is another
inherent characteristic of supply systems. Its intensity in plastic
piping is approximately one third its intensity in traditional materials.
Nevertheless, water hammer can be further reduced by designing
for a maximum flow rate of less than 1.5 m (5 ft) per second in pipe
diameters of 32 mm (1.25 in.) or larger, and less than 2.4 m (8 ft) per
second for diameters of less than 25 mm (1 in.).
Other ways to help minimize the problem include following these
design and specification practices:
• avoid critical areas of the structure (e.g. those where differential
movement is expected or where piping would have close contact
with the wall material);
• use a pipe chase or cavity wall of adequate thickness;
• support the pipe properly away from wall material;
• use long-radius fittings to reduce turbulence; and
• wrap piping with sound-deadening material, or pack the wall
cavity with insulation material.
Thermal expansion
Plastic piping has a greater co-efficient of thermal expansion than traditional
materials. This means there is movement of 85.3 mm (3.36 in.) for every
30.5 m (100 ft) of pipe per each 56-C (100-F) change in temperature. Most
PVC applications are selected for environments with minimal temperature
changes, such as in soil or in air-conditioned buildings. Even in the case of
considerable temperature fluctuations, most installations involve relatively
short pipe segments where dimensional change is not great.
26 November 2006
MM_Nov06.indd 26
Where necessary, expansion and contraction can be accommodated
by piping offsets or expansion joints, by snaking the line or making
similar provisions at changes in direction, or by suspending the pipe
and avoiding contact with the building structure.
Conclusion
With proper installation, plastic piping can not only provide several
advantages to building owners, but can also help curb the nation’s
energy consumption.
Notes
1 See D. Brailey and A. Jacobs’s “Energy management in the waterworks
industry,” Journal of the New England Water Works Association (94:3).
2 See Richard Gillick et al’s “Occurrence of Transient Low and
Negative Pressures in Distribution Systems,” Journal of the American
Water Works Association (November 2004).
3 For more information, see the National Research Council (NRC) of
Canada’s “Detecting Leaks in Water-distribution Pipes,” Construction
Technology Update (No. 40, October 2000). Visit irc.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/
ctus/ctu40e.pdf.
4 See A Brief Report on Pipe Deterioration Focusing on Leaks, Friction,
Energy Use, and Greenhouse Gas Emissions, by Andrew F. Colombo
and Bryan W. Karney (University of Toronto’s Department of Civil
Engineering, June 2003).
5 For more on the subject of plastic piping rehabilitation projects, see
“HDPE Solutions for Water Infrastructure Rehabilitation” by Camille
George Rubeiz, PE, in the May 2005 issue of Modern Materials. For more
on residential retrofit, see also “Pipeline to Successful Renovations” by
Janet Arden in the November 2005 issue of Modern Materials.
6 See B. Rajani and S. McDonald’s “Water Main Break Data for
Different Pipe Materials for 1992 and 1993” (National Research
Council Canada, 1995).
7 To determine acceptable levels of sound and vibration, one should
consult the manufacturer’s data or the American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and Air-conditioning Engineers’ 2003 ASHRAE Handbook,
HVAC Applications (Ch. A47: Sound and Vibration Control).
The Art of Plastic Plumbing
Water is a valuable natural resource and its consumption must be
made as efficient as possible. Renown sidewalk artist Julian Beever
created a 3-D drawing in San Antonio, Texas, making the point that
beneath the surface, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe can create a seal
that helps prevent unnecessary costly breaks in water mains.
modernmaterials
9/29/06 5:00:39 PM
 Energy Efficiency,
Sustainable Design, and
XPS
R
elative to a building’s environmental
impact, decisions about energy
efficiency can be among the most
important ones to make. The use of extruded
polystyrene (XPS) foam plastic insulation
can play an effective and important role in
achieving this sort of efficiency, thanks to its
ability to maintain insulating power.
XPS uses highly efficient blowing
agents specifically selected for low thermal
conductivity and diffusivity—this helps the
insulation retain its properties.1 The durability
of XPS is perhaps its most important
environmental consideration. The closed-cell
structure and lack of voids in XPS not only
impart the material’s durability and strength,
but also help the foam resist moisture
penetration—without the use of a facer or
laminate—better than some other types of
insulating materials.
XPS is dimensionally stable and products
are available in a wide range of compressive
strengths (from 103 to 689.5 kPa [15 to 100 psi])
to suit a variety of application requirements,
including residential (e.g. foundations, walls,
ceilings), commercial (e.g. roofs, below-
grade, waterproofing), and beyond (e.g. soil
stabilization, pipe insulation, utility lines).2
modernmaterials
MM_Nov06.indd 27
By Susan Herrenbruck
Long-term benefits
To truly assess the environmental impact of a
building or application, the effect of material
changes in foam formulations should also be
analyzed in terms of the resulting thermal
performance. Used to insulate commercial
buildings and residences, the energy efficiency
payback from insulation with high R-values
over a long period far exceeds any marginal
contribution of ozone-depletion potential
(ODP). This analysis was done for estimated
emissions until the Montreal Protocol’s phase-
out date of 2010.3
Energy efficiency and conservation relative
to global climate change (GCC) should also be
considered when assessing the environmental
impact of materials. In May 1999, technical
experts working on both the Montreal
and Kyoto Protocols collaborated in Petten,
Netherlands, at the Joint Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change/Technology and
Economic Assessment Panel (IPCC/TEAP)
Expert Meeting on Options for the Limitation
of Emissions of HFCs and PFCs.4
Among several conclusions, the report
stated the use of foams such as XPS enabled
high levels of energy efficiency. It also noted
an average increase in global energy efficiency
of one percent in buildings equated to a net
annualized reduction of CO2 emissions by
some 50,000 to 80,000 tons.
The Alliance for Responsible Atmospheric
Policy (ARAP) conducted a study that
included a life-cycle climate performance
(LCCP) and provided an analysis of insulating
sheathing for residential wood-framed walls.5
It concluded:
These results show far more energy is
saved than consumed by manufacturing
the foam and that far more greenhouse gas
emissions due to space condition energy
consumption are avoided than are emitted
in the manufacture of the foam.
For an accurate environmental assessment,
the impact of material changes in foam
formulation should be analyzed in terms of
their resulting thermal performance.
Moisture resistance
A critical factor affecting long-term thermal
performance is extruded polystyrene’s
aforementioned ability to resist the intrusion
of moisture. Moisture can come in contact
with insulation not only during construction,
November 2006 27
9/29/06 5:00:44 PM
 but also throughout the building’s life. To the extent moisture is
absorbed by a product, its effect is to drastically reduce thermal
efficiency (i.e. R-value).
XPS foam insulation’s ability to resist moisture absorption has
been confirmed repeatedly in laboratory tests and validated by
actual application use in the field. XPS foam’s manufacturing process
forms a natural ‘skin’ surface not conducive to moisture absorbency.
Without the need for a facer or laminate, XPS products only absorb
0.3 percent by weight.6 When installed in walls, XPS shifts damaging
dewpoints, which helps minimize the potential for condensation to
occur within. This helps keep the insulating power in the wall and
prevent degradation over time due to moisture intrusion—helping
keep its energy-efficient properties intact.

Exterior wall sheathing

With a long-term thermal resistance ranging from R-3 (for 13-mm
[0.5-in.] thick boards) to R-5 (for 25-mm [1-in.] thick boards),
XPS insulating sheathing products increase the energy efficiency of
the entire wall. (The higher the R-value, the greater the insulating
power—suppliers can provide fact sheets on R-values.) XPS insulating
sheathing products provide a continuous layer of protection against
water moisture infiltration while guarding against thermal bridging.
(Thermal bridging occurs due to wood studs and other uninsulated
parts of the wall, such as framing, ducts, wiring, and plumbing.)
When properly installed, XPS sheathing also forms a continuous
air barrier that minimizes convection currents and air infiltration, the
leading cause of energy loss. When moisture gets into a wall assembly,
it compromises components made from traditional materials and can
then reduce the overall R-value of the building envelope.
Cold storage applications
In 1997, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) Cold Regions
Research and Engineering Laboratories (CRREL) conducted a survey
of the moisture content in the roofing systems of existing cold storage
buildings for an XPS manufacturer.7 As discussed in the report issued
by CRREL, rooftop nighttime and indoor daytime infrared (IR)
moisture surveys were performed. Areas of wet insulation (various
product types, including both traditional and plastic materials) were
noted in eight of the 10 roofs evaluated.
Core sampling of the membranes and insulation were collected for
laboratory evaluation. The specimens were evaluated for dry density,
moisture content, and thermal resistance (both as sampled and after
drying). The conclusions reached by CRREL suggest the intense vapor
drive, air infiltration, and propensity of the cold storage roofs to exhibit
water infiltration meant XPS is among the most suitable roof insulation for
freezers and coolers.
Frost-protected shallow foundations
XPS is the only code-approved product for use in horizontal
configurations in code-compliant frost-protected shallow foundation
(FPSF) applications.8 The concept of FPSF involves the placement of
rigid foam insulation in a way that raises the frost penetration depth
around a building to permit foundation footing depths as shallow as 406
mm (16 in.), even in cold climates.
According to the Department of Housing and Urban Development’s
(HUD’s) FPSF Design Guide, the technology not only improves energy
efficiency for completed projects, but it also allows a reduction in
Extruded polystyrene (XPS) can be an excellent insulation
product for exterior wall sheathing. It can form a continuous
air barrier, which improves energy efficiency by minimizing
convection currents and air infiltration.
material use and earth excavation during construction, cutting down on
energy consumption.
Although relatively new in the United States, FPSF has been
prevalent in Scandinavia for more than 40 years. During this time,
more than a million homes have been successfully built using this
construction method. FPSF is commonly used in monolithic slab-
on-grade, independent slab and stem wall, and permanent wood
foundation applications. Moisture resistance is extremely important
in FPSF due to the insulation’s placement in potentially wet soil and
because of the possibility of freeze-thaw cycles.
Protected membranes
A protected membrane roof assembly (PMRA) differs from a
conventional roof design in that the membrane is placed under the
insulation layer, helping to maximize membrane life by protecting it
from temperature extremes, freeze-thaw cycles, ultraviolet (UV) ray
degradation, and traffic wear. A PMRA begins with the application of
the ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) membrane, followed
by the XPS boards, the protective scrim, and finally, the ballast.
Extruded polystyrene foam roofing boards are the only type of
insulation recommended for use and approved by many building
codes in PMRA systems. Again, this is because XPS resists moisture
absorption and crushing from foot or equipment traffic so thoroughly.
The end result of a successful PMRA system is a great shield against
unwanted airflow, and further reduction in the heat escaping from the
building, which translates into lowered energy consumption.

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 In frost-protected
shallow foundation
(FPSF) design, expanded

Photo courtesy Plasti-Fab Ltd.

or extruded polystyrene
(EPS or XPS) insulation is
strategically positioned
to raise the frost depth
around the construction
site, and direct the
building’s heat loss
downward.

Conclusion also be found at www.crrel.usace.army.mil/techpub/CRREL_Reports/

The current initiative toward green building is manifesting itself reports/SR98_13.pdf .
throughout the built environment, as design teams seek ways to keep 8 For more on FPSF technology, see “Frost-protected Shallow

their projects as energy-efficient as possible. One method for helping Foundations,” by Elizabeth M. Steiner in the November 2004 issue
achieve adequate thermal protection is the specification of insulation in of Modern Materials.
appropriate applications. At several locations within the building, XPS
can offer these energy-efficient benefits. Susan Herrenbruck is the executive director of the Extruded Polystyrene Foam
Association (XPSA), a trade association representing manufacturers of XPS
Notes insulation products and its raw material suppliers.
1 Due to this gas movement, the overall thermal resistance of an
insulation product may change over time. This phenomenon is
typically called ‘aging.’ Foam aging is not new and has been discussed ] In a protected membrane roof assembly (PMRA), the membrane
in numerous papers over the years. Recent data on XPS products is placed under the XPS insulation layer. These types of roofs can
and long-term performance demonstrate the excellent long-term be ideal for vegetated green roofs because the insulation shields
thermal performance of XPS foams in the laboratory. See Chau Vo the membrane from moisture and protects it from foot traffic and
and Andrew Paquet’s “An Evaluation of the Thermal Conductivity for heavy soil loads.
Extruded Polystyrene Foam Blown with HFC 134a or HCFC 142b”
in the 2004 edition of Journal of Cellular Plastics.
2 For more on XPS applications, visit the XPSA Web site at www.xpsa.com.
3 See “Energy and Environmental Benefits of Extruded Polystyrene

Foam and Fiberglass Insulation Products in U.S. Residential and

Commercial Buildings,” by Merle F. McBride, PhD, PE. Visit www.
xpsa.com/enviro/McBrideInsulationEnergyandEmissions.doc.
4 Visit arch.rivm.nl/env/int/ipcc/docs/IPCC-TEAP99/index.html.
5 See A.D. Little’s “Global Comparative Analysis of HFC and Alternative

Technologies for Refrigeration, Air Conditioning, Foam, Solvent, Aerosol Construction/National Research Council of Canada

Propellant, and Fire Protection Applications” by www.arap.org/adlittle/toc.html.

6 This information takes into account the following ASTM International
Photo courtesy Institute for Research in

standards: ASTM C 578-03a, Standard Specification for Rigid, Cellular

Polystyrene Thermal Insulation; ASTM 1289-02, Standard Specification
for Faced Rigid Cellular Polyisocyanurate Thermal Insulation Board; and
ASTM C 1029, Standard Specification for Spray-applied Rigid Cellular
Polyurethane Thermal Insulation.
7 See “Development of Experimental Data on Extruded Polystyrene

Roofing Insulation under Simulated Winter Exposure Conditions”

(Report #SPI-6443, Energy Materials Testing Laboratory). See also
“U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratories
Report: Moisture in the Roofs of Cold Storage Buildings,” by Wayne
Tobiasson and Alan Greatorex. The November 1998 report can

modernmaterials November 2006 29

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 Finding Plastics Resources Online
Polystyrene insulation
Expanded Polystyrene [EPS] Molders
Association (EPSMA)
www.epsmolders.org
Insulating Concrete Form [ICF] Association
www.forms.org
Structural Insulated Panel [SIP] Association
(SIPA)
www.sips.org
Exterior Insulation Finish Systems [EIFS]
Industry Members Association (EIMA)
www.eima.com
Expanded Polystyrene Resin Suppliers
(ERSC)
www.americanplasticscouncil.org/
apcorg/about_apc/ersc.html
Extruded Polystyrene Association
www.xpsa.com
Polyurethanes
Adhesives and Sealant Council (ASC)
www.ascouncil.org
Alliance for the Polyurethanes Industry (API)
www.polyurethane.org
Metal Construction Association (MCA)
www.mca1.org
Alliance for Flexible Polyurethane
Foam (AFPF)
www.afpf.com
European Diisocyanate and
Polyol Producers Association (ISOPA)
www.isopa.org
Polyisocyanurate Insulation Manufacturers
Association (PIMA)
www.pima.org
Polyurethane Foam Association (PFA)
www.pfa.org
International Isocyanate Institute (III)
www.diisocyanates.org
Polyurea Development Association (PDA)
www.pda-online.org
Polyurethane Manufacturers
Association (PMA)
www.pmahome.org
C o n n e c t t o a w o r l d o f k n o w l e d g e.
NEW! See a 3-D virtual tour of a green building at
w w w. g r e e n b u i l d i n g s o l u t i o n s . o r g
MM_Nov06.indd 30
Plastic piping
Plastic Pipe Institute (PPI) American Society of American Water Works Canadian Institute of Plumbing
www.plasticpipe.org Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Association (AWWA) and Heating (CIPH)
www.asme.org www.awwa.org www.ciph.com
International Association of
Plumbing and Mechanical American Society of Plumbing Plastic Pipe and Fittings Uni-Bell PVC
Officials (IAPMO) Engineers (ASPE) Association (PPFA) Pipe Association
www.iapmo.org/iapmo www.aspe.org www.ppfahome.org www.uni-bell.org
Vinyl Life cycles and modeling
The Vinyl Institute Vinyl Siding Institute Building Environment and
www.vinylbydesign.com or www.vinylsiding.org Thermal Envelope Council (BETEC)
www.vinylinfo.org www.nibs.org/betechm.html
Vinyl Council of Canada
Resilient Floor Covering Institute www.cpia.ca/vinyl
National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS)
www.rfci.com www.nist.gov
European Council of Vinyl
Chemical Fabrics and Film Association Manufacturers
www.chemicalfabricsandfilm.com www.ecvm.org Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability
(BEES) provides users with direct comparisons between
Wallcoverings Association environmental performance and life-cycle cost.
www.wallcoverings.org www.bfrl.nist.gov/oae/bees.html
The Consortium for Moisture Management for Exterior
Wall Systems (MEWS) is developing guidelines for wall
systems to meet long-term performance and durability for
Spray polyurethane foam various climate zones.
irc.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/bes/mews/index.html
Spray Polyurethane Foam Alliance (SPFA)
www.sprayfoam.org MOIST predicts the one-dimensional transfer of heat
Insulation Contractors Association of America (ICAA) and moisture, allowing users to investigate the effects
www.insulate.org of various parameters on moisture accumulation within
layers of construction.
National Roofing Contractors Association (NRCA) www.bfrl.nist.gov/863/moist.html
www.nrca.net
WUFI is an advanced hygrothermal model that solves the
Roof Consultants Institute (RCI) coupled heat and moisture transport in building envelope
www.rci-online.org systems, such as walls and roofs.
www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/tools_directory/
Roof Industry Educational Institute (RIEI)
www.riei.org software/wufi-ornl-ibp.html
Related associations and organizations
American Architectural Manufacturers Canadian Plastics Industry Association (CPIA) Plastics Technology
Association (AAMA) www.plastics.ca www.plastics-technology.com
www.aamanet.org
Chlorine Chemistry Council (CCC) Partnership for Advancing Technology in
American Chemistry Council (ACC) www.c3.org Housing (PATH)
www.americanchemistry.com www.pathnet.org
International Code Council (ICC)
ASTM International www.iccsafe.org Society of Plastics Engineers (SPE)
www.astm.org www.4spe.org
National Association of
FM Global Home Builders (NAHB) Society of the Plastics Industry (SPI)
www.factorymutual.com www.nahb.org www.plasticsindustry.org
British Plastics Federation (BPF) NSF International Underwriters Laboratories
www.bpf.co.uk www.nsf.org www.ul.com
w w w. p l a s t i c s . o r g
9/29/06 5:01:02 PM
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