00 Toc 117e86d5c6a164694bb3af062854d7e

Contents
Preface ........................................................................ vii

Part 1. The Nature of Water ....................................... 1.1
1. The Water Molecule .................................................... 1.3
2. Water Sources and Uses ............................................ 2.1
Effects of Rainfall ...................................................... 2.9
Other Seasonal Changes .......................................... 2.9
Where River Meets Ocean ........................................ 2.12
Lakes as Reservoirs ................................................. 2.13
Seasonal Turnover .................................................... 2.13
Subsurface Water ..................................................... 2.16
Well Waters Constant ............................................... 2.18
Sources and Practices in Other Countries ................. 2.22
Threats to Water Sources: the Effects of Acidic
Rainfall ............................................................... 2.22
Threats to Water Sources: the Effects of Landfill
Leachate on Groundwater Quality ...................... 2.24
Suggested Reading .................................................. 2.27
3. Basic Chemistry .......................................................... 3.1
Periodic Chart of Elements ....................................... 3.1
From Atoms to Molecules ......................................... 3.3
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v
vi Contents
Impurities in Water .................................................... 3.3

Electrolytes ............................................................... 3.4
Ions and Electric Current ........................................... 3.5
Electromotive Series ................................................. 3.6
Colloidal Systems ..................................................... 3.7
Oxidation and Reduction ........................................... 3.7
Solvent Action of Water ............................................. 3.8
Organic Chemicals .................................................... 3.9
Predicting Solubilities ................................................ 3.9
Foreign Ions Interfere ................................................ 3.14
Other Anomalies ....................................................... 3.15
Equilibrium ................................................................ 3.16
Practical Value of Equilibrium Constants ................... 3.17
Solid Reactants ......................................................... 3.17
Chelation ................................................................... 3.19
4. Water Chemistry and Interpretation of Water
Analyses ..................................................................... 4.1
Alkalinity and Acidity ................................................. 4.5
The pH Notation ........................................................ 4.5
-
Use of meter for [OH ] ............................................... 4.6
The Importance of CO2 ............................................. 4.7
The Source of Alkalinity ............................................ 4.8
CO32-/HCO3- Distribution ........................................... 4.10
Interfering Ions .......................................................... 4.12
Effects of Impurities .................................................. 4.14
CaCO3 Stability Indexes ............................................ 4.15
Dissolved Gases ....................................................... 4.18
Minerals and Conductance ....................................... 4.20

Contents vii
Solid Matter ............................................................... 4.21

Organics in Water ..................................................... 4.22
Interpretation: Problems Caused by Impurities .......... 4.28
5. Aquatic Biology ........................................................... 5.1
A Healthy Aquatic Environment ................................. 5.1
The Role of Chemistry .............................................. 5.2
Six Important Elements ............................................. 5.3
Some Need Oxygen, Others Don't ............................ 5.4
Microbial Analyses .................................................... 5.6
Sampling and Analysis .............................................. 5.6
Three Living Zones ................................................... 5.13
Chemical Indicators .................................................. 5.15
Bacteria Can Help ..................................................... 5.16
6. Water Contaminants: Occurrence and Treatment ....... 6.1
Class 1 - Primary Constituents .................................. 6.4
Class 2 - Secondary Constituents ............................. 6.10
Class 3 - Tertiary Constituents .................................. 6.14
Class 4 - Trace Constituents ..................................... 6.19
Class 5 - Transient Constituents ............................... 6.19
Methods of Analysis .................................................. 6.27
7. Water Gauging, Sampling, and Analysis ..................... 7.1
Flow Measurement ................................................... 7.2
Measuring Wastewater Flows ................................... 7.11
Sampling ................................................................... 7.21
Analysis .................................................................... 7.25

viii Contents
Part 2. Unit Operations of Water Treatment ............ 8.1

8. Coagulation and Flocculation ...................................... 8.3
Coagulation ............................................................... 8.3
Zeta Potential ............................................................ 8.5
Flocculation ............................................................... 8.7
Coagulation and Flocculation Chemicals .................. 8.9
Tailoring Polyelectrolytes .......................................... 8.10
Activated Silica ......................................................... 8.13
Applications of Coagulation and Flocculation ............ 8.13
Color Removal .......................................................... 8.18
Plant Design ............................................................. 8.19
9. Solids/Liquids Separation ............................................ 9.1
Removal of Solids from Water ................................... 9.1
Removal of Water from Sludge ................................. 9.26
Dewatering - L/S Separation ..................................... 9.31
Miscellaneous Devices and Processes ..................... 9.53
10. Precipitation ................................................................ 10.1
Softening by Precipitation ......................................... 10.2
Partial Lime Softening ............................................... 10.2
Complete Lime Softening .......................................... 10.6
More Complete Softening at Higher
Temperatures ..................................................... 10.12
Silica Removal .......................................................... 10.13
Heavy Metals Removal ............................................. 10.16
Miscellaneous Processes .......................................... 10.22
Bench and Pilot Plant Testing ................................... 10.23

Contents ix
11. Emulsion Breaking ...................................................... 11.1

Oil-in-Water Emulsions ............................................. 11.1
Water-in-Oil Emulsions ............................................. 11.10
Industrial Sources of Emulsions and Treatment
Practices ............................................................ 11.13
Recovery of Separated Oil ........................................ 11.17
12. Ion Exchange .............................................................. 12.1
Exchanger Capacity .................................................. 12.1
Anion Exchangers ..................................................... 12.8
Practical Ion Exchange ............................................. 12.9
An Evolving Science ................................................. 12.10
Sodium Cycle Exchange (Zeolite Softening) ............. 12.12
Hydrogen Cycle Exchange ........................................ 12.19
Anion Exchange Processes ...................................... 12.24
Evaluation of Ion Exchange Resin Performance ....... 12.34
Special Ion Exchange Applications ........................... 12.43
13. Neutralization .............................................................. 13.1
Examples of Acid-Base Reactions ............................ 13.1
Acid Waters .............................................................. 13.10
14. Degasification .............................................................. 14.1
Henry's Law .............................................................. 14.1
Degasification Designs .............................................. 14.2
Deaerating Heaters ................................................... 14.6
Chemical Removal .................................................... 14.9
15. Membrane Separation ................................................. 15.1
Microfiltration ............................................................ 15.1
Ultrafiltration .............................................................. 15.3
Material Balance in Membrane Processes ................ 15.3

x Contents
Design Features of Commercial Units ....................... 15.4

Reverse Osmosis ...................................................... 15.8
Membrane Maintenance ........................................... 15.13
Dialysis ..................................................................... 15.15
Electrodialysis ........................................................... 15.17
16. Aeration ....................................................................... 16.1
Mechanism of Aeration ............................................. 16.1
Principles of Gas Transfer ......................................... 16.2
Equipment ................................................................. 16.5
Sizing of Aeration Equipment .................................... 16.8
17. Adsorption ................................................................... 17.1
Colloidal Matter ......................................................... 17.1
Taste and Odor Control ............................................. 17.2
Removal of Organic Molecules and Colloids ............. 17.3
Colloidal Silica .......................................................... 17.5
Applications of Carbon Filters ................................... 17.7
Wastewater Treatment .............................................. 17.8
Resin Columns ......................................................... 17.12
Slurry Systems .......................................................... 17.12
18. Evaporation and Freezing ........................................... 18.1
Evaporators .............................................................. 18.1
Effect of Salt Concentration ...................................... 18.2
Evaporator Design .................................................... 18.3
Condensation ............................................................ 18.4
Multiple-Effect Units .................................................. 18.7
Freezing .................................................................... 18.11

Contents xi
19. Oxidation-Reduction .................................................... 19.1

Iron-Removal ............................................................ 19.6
Manganese Removal ................................................ 19.6
Removal of Organic Matter ....................................... 19.6
Cyanide Removal ...................................................... 19.7
Sulfide Removal ........................................................ 19.8
Other Oxidizing Agents ............................................. 19.8
Reducing Agents ....................................................... 19.9
20. Corrosion Control ........................................................ 20.1
Corrosion Rates ........................................................ 20.2
Polarization-Depolarization ....................................... 20.3
Galvanic Corrosion ................................................... 20.4
Concentration Cell Corrosion .................................... 20.4
Dissolved Solids ........................................................ 20.7
Dissolved Gases ....................................................... 20.7
Temperature ............................................................. 20.8
Stress Corrosion Cracking ........................................ 20.9
Caustic Embrittlement ............................................... 20.10
Chloride Induced Stress Corrosion Cracking ............. 20.10
Corrosion Fatigue Cracking ...................................... 20.10
Tuberculation ............................................................ 20.12
Impingement Attack .................................................. 20.13
Dezincification ........................................................... 20.13
Corrosion Inhibition ................................................... 20.15
Materials of Construction .......................................... 20.15
Coatings and Linings ................................................ 20.16
Insulation .................................................................. 20.16
Applied Chemical Inhibitors ....................................... 20.17

xii Contents
Corrosion Inhibitors ................................................... 20.17

Anodic/Cathodic Inhibitor Mixtures ............................ 20.18
Organic Filmers ......................................................... 20.18
Cathodic Protection ................................................... 20.19
Water Distribution Systems ....................................... 20.19
Monitoring Results .................................................... 20.21
21. Deposit Control ........................................................... 21.1
Deposit Sources ........................................................ 21.2
Deposit Appearance ................................................. 21.2
Deposit Identification ................................................. 21.3
Treatments to Control System Deposits .................... 21.11
22. Control of Microbial Activity ......................................... 22.1
Physical Factors Affecting Microbe Growth ............... 22.5
Chemical Factors Affecting Microbial Growth ............ 22.6
Methods for Controlling Microbial Activity .................. 22.7
Oxidizing Biocides (See Also Chapter 19) ................. 22.8
Nonoxidizing Biocides ............................................... 22.14
Cationic Biocides ...................................................... 22.15
Metallic Compounds ................................................. 22.16
Microbial Monitoring Procedures ............................... 22.16
Cooling Water Systems ............................................. 22.17
Paper Mill Water Systems ......................................... 22.20
Storing, Handling, and Feeding Precautions ............. 22.20
23. Biological Digestion ..................................................... 23.1
Treating Industrial Organics ...................................... 23.1
Available Processes .................................................. 23.2
Temperature Effects ................................................. 23.5
Trace Nutrients ......................................................... 23.6

Contents xiii
Bench Testing ........................................................... 23.6

Sludge Acclimatization .............................................. 23.8
Aerated Systems ....................................................... 23.9
Balancing the Activated Sludge Process ................... 23.14
Trickling Filters .......................................................... 23.17
Anaerobic Digestion .................................................. 23.17
Other Processes ....................................................... 23.20
Part 3. Uses of Water ................................................. 24.1
24. Aluminum Industry ...................................................... 24.3
Mining ....................................................................... 24.3
Bauxite Processing ................................................... 24.3
Aluminum Reduction ................................................. 24.6
Metal Fabrication ...................................................... 24.9
25. Automotive Industry ..................................................... 25.1
Foundry Operations .................................................. 25.1
Machining ................................................................. 25.4
Stamping ................................................................... 25.11
Assembly Plants ....................................................... 25.15
26. Chemical Industry ....................................................... 26.1
Process Cooling Is Major H2O Use ........................... 26.1
Process Flow Sheets ................................................ 26.5
Environmental Effects ............................................... 26.9
27. Coal Products: Coke, Producer Gas, and
Synfuels ...................................................................... 27.1
Coke Plant ................................................................ 27.3
By-Product Recovery ................................................ 27.3

xiv Contents
Utility Requirements .................................................. 27.5

Biological Treatment ................................................. 27.9
Producer Gas and Synfuels ...................................... 27.9
28. Food Processing Industry ............................................ 28.1
The Sugar Industry ................................................... 28.2
The Beverage Industry .............................................. 28.5
Fruit and Vegetable Processing ................................ 28.7
Meat and Poultry ....................................................... 28.10
29. Mining ......................................................................... 29.1
Underground Water .................................................. 29.1
Coal Processing ........................................................ 29.3
Further Dewatering ................................................... 29.4
Metal-Containing Minerals ........................................ 29.6
Phosphate Mining ..................................................... 29.9
Mineral Leaching and Dissolving ............................... 29.11
Slurry Conveying ....................................................... 29.14
30. Pulp and Paper Industry .............................................. 30.1
Water: a Basic Raw Material ..................................... 30.2
Groundwood Pulp ..................................................... 30.4
Thermomechanical Pulping ....................................... 30.5
Chemical Pulping ...................................................... 30.6
Recovering Process Ingredients ............................... 30.7
The Kraft Process ..................................................... 30.7
Pulp Process Units .................................................... 30.11
Bleaching .................................................................. 30.14
Problems Created by Water ...................................... 30.19
Secondary Fiber Recovery ........................................ 30.19

Contents xv
Water Removal From Pulp ........................................ 30.20

Fourdrinier Machine .................................................. 30.21
Cylinder Machine ...................................................... 30.25
Water-Related Mill Problems ..................................... 30.25
Designing for the Future ............................................ 30.28
Waste Treatment ...................................................... 30.28
31. Petroleum Industry ...................................................... 31.1
Process Operations .................................................. 31.1
Utility Systems .......................................................... 31.11
Cooling Water Systems ............................................. 31.12
Refinery Pollution Control - Waste Treatment ........... 31.13
32. Steel Industry .............................................................. 32.1
Blast Furnace Operations ......................................... 32.2
Exhaust Gas Treatment ............................................ 32.5
Steel Production ........................................................ 32.6
Direct Reduction Processes ...................................... 32.11
Continuous Casting ................................................... 32.13
The Hot-Mill Rolling Operation .................................. 32.14
Cold Rolling Mills ...................................................... 32.17
Heat Treatment ......................................................... 32.17
Sintering ................................................................... 32.19
Acid Pickling ............................................................. 32.19
Slag Plant ................................................................. 32.20
Utilities ...................................................................... 32.21
33. Textile Industry ............................................................ 33.1
Cotton ....................................................................... 33.1

xvi Contents
Wool ......................................................................... 33.3

Synthetics ................................................................. 33.5
Water Uses in the Textile Industry ............................. 33.5
Air Washer Maintenance ........................................... 33.8
Developing a Treatment Program ............................. 33.10
34. Utilities ........................................................................ 34.1
The Process: Energy Conversion .............................. 34.1
Power Cycle .............................................................. 34.3
Water: the Working Fluid ........................................... 34.7
Water Chemistry in Fossil-Fueled Plants - Liquid
Phase ................................................................. 34.11
Steam Phase Problems ............................................ 34.20
Water Chemistry in Nuclear Fueled Plants ................ 34.21
Condenser Cooling Water ......................................... 34.24
Miscellaneous Water Uses ........................................ 34.31
Suggested Readings (See “Energy Primer,”
Chapter 46) ........................................................ 34.35
35. Municipal Water .......................................................... 35.1
Raw Water Characteristics ........................................ 35.3
Typical Treatment Schemes ...................................... 35.5
Water Treatment Plant By-Product Disposal ............. 35.11
Potable Water Other Than Municipal Supply ............. 35.12
36. Municipal Sewage Treatment ...................................... 36.1
Effluent Standards .................................................... 36.2
Typical Wastewater Treatment Processes ................ 36.3
Disinfection ............................................................... 36.6
Plant Process Changes Caused by Growth and
Industrialization .................................................. 36.8
Contents xvii
Municipality and Industry Join Forces to Treat

Wastes More Economically ................................ 36.9
Sewage Plant Effluent Is Fed to Water Factory
21 ....................................................................... 36.10
Worlds's Largest Treatment Plan .............................. 36.11
By-Product Wastes ................................................... 36.11
Sludge Disposal ........................................................ 36.16
37. Commercial, Institutional, and Residential Water
Treatment .................................................................... 37.1
Heating Systems ....................................................... 37.1
Air-Conditioning Systems .......................................... 37.5
Energy Storage ......................................................... 37.11
Domestic Water ........................................................ 37.12
Waste Treatment ...................................................... 37.13
Part 4. Specialized Water Treatment
Technologies .................................................. 38.1
38. Cooling Water Treatment ............................................ 38.3
Heat Transfer ............................................................ 38.3
Cooling Water System: Problems & Treatment ......... 38.8
Cooling Towers ......................................................... 38.19
Cooling Water Treatment and Control ....................... 38.21
Ambient Air Effects ................................................... 38.26
Corrosion and Scale Control ..................................... 38.27
Fouling Control ......................................................... 38.29
Microbial Control ....................................................... 38.30
39. Boiler Water Treatment ............................................... 39.1
Deposits .................................................................... 39.1
Corrosion .................................................................. 39.5
External Treatment ................................................... 39.6
Condensate Returns ................................................. 39.14
xviii Contents
Internal Treatment ..................................................... 39.15

Complexation/Dispersion .......................................... 39.18
Program Supplements .............................................. 39.18
Blowdown ................................................................. 39.21
Boiler Types .............................................................. 39.30
Superheaters and Other Auxiliaries ........................... 39.38
Contaminants in Returned Condensate .................... 39.44
Types of Steam-Using Equipment ............................. 39.45
Steam Used for Power .............................................. 39.48
Condensate Return Systems .................................... 39.52
Evaluating Results .................................................... 39.56
Surveying a Boiler System ........................................ 39.59
Steam Sampling ........................................................ 39.61
Steam Plant Efficiency .............................................. 39.63
Deposit and Failure Analysis ..................................... 39.64
40. Effluent Treatment Optimization .................................. 40.1
Sources of Effluent .................................................... 40.1
Process Water Use and Contamination .................... 40.2
Utility Systems .......................................................... 40.3
Plant Survey ............................................................. 40.3
Assessing Waste Flows and Quality ......................... 40.5
Sampling and Analysis .............................................. 40.6
Equalization .............................................................. 40.8
Conservation to Minimize Effluent Loading ............... 40.9
Review of Existing Facilities ...................................... 40.12
Process Modification ................................................. 40.13
Pilot Studies Essential ............................................... 40.14
Using Plant Effluents ................................................. 40.15
Surveillance of Program ............................................ 40.16

Contents xix
Zero Discharge - Possibilities and Realities .............. 40.17

41. Wet Gas Scrubbing ..................................................... 41.1
Particle Collection Concepts ..................................... 41.1
Particulate Emissions ................................................ 41.2
Principles of Operation .............................................. 41.3
Categorizing Wet Scrubbers ..................................... 41.5
Gas Absorption Scrubbers ........................................ 41.5
Packed Tower ........................................................... 41.5
Moving Bed Scrubbers .............................................. 41.6
Turbulent Contact Absorber (TCA) ............................ 41.7
Wet Particle Scrubbers ............................................. 41.8
Wet Electrostatic Precipitators .................................. 41.13
Waterside Problems .................................................. 41.13
Waste Treatment ...................................................... 41.15
Auxiliary Equipment .................................................. 41.15
Selected Gas Scrubbing Systems ............................. 41.16
42. Agricultural Uses of Water ........................................... 42.1
Chop Irrigation .......................................................... 42.1
The Nature of Soil ..................................................... 42.3
Measurable Soil Characteristics ................................ 42.4
Concentration Effects ................................................ 42.5
Conditioning Irrigation Water ..................................... 42.8
43. Oil Field Water Technology ......................................... 43.1
Theory of Oil Formation ............................................ 43.1
The Oil-Bearing Reservoir ......................................... 43.2
Petroleum Production ................................................ 43.3
Secondary Recovery by Steam Flooding .................. 43.10

xx Contents
The Nature of Oil Field Waters .................................. 43.14

Mineral Scales .......................................................... 43.18
Corrosion .................................................................. 43.21
Bacteria Control ........................................................ 43.22
44. Production of Ultrapure Water ..................................... 44.1
45. Chemical Feed Systems ............................................. 45.1
Liquid Feed Systems ................................................ 45.1
Dry Feed Systems .................................................... 45.14
46. Energy Primer ............................................................. 46.1
Energy Measurements .............................................. 46.2
Steam Properties ...................................................... 46.4
Enthalpy .................................................................... 46.4
Steam Quality ........................................................... 46.5
Fuel and Boiler Efficiencies ....................................... 46.5
Improving Boiler Efficiency ........................................ 46.30
Mechanical Heat Recovery ....................................... 46.31
Feed Water Temperature .......................................... 46.32
Steam Pressure ........................................................ 46.33
Decreasing Blowdown ............................................... 46.33
Reclaiming Blowdown Heat ....................................... 46.33
Boiler Loading ........................................................... 46.35
Turbine Operation ..................................................... 46.35
Steam Trap ............................................................... 46.40
Glossary ...................................................................... G.1
Appendix ..................................................................... A.1
Sign Conventions in Electrochemistry ....................... A.1
Index ......................................................................... I.1

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Contents

Preface ........................................................................ vii

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

Impurities in Water .................................................... 3.3

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

Solid Matter ............................................................... 4.21

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

Part 2. Unit Operations of Water Treatment ............ 8.1

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11. Emulsion Breaking ...................................................... 11.1

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Design Features of Commercial Units ....................... 15.4

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19. Oxidation-Reduction .................................................... 19.1

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Corrosion Inhibitors ................................................... 20.17

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Bench Testing ........................................................... 23.6

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Utility Requirements .................................................. 27.5

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Water Removal From Pulp ........................................ 30.20

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Wool ......................................................................... 33.3

Municipality and Industry Join Forces to Treat

Internal Treatment ..................................................... 39.15

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Zero Discharge - Possibilities and Realities .............. 40.17

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The Nature of Oil Field Waters .................................. 43.14

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