Chapter 1 Review of Basic Theory Materials 1

I. REVIEW of BASIC THEORY MATERIALS

This book assumes the student is more than familiar with the basics of music theory: the notes of the
staves, intervals and inversions, tertian chord construction, notation principles, key signatures and the
order of accidentals. There are a number of good books which were designed to teach these basics. This
chapter reviews a few of the fundamentals in the interest of clarity.

CHROMATIC SCALE

The one scale that all jazz musicians use is the chromatic scale. It is shown below written ascending and
descending. Altered notes want to continue in the direction in which they have been altered. Sharps in-
dicate a raised note and the direction it wants to resolve. Flats indicate a lowered note and the direction
it wants to resolve. Accidentals, when written correctly, make lines easier to read. The note above Cn is
not always a C#. It may be a Db under certain circumstances. If a line moves up from C to D through a
chromatic note, that note is C# , indicating the alteration and the direction of the resolution. If a line
moves down from D to C through a chromatic note, that note would be Db, indicating the alteration and
the direction of the resolution.

˙ œ bœ
&œ #œ ˙

Chromatic Scale: Difference in ascending and descending

& ˙ #˙ ˙ #˙ ˙ ˙ #˙ ˙ #˙ ˙ #˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ b˙ ˙ b˙ ˙ b˙ ˙
˙ b˙ ˙ b˙ ˙
? ˙ #˙ ˙ #˙ ˙ ˙ #˙ ˙ #˙ ˙ #˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ b˙ ˙ b˙ ˙ b˙ ˙
˙ b˙ ˙ b˙ ˙

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2 Chapter 1 Review of Basic Theory Materials

INTERVALS & INVERSIONS

Intervals, the distance between two pitches in a melody line or in a chord, are primary musical building
blocks. It is important to understand their construction and their individual sounds. Intervals are easier
to understand and hear in the context of actual music, but a review of the principles here will expedite
understanding material presented in this book.

To find the intervals between two pitches count the first as one and continue to the second pitch. For
example, the interval from D up to F is a third: D (1) - E (2) - F (3). If the interval is inverted, D down to
F or F up to D, the interval is a sixth: D (1) - E (2) - F (3) - D (4) - E (5) - F (6), or F (1) - G (2) - A (3) - B
(4) - C (5) - D (6).

The presence of accidentals does not change the numeric value of intervals. Db to F and Dn to F are
both separated by the interval of a third: Db to F is made of four half steps and is a major third; and Dn
to F is made of three half steps and is a minor third.

Intervals will have different qualities depending on the number of half steps. Seconds can be minor, ma-
jor or augmented. Thirds are usually either minor or major. Octaves, fourths and fifths are diminished,
perfect or augmented. Sixths can be minor, major, and sometimes augmented. Sevenths are usually mi-
nor or major.

All intervals can be inverted as shown below. Inverted intervals added together equal 9:

Unison (1) Octave (8)

Second (2) Seventh (7)
Third (3) Sixth (6)
Fourth (4) Fifth (5)

Interval qualities are inverted as shown below:

Major Minor
Perfect Perfect
Augmented Diminished

An inverted third becomes a sixth and a major becomes a minor, so a major third inverts to a minor
sixth. Spelling makes an considerable difference in analyzing intervals. The pair of intervals and their
inversions below will sound the same, but are spelled and should be analyzed distinctly. An augmented
second has the same number of half steps as a minor third, but the letter names of the pitches decide
the numerical interval. Any C to any D is the interval of a second and therefore inverts to a seventh; any
C to any E is a third and therefore inverts to a sixth.

A2 d7 m3 M6

& ˙ #˙ #˙ ˙ ˙
˙ b˙ b˙

Intervals and spelling will be easier to understand with discussion of scales. Scales are made of intervals,
and intervals come from scales.

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 Chapter 1 Review of Basic Theory Materials 3

MAJOR SCALE CONSTRUCTION

There are two ways of understanding the construction of a major scale. The major scale can be defined
as intervals relating to tonic or intervals relating to adjacent pitches.

C major scale shown with intervals relating to tonic pitch:

P8
M7
M6
P5
P4
M3
M2

&˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
˙ ˙ ˙
˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
?˙ ˙ ˙ ˙

C major scale shown with intervals relating to adjacent pitches:

W W H W W W H
M2 M2 m2 M2 M2 M2 m2

&˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
˙ ˙ ˙
˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
?˙ ˙ ˙ ˙

In order to create the same order of intervals starting on F, it is necessary to lower the Bn to Bb.

Most scales have one pitch for each letter, so there are only seven pitches in the scale. It is for this rea-
son that Bb is used instead of A# in the F major scale regardless of ascending or descending. This avoids
having an An and an A# in the same scale. Any additional chromatic pitches that might occur it the key
of F would follow the principle that altered notes want to continue in the direction in which they have
been altered.

W W H W W W H
M2 M2 m2 M2
˙
M2
˙
M2
˙
m2
˙
&˙ ˙ ˙ b˙

? ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
˙ ˙ ˙ b˙

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4 Chapter 1 Review of Basic Theory Materials

In order to create the same scale starting on G,. it is necessary to raise the Fn to F#.

W W H W W W H
M2 M2 m2 M2
˙
M2
˙ #˙
M2 m2
˙
&˙ ˙ ˙ ˙

? ˙ ˙ #˙ ˙
˙ ˙ ˙ ˙

MINOR SCALE CONSTRUCTION

Natural or pure minor is found on the sixth degree of a major scale. A natural minor scale is related
to a major scale in the sense that they share the same pitches and therefore the same key signature. An
minor is the relative minor of C major . A natural minor scale can be parallel to a major key if they
share the same tonic. C minor is the parallel minor to C major. Parallel minor can be created by
lowering the third, sixth and seventh degrees of the major scale.

C Natural Minor - Parallel Minor to C major A Natural Minor - Relative Minor to C major

&˙ ˙ b˙ b˙ ˙ & ˙ ˙
˙ b˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
˙ ˙
˙ b˙ b˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
?˙ ˙ b˙ ˙ ? ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
˙ ˙

The natural minor scale does not have a leading tone. In order to create a dominant chord and harmo-
nize minor keys, the seventh degree must be raised. This creates the leading tone and the interval of an
augmented second between the sixth and seventh degrees. The augmented second has the same number
of half steps as a minor third, but will not sound like a minor third in the scales below. The altered lead-
ing tone is added in order to create harmony with a dominant chord, and the scale is therefore called
harmonic minor.

C Harmonic Minor: A Harmonic Minor:

A2 A2

&˙ ˙ b˙ ˙ ˙ & ˙
˙ b˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ #˙
˙ ˙
˙ b˙
A2
˙ ˙ A2
˙
?˙ ˙ b˙ ˙ ? ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ #˙
˙ ˙

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 Chapter 1 Review of Basic Theory Materials 5

It is a natural tendency to raise the sixth and seventh degrees when ascending from the dominant to the
tonic and lower them when descending. This principle was addressed concerning chromatic scales:
raised pitches want to ascend, lowered pitches want to descend.

A Melodic Minor:

& ˙ #˙ #˙ ˙ ˙ n˙ n˙ ˙
˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
? ˙ #˙ #˙ ˙ ˙ n˙ n˙ ˙
˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙

C Melodic Minor:

&˙ ˙ n˙ n˙ ˙ ˙ b˙ b˙ ˙
˙ b˙ ˙ ˙ b˙ ˙ ˙
˙ n˙ n˙ ˙ ˙ b˙ b˙ ˙
?˙ ˙ b˙ ˙ ˙ b˙ ˙ ˙

CIRCLE of FIFTHS
Review of the circle of fifths with key signatures. There are other possible keys. Continuing around the
circle would yield the keys of C# major with seven sharps and Cb major with seven flats. Using the paral-
lel keys is advisable whenever possible. Most would prefer Db (5bs) to C# (7#s) and B (5#s) to Cb (7bs).

C major/A minor

F major/D minor G major/E minor

b
0
0 #
1 b 1 #
B b major/G minor D major/B minor

2 b 2 #

E b major/C minor
3 b 3 # #
A major/F minor

4 b 4 #
# minor
A b major/F minor Emajor/C

5 b 5 #
b #
6 6
b b
D major/B minor B major/G
# minor

G b major/Eb minor
# #
F major/D minor

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SCALE DEGREE NAMES

Commonly used names for the steps of any scale:

Tonic Supertonic Mediant Subdominant Dominant Submediant Subtonic Leading Tone

&˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ b˙ n˙
˙ ˙
?˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ b˙ n˙
˙ ˙

The names were derived from their relationship to tonic. This is important to understand as it shows the
importance of learning pitches as they relate to the home pitch, and not as they relate to adjacent
pitches. This principle will have great significance regarding hearing tonal music. A subdominant is not
named for being the pitch below the dominant, rather it is named for because it is the pitch a fifth be-
low the tonic.

Dominant Mediant Supertonic

&˙ ˙œ œ̇œ œ˙
˙ Tonic
œ˙ œ̇œ b ˙œ n ˙œ
?
Subdominant Submediant Subtonic Leading Tone

KEY SIGNATURES & ORDER of ACCIDENTALS

Key signatures and the order of accidentals should be memorized.

C major/A minor No #s/Nobs

F major/D minor 1b Bb
B b major/G minor 2b Bb, E b
E b major/C minor 3b Bb, Eb, Ab
A b major/F minor 4b Bb, Eb, Ab, Db
D b major/Bb minor 5b Bb, Eb, Ab, Db, Gb
G b major/Eb minor 6b Bb, Eb, Ab, Db, Gb, Cb
F # major/D# minor 6# F#, C#, G#, D#, A#, E#
B major/G# minor 5# F#, C#, G#, D#, A#
E major/C# minor 4# F#, C#, G#, D#
A major/F# minor 3# F#, C#, G#
D major/B minor 2# F#, C#
G major/E minor 1# F#

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 Chapter 1 Review of Basic Theory Materials 7

COMMON NOTATION ERRORS

The principles and rules of notation are designed to make the music easier to read. Here are a few
common errors. Correcting them will make homework assignments, solo transcriptions, arrangements
and compositions easier to read.

STEMS

Notes above the middle line of any clef have stems down, below middle line have stems up.

Correct stems: Incorrect stems:

&cœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

?c œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ

NOTE ALIGNMENT

Check the vertical alignment of notes. If two notes occur at the same rhythmic place, it should be visu-
ally reflected on the page. The notes in the second measure below are not aligned vertically as they are
in the first measure, making it difficult to tell which notes are to be played together.

Correct vertical alignment: Incorrect vertical alignment:

&cœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

?c œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ

ACCIDENTALS

Accidentals should precede the notes in the corresponding space or on the line as in the first measure.
If they are placed arbitrarily before the note, as in the second measure, it makes reading difficult. The
accidental should never follow the note: in a paragraph we may write “Bb,” but in the staff it should be
written “bB.”

Alignment of Accidentals:

& œ bœ bœ œ œ bœ œb œ

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8 Chapter 1 Review of Basic Theory Materials

Accidentals should follow the logic of the chromatic scale. For raised notes: use sharps, for lowered
notes: use flats. Accidentals that indicate modulations should be used when appropriate rather than their
enharmonic equivalents.

The first two measures of the example below are drawn from a published transcription of a Charlie
Parker improvisation. The second two measures is a preferable version. The change in the first measure
from Dn to Db might seem correct since the flat lowers D. However, the C# is preferable to the Db. The C#
is a tone that indicates the modulation from the key of F to the key of D minor, is the leading tone to D
minor, and is the third of the indicated A7 chord. A Db is meaningless in this context. Would it be the
diminished fourth of the A7 chord and the lowered tonic of D minor? The Ab, as a lowered note, wants
to move down. It slows down reading when the Ab is followed by an An: the Ab indicated downward mo-
tion which was contradicted by the An. The An should have had a courtesy accidental in the first two
measures. The courtesy accidental is unnecessary with the use of G#. A Gn followed by a G# indicates up-
ward resolution, and allows anticipation of the An. Using the C# and G# also avoids having repeated
pitches of the same letter name: Dn to Db and Ab to An.

Ambiguous Accidentals: Preferred Notation:

Eø7 A7 Dm7 Eø7 A7 Dm7

& b œ œ œ œ bœ œ œ bœ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ #œ œ #œ œ œ

BEAMING

For instrumental writing in common time, beam eighth notes in groups of two or four, and beam six-
teenth notes in groups of four.

or:
cÛ Û Û Û Û Û Û Û ÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛÛ

Beam eighth notes in groups of two, and sixteenth notes in groups of four, when writing for instruments
in triple meter.

34 Û Û Û Û Û Û Û Û Û Û Û Û Û Û Û Û Û Û

The time signature 68 has the same number of eighth notes as 34, but the subdivisions should be grouped
differently to indicate the pulse difference. 68 indicates two beats per measure so eighth notes should be
grouped in threes and sixteenth notes in groups of six.

68 Û Û Û Û Û Û Û Û Û Û Û Û Û Û Û Û Û Û

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 Chapter 1 Review of Basic Theory Materials 9

IMAGINARY MEASURE LINE

Observe an imaginary measure line between beats two and three in common time when subdivided by
eighth notes, between every beat when subdivided by sixteenth notes.

The top line notation is preferred to that on the bottom in the following examples. The notation on the
bottom line while mathematically correct is more difficult to read because the imaginary measure line
principle is not observed, making it difficult to see the separate beats in the measure. Make the notation
as easy to read as possible. If musicians have to stop a rehearsal and to count out the notes in the mea-
sure, then there was probably a more logical way to notate the rhythms.

Top line preferred to the bottom line:

Û. Û Û Û Û Û Û Û Û Û Œ Û Û Û.
J J
Û. Û. Û Û Û Û Û Û Œ Û. Û.
J J
Top line preferred to the bottom line:

Û. Û Û Û Û Û Û Û Û Û ‰ Û Û Û.
J
Û. Û. Û Û Û Û Û Û ‰ Û. Û.

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