Appendix A

Vector Analysis

The vector relations given in this appendix are particularly useful in the
study of £uid mechanics. The derivation of these relationships may be found
in most books that cover the topic of vector analysis.

VECTOR IDENTITIES
In the following formulas, f is any scalar and a, b, and c are any vectors.
= 3 =f ¼ 0
= · ðfaÞ ¼ f= · a þ a · =f
= 3 ðfaÞ ¼ =f 3 a þ fð= 3 aÞ
= · ð= 3 aÞ ¼ 0
ða · =Þa ¼ 12 =ða · aÞ  a 3 ð= 3 aÞ
= 3 ð= 3 aÞ ¼ =ð= · aÞ  =2 a
= 3 ða 3 bÞ ¼ að= · bÞ  bð= · aÞ  ða · =Þb þ ðb · =Þa
= · ða 3 bÞ ¼ b · ð= 3 aÞ  a · ð= 3 bÞ

495
496 Appendix A

INTEGRAL THEOREMS
In the following two theorems, which relate surface integrals to volume
integrals, V is any volume and S is the surface that encloses V , the unit nor-
mal on S being denoted by n. f is any scalar and a is any vector.
Gauss’ theorem: (also known as the divergence theorem):
Z Z
a  n ds ¼ =  a dV
s V

Green’s theorem:
Z Z
@f
f dS ¼ ½=f  =f þ f=2 f dV
s @n V

Stokes’ theorem:
I Z
^ a  dl ¼ ð= 3 aÞn dA
A

This theorem relates a line integral to an equivalent surface integral. The

surface A is arbitrary, but it must terminate on the line l.

ORTHOGONAL CURVILINEAR COORDINATES

Let x1 ; x2 ; x3 be a set of orthogonal curvilinear coordinates with e1 ; e2 ; e3 as
the corresponding unit base vectors.
Position vector:
r ¼ xex þ yey þ zez

where ex ; ey , and ez are ¢xed in space.

Base vectors:
, 
@r  @r 
ei ¼  
@xi @x 
i

Metric-scale factors:
 
 @r 
hi ¼  
@xi
Vector Analysis 497

Line element:

ðdr  drÞ ¼ h21 ðdx1 Þ2 þ h22 ðdx2 Þ2 þ h23 ðdx3 Þ2

Cartesian coordinates (rectangular coordinates):

x1 ¼ x x2 ¼ y x3 ¼ z
h1 ¼ 1 h2 ¼ 1 h3 ¼ 1

Cylindrical coordinates:

x1 ¼ R x2 ¼ y x3 ¼ z
h1 ¼ 1 h2 ¼ R h3 ¼ 1
x ¼ R cos y y ¼ R sin y z¼z

Spherical coordinates:

x1 ¼ r x2 ¼ y x3 ¼ o
h1 ¼ 1 h2 ¼ r h3 ¼ r sin y
x ¼ r cos y y ¼ r sin y cos o z ¼ r sin y sin o

FIGURE A.1 Relationship between cartesian coordinates and (a) cylindrical coordi-
nates and (b) spherical coordinates.
498 Appendix A

Vector operations:
In the following let f be any scalar and let a ¼ a1 e1 þ a2 e2 þ a3 e3 be
any vector.

1. Gradient:
1 @f 1 @f 1 @f
=f ¼ e1 þ e2 þ e3
h1 @x1 h2 @x2 h3 @x3

2. Divergence:
 
1 @ @ @
=a¼ ðh2 h3 a1 Þ þ ðh1 h3 a2 Þ þ ðh1 h2 a3 Þ
h1 h2 h3 @x1 @x2 @x3

3. Curl:
 
 h 1 e1 h 2 e2 h3 e3 
1  @ @ @ 
=3a¼  @x3 
h1 h2 h3  @x1 @x2
 h1 a1 h2 a2 h3 a3 
4. Laplacian:

      
1 @ h2 h3 @f @ h3 h1 @f @ h1 h2 @f
=2 f ¼ þ þ
h1 h2 h3 @x1 h1 @x1 @x2 h2 @x2 @x3 h3 @x3
   

1 @ 1 @ h2 @ @
=2 a ¼ ð=  aÞ þ ðh1 a1 Þ  ðh3 a3 Þ
h1 @x1 h2 h3 @x3 h1 h3 @x3 @x1
 

@ h3 @ @
 ðh2 a2 Þ  ðh1 a1 Þ e1
@x2 h1 h2 @x1 @x2
   

1 @ 1 @ h3 @ @
þ ð=  aÞ þ ðh2 a2 Þ  ðh1 a1 Þ
h2 @x2 h1 h3 @x1 h1 h2 @x1 @x2
 

@ h1 @ @
 ðh3 a3 Þ  ðh2 a2 Þ e2
@x3 h2 h3 @x2 @x3
   

1 @ 1 @ h1 @ @
þ ð=  aÞ þ ðh3 a3 Þ  ðh2 a2 Þ
h3 @x3 h1 h2 @x2 h2 h3 @x2 @x3
 

@ h2 @ @
 ðh1 a1 Þ  ðh3 a3 Þ e3
@x1 h1 h3 @x3 @x1
Vector Analysis 499

5. Lagrangian derivative:
   
1 @a1 @a2 @a3 a2 @ @
ða  =Þa ¼ a1 þ a2 þ a3  ðh2 a2 Þ  ðh1 a1 Þ
h1 @x1 @x1 @x1 h2 @x1 @x2
 
 
a3 @ @ 1 @a1 @a2 @a3
þ ðh1 a1 Þ  ðh3 a3 Þ e1 þ a1 þ a2 þ a3
h3 @x3 @x1 h2 @x2 @x2 @x2
   

a3 @ @ a1 @ @
 ðh3 a3 Þ  ðh2 a2 Þ þ ðh2 a2 Þ  ðh1 a1 Þ e2
h3 @x2 @x3 h1 @x1 @x2
   
1 @a1 @a2 @a3 a1 @ @
þ a1 þ a2 þ a3  ðh1 a1 Þ  ðh3 a3 Þ
h3 @x3 @x3 @x3 h1 @x3 @x1
 

a2 @ @
þ ðh3 a3 Þ  ðh2 a2 Þ e3
h2 @x2 @x3
Appendix B
Tensors

In this appendix some of the basic properties of tensors are reviewed.

Although much of the material is general, the discussion is restricted to car-
tesian tensors, since curvilinear tensors are not used in this book.

NOTATION AND DEFINITION

Notation
The following rules of notation will be followed throughout:
1. If a given index appears only once in each term of a tensor equa-
tion, it is a free index and the equation holds for all possible values
of that index.
2. If an index appears twice in any term, it is understood that a sum-
mation is to be made over all possible values of that index.
3. No index may appear more than twice in any term.

De¢nition
A tensor of rank r is a quantity having nr components in n-dimensional
space. The components of a tensor quantity expressed in two di¡erent coor-
dinate system are related as follows:

500
Tensors 501

0
Tijkm ¼ Cis Cjt Cku    Cmv Tstuv
where the quantities Cmn are the direction cosines between the axes of the
two coordinate systems.
A tensor of rank 2 is sometimes called a dyadic, a tensor of rank 1 is a
vector, and a tensor of rank 0 is a scalar.

TENSOR ALGEBRA
Addition
Two tensors of equal rank may be added to yield a third tensor of the same
rank as follow:
Cijk ¼ Aijk þ Bijk

Multiplication
If tensor A has rank a and tensor B has rank b, the multiplication of these
two tensors yields a third one of rank c.
Cijkrst ¼ Aijk Brt

Contraction
If any two indices of a tensor of rank r
2 are set equal, a tensor of rank r  2
is obtained. For example, if Cij is de¢ned by
Cij ¼ Ai Bj

then by setting i ¼ j the tensor Cij , which is of rank 2, becomes a tensor of

rank 0 (i.e., a scalar).
Cii ¼ Ai Bi

Thus contraction is equivalent to taking the scalar product of two vectors in

vector algebra.
Symmetry
If the tensor A has the property that
Aijkl ¼ Aikjl

then the tensor A is said to be symmetric in the indices j and k. As a con-

sequence of the relation above, the tensor has only 12 nðn þ 1Þ independent
components.
502 Appendix B

If the tensor A has the property that

Aijkl ¼ Aikjl

then the tensor A is said to be antisymmetric in the indices j and k. Such ten-
sors have only 12 nðn  1Þ independent components.

TENSOR OPERATIONS
Gradient
The gradient of a tensor of rank r is de¢ned by
@Rijk
Tijkl ¼
@xt

and yields a tensor of rank ðr þ 1Þ

Divergence
The divergence of a tensor of rank r results in a tensor of rank ðr  1Þ.
@Rijklm
Tijlm ¼
@xk

Curl
If R is a tensor of rank r, the curl operation will produce an antisymmetric
tensor of rank ðr þ 1Þ. In general, the operation is de¢ned by
@Rijk @Rilk
Tijkl ¼ 
@xl @xj

In three dimensions, the curl of a tensor of rank 1 (i.e., a vector) may be

written in the form

@Rj
Ti ¼ eijk
@xk

where eijk is a constant pseudoscalar de¢ned by

e123 ¼ e312 ¼ e231 ¼ 1
e213 ¼ e321 ¼ e132 ¼ 1
eijk ¼ 0 otherwise
Tensors 503

ISOTROPIC TENSORS
De¢nition
An isotropic tensor is one whose components are invariant with respect to
all possible rotations of the coordinate system.That is, there are no preferred
directions, and the quantity represented by the tensor is a function of posi-
tion only and not of orientation.

IsotropicTensors of Rank 0
All tensors of rank 0 (i.e., scalars) are isotropic.

IsotropicTensors of Rank 1
There are no isotropic tensors of rank 1. That is, vectors are not isotropic,
since there are preferred directions.

IsotropicTensors of Rank 2
The only isotropic tensors of rank 2 are of the form adij , where a is a scalar
and dij is the Kronecker delta,which has the property that

0 when i 6¼ j
dij ¼
1 when i ¼ j

IsotropicTensors of Rank 3
The isotropic tensors of rank 3 are of the form aeijk , where a is a scalar and
eijk is a pseudoscalar de¢ned underTensor Operations.

IsotropicTensors of Rank 4
The most general isotropic tensor of rank 4 is of the form
adij dpq þ bðdip djq þ diq djp Þ þ gðdip djp  diq djp Þ

Where a; b, and g are scalars.

INTEGRAL THEOREMS
The following two theorems were given in vector form in Appendix A, and
they are reproduced here in tensor form.