SME Annual Meeting
Feb. 24 - 27, 2018, Denver, CO
PREPAREDNESS OF GHANAIAN MINE STAKEHOLDERS FOR THE ADOPTION OF AUTONOMOUS SURFACE MINING
SYSTEMS
B. A. Kansake, Missouri S&T, Rolla, MO
F. A. Kaba, Newmont Golden Ridge Ltd., Akyem, Ghana
N. K. Dumakor-Dupey, Univ. of Mines and Tech., Tarkwa, Ghana
C. K. Arthur, Univ. of Mines and Tech., Tarkwa, Ghana
ABSTRACT
Autonomous mining systems have been deployed for improving
mine performance. However, there is a fear of job losses. Adoption of
autonomous systems is envisaged to be resisted by major
stakeholders in Ghana due to high illiteracy and unemployment. This
paper assesses the preparedness of Ghanaian mining stakeholders for
the adoption of autonomous systems to Ghana’s surface mining
industry. Closed and open-ended questionnaires were administered to
mine stakeholders. Respondents generally expressed unwillingness to
accept autonomous systems into Ghanaian mines due to fear of
increased unemployment. We propose setting up a mining education
fund (MEF) for training stakeholders in autonomous mining systems.
INTRODUCTION
Mining contributes enormously to the sustenance and growth of
global and national economies through the provision of raw materials,
employment, revenues and foreign exchange (Carvalho, 2017; ICMM,
2017; Cordes et al., 2016; Solomon et al., 2008; Walser, 2000). The
International Council on Mining & Metals (ICMM, 2014) reported that
globally, formal mining employs approximately 2.5 million people.
Many resource-rich countries, especially the developing ones, have
experienced strong socioeconomic growth propelled by the discovery
and extraction of valuable minerals. McMahon and Moreira (2014)
reported a positive linkage between mining and sustainable
development. They revealed that averagely, resource-rich countries
have improved Human Development Index (HDI) scores than countries
without mineral resources.
Mining remains a crucial industry in Ghana’s economic
development (Bermúdez-Lugo, 2016; Amponsah-Tawiah and Dartey-
Baah, 2011). Over the years, mining has contributed significantly to the
gross domestic product (GDP) of Ghana. In 2013, mining accounted
for 1.7% of Ghana’s GDP and about 19% of government revenues
(Ghana Chamber of Mines, 2015). The Ghana Chamber of Mines also
reported that mining contributed over 50% of foreign direct investment,
37% of export earnings and 1.1% of direct employment revenues.
The US Department of Energy (DOE) estimates that 65% of coal,
92% of metals and 96% of industrial minerals are mined using surface
mining methods (DOE, 2007). Generally, mining is a capital-intensive
venture, with high operating cost, hence there is a constant demand for
mining companies to seek efficient cost reduction and production
maximization strategies. One strategy being pursued keenly is
automation, which is noted to improve productivity, and worker safety
at minimal cost. According to Parreira (2013), mining automation
involves direct teleoperation whereby workers remotely control the
mining process using computers from a control room.
Surface mining environments are inherently dangerous due to
their rugged and complex geometries. Mining is reported to have the
second highest fatality rate among the private sector of the US (Poplin
et al., 2008). Fatal injuries for mine workers averaged 7 to 10 times
compared to the average worker in the US, Australia and New Zealand
(Feyer et al., 2001). Human involvement has been identified as a major
cause of surface mine accidents. According to Patterson and Shappell
1 Copyright © 2019 by SME
Preprint 19-009
(2010), 85% of all mining accidents are caused by human errors. This
makes human involvement in the mining process a serious safety
threat (Horberry et al., 2011). These accidents, aside from causing
pain and suffering, also have serious financial implications due to
medical cost and productivity losses (Lenné et al., 2012). Accidents
can also dent the image of mining companies, which can have
devastating impacts on social license to operate. Thus, surface mine
automation, which replaces humans with autonomous systems,
presents a better alternative to safe surface mining operations
(Bellamy and Pravica, 2011; Nebot, 2007).
Mine automation can significantly reduce operations cost through
savings in labor costs, improved safety and fuel efficiency (Bellamy
and Pravica, 2011). Mine productivity can also be increased through
increased equipment availability and utilization, and improved tire life.
Parreira (2013) showed that autonomous trucks reduced fuel
consumption by 5.3%, tire wear by 7.6%, queuing time by 28.7%, and
improves productivity by 21.3%. Production time losses due to shift
changes, lunch breaks, operator convenience, and other human
activities are eliminated through automation. Human involvement in
mining also introduces great variability in the production cycle. This is
because operator performance is dependent on individual skills, stress
level, training, motivation, concentration, and chemical influences.
Thus, it is difficult for operators to attain maximum efficiency (Parreira
et al., 2012). Additionally, mining workforce annual turnover rate is
alarming, averaging 40%. This necessitates expensive training
programs for new employees (Meech and Parreira, 2011). Adoption of
autonomous mining systems (AMS) becomes inevitable in all these
conditions. Thus, it is expected that AMS will eventually be introduced
into the Ghanaian surface mining industry, as has happened in other
countries where mining takes place.
Bellamy and Pravica (2011) noted that the mining industry has
been lagging in the application of technology compared to other
industries like manufacturing or computing. This could be attributed to
the lead time (usually 7 – 10 years) required to develop and
commercialize new equipment in mining (Bellamy and Pravica, 2011;
Bartos, 2007). However, since the 1960s, there has been exponential
progress in automation of mining systems. Chronologically, mine
automation progress can be categorized into three stages. Stage one
saw the deployment of the first unmanned mining rail carriages at
General Blumenthal mine, Germany, in 1967, followed by the
introduction of remote-controlled underground machines in the mid-
1970s and remote operation load and haul machines for surface mines
in the mid-1990s (Konyukh, 2002). Currently, some major mining
processes including drilling, excavation, hauling, crushing and milling,
are being handled from centralized locations without significant human
involvement (Petty, 2017; Volk, 2016; Sahu et al., 2015; Bergh and
Yianatos, 2014; Parreira, 2013). Examples of mine autonomous
systems presently in use are autonomous haulage system (AHS),
teleoperated drill and blast systems and automated logistics
applications. The reception for these smart systems from both
equipment manufacturers and mining companies has been
phenomenal. It is envisaged that the mine-of-the-future will have no
human presence in the mining area, replacing all manual activities with
autonomous systems

Autonomous mining systems have gained prominence in
countries like Australia, USA, Canada, China, and Chile. Presently,
Australia is leading with the deployment of Autonomous Haulage
System (AHS) and Autonomous Drill Systems (ADS) in some
operating mines. Currently, six AHSs are operating; five in Pilbara
region of Western Australia and one at Gabriela Mistral mine, Chile
(Price, 2017). Aside from these six commercial-scale AHSs, trials are
ongoing in several mines on a smaller scale. Price (2017) showed
improvement in productivity and tire life, with reduced maintenance
cost, due to the implementation of AMS.
Despite the great improvements that mine automation presents,
industry stakeholders are concerned about looming massive job losses
as many operations which are currently manual, will be automated.
McNab et al. (2013) suggested that adopting a fully autonomous
mining system “would reduce the workforce of a typical open-cut, iron
ore mine by approximately 30 to 40 percent.” A recent report by the
International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) estimated
that more than 50% of mining jobs may be lost to automation by the
next decade (Cosbey et al., 2016). This estimate is not based on future
technologies (which aim at fully autonomous systems with very
minimal human involvement), but on automated equipment being
deployed today (Thibodeau, 2016). Unskilled and lesser-skilled
employees, like equipment operators, would be the most affected.
Demand for highly skilled Information Technology (IT) professionals
will increase, but fewer than those who will be displaced. Mine
automation is expected to severely impact employment in resource-
rich countries. Consequently, GDP growth of resource-rich developing
countries could reduce by 4% (Cosbey et al, 2016). For instance, it is
predicted that by 2030, about 5 million jobs are likely to be automated
in Australia (Taylor, 2015).
Similar trends are expected in Ghana where mining generates
significant employment in mining communities. Unemployment is
already a topical issue in Ghana and previous job cut attempts by
mining companies have been met with fierce resistance from mine
workers, host communities and national workers’ unions. The Ghana
Labour Force Survey estimated the unemployment rate to be 9.1% of
Ghanaians of working age (Ghana Statistical Service, 2016). Also, the
country’s educational system is not IT-inclined. Thus, many
Ghanaians, especially the unskilled labor force, are unlikely to have
requisite skills to be employed when autonomous mining systems are
adopted. Employment data from the Ghana Chamber of Mines (Ghana
Chamber of Mines, 2018) shows that averagely 10,344 Ghanaians are
directly employed in member companies and about 196, 536 are
estimated to be indirectly employed. It is also likely that mining
companies will rely on expatriate employees at least for the initial years
of operating autonomous systems in Ghana.
The introduction of autonomous mining systems to the Ghanaian
mining industry is expected to be met with resistance from
mineworkers’ unions, government, and local communities. Presently,
there is no literature on awareness level of Ghanaian mining sector
stakeholders about autonomous mining systems, their applications,
and preparedness of stakeholders for the adoption of such systems to
the Ghanaian mining environment. Thus, this study seeks to establish
the knowledge levels of Ghanaian mine workers on autonomous
mining systems and assess their preparedness for the adoption of
such systems to the Ghanaian surface mining industry. The ultimate
objective is to establish the impact of the adoption of autonomous
surface mining systems to Ghana. Findings from this study will inform
mine owners, senior management and government of expectations of
the Ghanaian mine workers and form a basis for policy and strategies
for adopting autonomous surface mining systems into the Ghanaian
environment.
Data was gathered using closed and open-ended questionnaires
distributed via social media platforms and hard copies. Purposive
sampling was used with respondents made of mine workers, students,
and faculty in mining and allied programs. Responses were analyzed
using summary statistics and thematic analysis. The paper discusses
the methodology in section 2 and presents the results of the study in
section 3. Section 4 contains the discussion of the results, while
section 5 outlines ways to fill the knowledge gap on autonomous
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mining systems. Section 6 summarizes the study by presenting the
conclusions and recommendations.
METHODOLOGY
Data Collection
Data for this research was acquired using mixed questionnaire
consisting of open-ended and closed-ended questions. The
questionnaire was divided into three sections covering respondents’
demographics, their knowledge of autonomous mining systems and
preparedness for the adoption of such systems into the Ghanaian
surface mining industry. Data were collected from March to April 2018.
The questionnaire was generally distributed in electronic format
(Google forms) via emails, social media (Facebook, WhatsApp, and
Facebook Messenger) and professional network (LinkedIn), with a few
administered in hard copies. Electronic media was relied upon
because it is less expensive and allows a wider audience to be
reached within a shorter period. Google forms also make data
compilation easier and minimize the risk of data entry errors. Purposive
sampling was used with the target audience consisting of mine workers
of varying educational backgrounds, students and faculty in mining and
allied programmes in Ghanaian tertiary institutions.
Respondents’ Demographics
The research was targeted at key stakeholders of the Ghanaian
large-scale surface mines. It involved students and graduates of
mining and allied disciplines, teaching faculty in mining-related
university departments and mine workers (in the surface mining
sector). Workers of contractors to the traditional mining companies
also took part in the survey. A sample size of 170 was used. This
represented the number of responses received from questionnaires
distributed and those that were administered in hardcopy.
The survey involved workers from all the major large-scale
surface mining companies in Ghana including Goldfields Ghana
Limited (GFGL, Tarkwa and Damang), AngloGold Ashanti Iduapriem
Limited (AAIL), Newmont Gold Ghana Limited (NGGL, Akyem and
Ahafo), Golden Star Resources (GSR), Endeavour Mining (Adamus
Resources Limited, ARL), Ghana Manganese Company Limited
(GMC), Ghana Bauxite Company Limited (GBCL) and Perseus Mining
Ghana Limited (PMGL). Workers from major contractor companies
including African Mining Services, Orica Mining Services, Maxam
Ghana Limited (MGL), Engineers and Planners (E&P), African
Explosives Limited (AEL) and Rocksure International also took part in
the survey. This made the survey a good representation of the
Ghanaian large-scale surface mining sector. Participants were also
drawn from the only mining university in Ghana, University of Mines
and Technology (UMaT), and other tertiary educational institutions that
offer mining-related engineering programmes.
The survey also covered a wide range of professionals including
mining engineers, metallurgists/mineral engineers,
geologists/geological/geotechnical engineers, surveyors/geomatic
engineers, dispatch controllers, equipment operators, blasting crews,
supervisors, managers, academic faculty and students. These
professionals had varying educational backgrounds from “below
bachelor’s” (junior and senior high school graduates, Diploma/Higher
National Diploma graduates and those without formal education) to
graduate degrees. Also, the respondents included both males and
females, with ages ranging from less than 30 to greater than 40 years.
These comprehensive demographics of the respondents was to ensure
a good representation of employees and potential employees of the
Ghanaian mining industry. Summary of the respondents’
demographics is provided in Figures 1 to 5.
Majority of the respondents were males (82%) below 30 years
(68%) who had bachelor’s degrees (69%), as shown in Figures 1 to 3.
Clearly, the Ghanaian mining sector is male-dominated, with a young
workforce. Also, there is a good representation of the respondents
among the companies and contractors across the Ghanaian surface
mining sector (see Figure 4). Figure 5 shows the distribution of various
professions that took part in the survey. Miners (mining engineers,
blasting crew, drillers and equipment operators) contributed the largest
proportion of participants.

Figure 1. Gender of Respondents.
Figure 2. Age Distribution of Respondents.
Figure 3. Educational Level of Respondents.
RESULTS
Awareness of Autonomous Mining Systems
The questionnaire developed sought to establish respondents’
knowledge of existing autonomous systems used in mining. Majority of
the respondents had knowledge of autonomous mining systems (AMS)
such as autonomous haul trucks, autonomous excavators,
autonomous drills, and semi-autonomous mobile manufacturing units
(MMUs). Respondents also had knowledge of autonomous
survey/monitoring systems (ASMS) such as drones and robotic total
station (RTS), and autonomous processing systems (APS) such as the
automated addition of cyanide during leaching. Eighty-eight percent
(88% as shown in Figure 6) had knowledge of autonomous systems
used in mining. Of this number, 36.84% expressed knowledge of
autonomous mining systems (AMS), 27.63% expressed knowledge of
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autonomous survey/monitoring systems (ASMS) while 34.87% had
knowledge of multiple autonomous systems used in mining (see Figure
8). A meager 0.66% had knowledge of autonomous processing
systems (APS). Respondents generally obtained information about
autonomous systems from international media, school courses, social
media, professional networks, workplace, online/television
documentaries, and local media. Majority of the respondents obtained
information about these systems from social media and international
media.
Figure 4. Workplaces/Companies of Respondents.
Figure 5. Distribution of Respondents’ Professional Background.
The questionnaire also sought to establish if respondents had
university/school courses that were directly related to autonomous
systems or if information about such systems were contained in course
contents of university curricula. Seventy-one percent (71%) of the
respondents indicated that none of their university courses had content
related to autonomous mining systems (see Figure 7). Less than 30%
of the respondents indicated that they had courses that contained
information about autonomous systems in mining.
Preparedness for Adoption of Autonomous Systems
Ninety-seven percent (97%) of the respondents believed that
autonomous systems will be adopted to the Ghanaian surface mining
industry (Figure 9). Almost 45% of this number expect autonomous
systems to be introduced into the Ghanaian surface mining industry
after 10 years from now, while about 40% expect these systems to be
introduced between 5 to 10 years. The remaining 15% anticipate
autonomous systems to be adopted in less than 5 years (see Figure
10).
Though almost all respondents believed that autonomous
systems will be adopted to the Ghanaian surface mining industry, only
45% indicated a willingness to vote in favor of the adoption of such
systems. The others are either neutral (18%) or will vote against (37%)
the adoption of such systems (see Figure 11). Those who voted for the
adoption of autonomous systems cited reasons such as improved
safety and productivity, and reduced operations cost for their choice,
while those who voted against cited reasons of job losses/increased

unemployment, lack of local expertise, frequent network failures of the
systems and low educational levels of local employees. Particularly, a
respondent indicated that autonomous systems present complexities
which are beyond the capabilities of most local equipment operators
and maintenance experts. The respondent indicates that local experts
will have difficulty understanding the operations of such systems and
will be unable to adequately maintain them. This might result in the
unoptimized use of the autonomous systems.
Figure 6. Respondents’ Awareness of AMS.
Figure 7. University Courses Related to AMS.
Figure 8. Respondents’ Knowledge of Autonomous Systems.
Fifty-one percent (51%) of the respondents believed they have
the requisite skills to work with autonomous systems. The rest were
either unsure (22%) or believed they did not have the required skills
(27%) to work with autonomous systems (Figure 12). Majority of the
respondents (67%) who believed their skills were not sufficient for
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autonomous systems expressed their readiness to get training that can
help them acquire the necessary skills. The others said they will either
stop work and do private business (7%) or change their profession
(9%) as shown in Figure 13. While people may be willing to get training
to improve their skills, 46% of the respondents said they did not believe
that institutions in Ghana can offer the required training. Thirty percent
(30%) believed Ghanaian institutions can offer the required training,
while 19% were not sure if Ghanaian institutions had the capacity to
offer such training (Figure 14).
Figure 9. Possibility of Adopting AMS.
Figure 10. Expected Time to Adoption of AMS.
Figure 11. Willingness to Accept Autonomous Systems.
Further, Figure 15 shows that 60% of the respondents indicated
that Ghanaian institutions were not well equipped and did not have the
required courses to fill the knowledge gap of mine workers and

potential employees to enable them to work with autonomous systems.
Only 24% of the participants believed that Ghanaian institutions had
the right courses that can fill the knowledge gap, while 16% were
uncertain.
Figure 12. Respondents Skills for AMS.
Figure 13. Alternatives for Respondents without Skills.
Government Willingness to Accept Autonomous systems
The study also sought to establish people’s expectations in terms
of government’s willingness to accept autonomous systems into
Ghanaian surface mining industry. As seen in Figure 16, 27% of the
respondents said the government will be willing to accept autonomous
systems into the surface mining industry in Ghana, while 34% believed
the government will not accept such systems. The remaining 39%
were unsure. Those who believe the government will reject such
systems cited massive job losses, increased crime rate resulting from
unemployment and labor unrests as reasons for which the government
will be reluctant to accept such systems. They also think this might
lead to loss of election for the ruling government. On the contrary,
those who believe the government will accept such systems indicated
that the government will have no option since automation will be a
widely used tool globally. They also cited reasons such as increased
productivity and profitability, resulting in higher taxes, dividends and
other benefits to the government.
Figure 14. Institutions in Ghana for Training.
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Figure 15. Adequate Course Content and Facilities.
Figure 16. Government Willingness to Accept Autonomous Systems.
Implications of Adopting Autonomous Systems in Ghana
Seventy-eight percent (78%) of the respondents envisaged that
the adoption of autonomous systems into the Ghanaian surface mining
industry will have adverse effects, while the others think otherwise. Out
of this number, 95% cited unemployment as the main adverse effect
that will result from the implementation of autonomous systems (Figure
17). Other adverse effects cited include increased maintenance cost
and frequent equipment breakdowns due to inadequate understanding
of equipment functionalities. With a high rate of unemployment
already, the adoption of autonomous systems might be met with
resistance from employees, potential employees, community
members, and even the government.
Skills required to work with Autonomous systems
The study also tested whether respondents knew what skill sets
are required in autonomous mining operations. Using thematic
analysis, the responses on the required skill sets can generally be
grouped into the following themes: technical, information technology
(IT), robotics/mechatronics, advanced computing, process control, and
instrumentation and network engineering. Technical skills generally
refer to core mining technical knowledge such as exploration,
surveying, mine planning, and design, geotechnical, drilling and
blasting, material handling (loading and haulage) and mineral
processing/metallurgy. IT skills refer to general knowledge of working
with computers and knowledge of basic software such as Microsoft
Office Suite. Advanced computing skills include skills in computer
programming, machine learning, artificial intelligence and simulation of
mining systems using computers. These skills are known to be crucial
for several components of autonomous mining systems.
DISCUSSION
Analysis of the data shows that majority of the respondents
(miners, students, and faculty) have knowledge of several autonomous
systems currently employed in mining. Majority of the respondents
acquired their knowledge from international and social media, with
many stating that their university courses did not contain information
about autonomous systems employed in mining. Respondents
believed that autonomous systems would be adopted into Ghanaian
surface mines, with majority predicting this to occur after 10 years from

now. Given that there are currently no major autonomous systems in
Ghanaian surface mines, we anticipate that the period from testing of
these machines to full adoption could be long and hence it would take
an appreciably long period (probably 10 years or more) for
autonomous systems to get adopted into Ghanaian surface mines.
Figure 17. Adverse effects of Autonomous Systems in Ghanaian
Surface Mines.
Though respondents agreed that autonomous systems will be
adopted to Ghanaian mines, only 45% expressed willingness to vote
for such systems to be adopted. This implies that the adoption of
autonomous systems would be met with resistance from a greater
percentage of employees, potential employees and residents of host
communities. This figure could get even lower if local community
residents and more unskilled labor force of the mining industry are
included in the study. These cohorts generally have lower skill sets
(mostly equipment operators and other manual jobs) and their jobs
would likely be automated, with no alternative skills to remain
employed in the mining sector. This can further increase the resistance
to implementation of autonomous systems in Ghana.
As shown in Figure 17, most of the respondents indicated that the
adoption of autonomous systems will cause increased unemployment
in a country with the already high unemployment rate. Respondents
also indicated that institutions in Ghana are currently ill-equipped to
train the required manpower for autonomous systems in mining. This
concern is similar to the findings of Oshokoya and Tetteh (2018). This
could further increase resistance to adoption, as many who will be
willing to upgrade their skills may not have avenues to do so. Due to
the possibility of increased unemployment, the government might also
be reluctant in allowing the adoption of autonomous systems.
Currently, redundancy exercises in Ghanaian mines have mostly been
chaotic due to non-availability of alternative livelihoods for affected
workers. The case of the adoption of autonomous systems might not
be different. Given the apathy of employees and potential employees
towards autonomous systems, as exhibited through the responses,
there is the need for sensitization of employees, students and public on
the need for such systems before adopting them. The transition could
also be less chaotic if companies sponsor training programmes for
young employees to acquire the needed skills to remain employed.
Other sustainable livelihoods projects could be planned by engaging
the communities and employees who will be affected by the adoption
of such systems.
Respondents showed knowledge of some of the skills required in
autonomous operations. However, they generally had no full grasp of
required skills. In addition to the skills listed by the respondents, skills
in advanced analytics and big data, database management,
augmented visualization and virtual reality, communication networks,
and leadership and partnership are critical in autonomous operations.
Generally, resources for acquiring such high-level computing skills are
lacking in most tertiary institutions in Ghana. Analysis of the required
skills vis-à-vis the mining program curriculum of the only mining
university in Ghana (UMaT) showed the inadequacy of the program to
meet the skill set demands of autonomous mining systems. Though
the program has been reviewed to meet the current needs of the
industry, it still lags in terms of autonomous operations. The school
also has inadequate resources to offer the needed courses to meet
future industry needs of autonomous operations. This creates a
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knowledge gap, leading to the inadequacy of local labor to man the
systems, with resultant impacts on both the community and the mining
companies.
Filling the Knowledge Gap for Successful Adoption
Oshokoya and Tetteh (2018) analyzed mining curricula of mining
institutions in Africa and indicated that most of them, including that of
Ghana, are not well equipped to train mining professionals who can
handle the challenges of an automated mine. Further analysis as
presented in previous sections of this paper confirms such findings.
Institutions require experimental mines, modern research laboratories,
and simulation centers, modern computer laboratories equipped with
relevant software, and other facilities that address the needs of the
future mining environment. Most of these facilities are lacking in Ghana
mining-related institutions. Such facilities are generally expensive and
require collaboration between educational institutions, government and
mining companies to fund such initiatives. This paper proposes the
setting up of a Mining Education Fund (MEF) to facilitate the upgrading
of facilities of mining and allied programmes in Ghana to be able to
train the required labor force for autonomous operations. We propose
the following strategies for funding the MEF:
i. The government should allocate a percentage of the annual
mineral benefits to fund the MEF. The government of Ghana
obtains benefits from the minerals and mining sector through
taxes, royalties, property rates and free carried 10%
shareholding in mining businesses. Currently, 5% of the
Mineral Development Fund is allocated for education and
research. This may be very inadequate to fund the creation
of all the necessary facilities, within the limited timeframe, for
training adequate manpower for autonomous mining
systems. Increasing this amount and dedicating it solely to
the MEF, could speed up the preparedness of institutions for
providing adequate training in such advanced mining
systems. The timely allocation of the funds is also critical for
ensuring institutional readiness for autonomous mining
systems. The MEF should be used for building ultra-modern
research laboratories and simulation centers, training
existing faculty on key areas of autonomous mining systems
and building ultra-modern computer laboratories (similar to
control rooms in automated mines), equipped with
appropriate software, for training students and industry
personnel. The MEF should also be used to fund innovative
research that seeks to develop and improve autonomous
mining systems.
ii. Mining companies and their contractors could also contribute
a percentage of their annual revenues to the MEF.
Companies also need to begin to invest in their young
employees and students by sponsoring them for relevant
short courses, seminars, conferences, and workshops that
expose them to autonomous mining systems. They can also
donate obsolete equipment for the experimental mine and
help procure dummy equipment for mining institutions to aid
in teaching and research.
In addition to the MEF, mining institutions need to modify their
curricula to include courses that equip students with key focus areas
for autonomous systems. They should also focus more research efforts
into the development, improvement, and application of autonomous
mining systems. In return for the investment of mining companies,
mining institutions should run short courses, workshops, conferences
and other refresher courses for employees of the mining companies.
Also, the government should allocate land for the setting up of an
experimental mine for educational purposes. Old and abandoned
mines could be redeveloped to be used as experimental mines.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This paper studied the knowledge level of mine workers, students,
and faculty on autonomous systems employed in surface mining and
assesses their preparedness for the implementation of such systems in
Ghanaian surface mines. Respondents generally had knowledge of
autonomous systems used in mining but mostly indicated
unpreparedness for their adoption to Ghanaian mines. Though almost

all respondents believed autonomous systems will be adopted to
Ghanaian surface mines, less than 50% indicated acceptance of the
systems. This gives an indication that the adoption of autonomous
systems will be met with resistance from key stakeholders. The main
concern of respondents is the increased unemployment that will result
from the adoption of autonomous systems vis-à-vis the
unpreparedness of Ghanaian institutions to train people with the
requisite skills. To curtail this, we propose equipping institutions that
offer mining-related programs with state-of-the-art teaching and
research facilities such as automation and computer laboratories,
simulation centers and experimental mines to aid training of students
and mine workers for such high-level skills. Funding for such facilities
could come from government, mining companies and their contractors.
The government could set up a mining education fund (MEF) using a
percentage of the annual mineral benefits gathered through taxes,
royalties and property rates. Companies could contribute a percentage
of their annual revenues to the MEF.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful to all the respondents for their invaluable
contribution to this study.
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Feb. 24 - 27, 2018, Denver, CO
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