Construction PDF

Engineer Class 3 /
Engineer Watchkeeper
SPC 095
Naval Architecture and Ship
Construction
Learner’s Guide
Regional Maritime Programme

Secretariat of the Pacific Community
Private Mail Bag
Suva, Fiji
.
Engineer 3 / Engineer
Watchkeeper
SPC 095
Naval Architecture and
Ship Construction
Learner’s Guide
Regional Maritime Programme

Private Mail Bag
Suva, Fiji
SPC 095 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 3)

©
Copyright Secretariat of the Pacific Community 1998
All rights reserved. This work is copyright but permission is given to trainers and teachers to make copies
by photocopying or other duplicating processes, for use within their educational institution. This permission
does not extend to the making of copies for use outside the institution in which they are made, or to the
making of copies for hire or resale.
First printed, April 1998
Original text: English
‘Pacific Community’ is the new name of the South Pacific Commission (SPC). The new name became
official on 6 February 1998, in commemoration of the 51st anniversary of the 1947 Canberra Agreement,
which originally established the SPC.
The change of name does not alter all the established SPC acronyms, but their meanings are modified.
‘Pacific Community’ applies to the total organisation, i.e., the member governments, the Conference, the
CRGA and the Secretariat. ‘Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC)’ refers to those who provide the
service to members of the Community.

Private Mail Bag
Suva, Fiji
Telephone: (679) 370 733
Facsimile: (679) 370 021
E:mail: IniseR@spc.org.fj
Web site: http://www.spc.org.nc/
The resource and material were prepared by the Australian Maritime College Search Ltd
with financial assistance of the New Zealand Government.
Authors: Dr Seref Asku and Tony Boyle, Australian Maritime College
Editor: Dev Ranmuthugala, Australian Maritime College
Note: Some copyright clearances are pending.

Contents
Page No
Introduction 1
Introduction to Learner’s Guide 1
Nominal Duration 1
Prerequisites 1
Target Audience 1
Required Resources 2
Advice to Learner 3
What is a Learner’s Guide 3
How to Use the Learner’s Guide 3
Description of Icons 5
Module Objectives 5
Module Purpose 5
Learning Outcomes 5
Assessment 6
Assessment Criteria and Conditions 6
Assessment Methods 6
Section 1: Definition of the Hull Geometry 7

Learning Outcome 1 9
Assessment Criteria 9
Conditions 9
Section Introduction 9
1. Revision 10
2. Form Coefficients 11
3. Tonne per Centimeter Immersion (TPC) 18
4. Change in Draft Due to Change in Fluid
Density 20
5. Wetted Surface Area (S) 23
6. Approximate Integration Methods 25
Section Summary 35
Progress Check 1 35
SPC 095 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 3) i

Section 2: Hydrostatic Pressure 37
Conditions 39
1. Pressure Exerted by a Liquid 40
2. Load on a Surface 42
3. Centre of Area (Centroid) 46
4. Centre of Pressure (CP) 55
Section Summary 60
Progress Check 2 60
Section 3: Stability 63
Conditions 65
1. Stability Terms 67
2. Statical Stability 71
3. Effects of Adding, Removing, and Shifting
Weights on Stability 74
4. Inclining Experiment 81
5. Effects of Slack Tanks on Stability 85
6. Effects of Bilging 89
7. Load Lines 92
Section Summary 96
Progress Check 3 96
Section 4: Trim 99
Conditions 101
1. Trim 102
2. Trim Due to Shifting Weights 103
3. Trim Due to Adding/Removing Weights 107
4. Other Effects on Trim 112
Section Summary 114
Progress Check 4 114
ii SPC 095 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 3)

Section 5: Resistance and Propulsion 115
Conditions 117
1. Resistance 118
2. Model Experiments 121
3. Admiralty Coefficient 127
4. Propellers 129
5. Apparent Slip, Real Slip and Wake 131
6. Relationships between Powers 134
Section Summary 138
Section 6: Ship Stresses 141

Conditions 143
Section introduction 144
1. Longitudinal Stresses 145
2. Transverse Stresses 150
3. Localised Stresses 152
Section Summary 157
Section 7: Vessel Structure 159

Conditions 161
1. Shell Plating, Decks & Framing 163
2. Keels & Centre Girders 172
3. Double Bottom Structure 174
4. Subdivision 177
5. Fore End Construction 186
6. Aft End Structure 189
Section Summary 194
SPC 095 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 3) iii

Section 8: Specialised Structures 195
Conditions 197
1. General Cargo Vessels 199
2. Container Vessels 200
3. Bulk Carriers 203
4. Ro-Ro Vessels 205
5. Tankers 207
6. Offshore Vessels 211
Section Summary 214
Feedback 215
Feedback to Activities 215
Feedback to Progress Checks 219
References 222
Acknowledgment 222
Appendix 223
Appendix 1: Dimensions and Terminology 223
iv SPC 095 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 3)

Introduction
Introduction to Learner’s Guide
The information in the module will provide you with the knowledge and skills required to
carry out basic calculations during the operation of your vessel. This includes calculating
the vessel’s fuel requirements to ensure that the vessel has sufficient fuel before sailing.
The module also introduces you to calculating the area, volume, and mass required for
capacity and stability estimations.
Your learner’s guide is structured to take you logically through each section. Read the
section ‘Advice to Learner’ to plan and direct your studies.
If you need more information on the topics covered in the learner’s guide, refer to the book
list under ‘References’ and ask your instructor for advise.
Nominal Duration
50 hours.
Prerequisites
Target Audience
This module has been designed for mariners involved in the operation and maintenance
of marine machinery, who wish to attain competence in ship terminology, stability
requirements, and structures of merchant and fishing vessels. It introduces the vessel’s
stability and structural layout/construction.
The module forms part of the South Pacific Commission, Engineer Class 3 and Engineer
Watchkeeper Certificates.
SPC 095 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 3) 1

Required Resources
Access to:
• scientific calculator
• appropriate vessels and models
• vessel’s machinery space
• vessel’s propulsion plant
• machinery components, structural members, and appropriate models
• drawing instruments
• insulation material
• vessel drawings and sketches
• vessel’s stability information
• shapes representing typical areas and volumes, (bulkheads, deck space, cargo, tanks,
hull cross sectional area, waterplane area, etc)
• vessel bulkhead, deck and tank dimensions
• information on liquids carried on board
• box barges and/or models
• small vessel and/or vessel models to explain vessel stability
• vessel loading and unloading information
• small vessel and gear required to carry out an inclination experiment
• information on vessel propeller, slip, power, etc.
• typical model test data
• vessel resistance information
• vessel Admiralty coefficient
• information on vessel’s construction
• vessels in drydock and/or slip
• vessels under repair
• vessels under construction
• models of vessel structures
• vessels and models should include: general cargo vessels, bulk carriers, container
vessels, ro-ro vessels, tankers, LNG/LPG carriers, chemical carriers, offshore vessels,
tugs, catamarans, etc.
• statutory regulations governing vessel stability and construction
• access to load line requirements and IMO stability requirements
• tools and safety gear.
2 SPC 095 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 3)

Advice to Learner
What is a Learner’s Guide
The focus of the learner’s guide is to provide you with all the information and activities
required to achieve the competencies stated in the learning outcomes of the module.
The learner’s guide is comprehensive and is the main learning resource of the modularised
package. However, you may at times need to refer to other resources and get assistance
from your instructor.
How to Use the Learner’s Guide

We suggest that you follow these steps in studying the learner’s guide.
Step 1
Study the learning outcomes and assessment criteria. This will help you identify what
competencies are required and assess your current level of competence in each learning
outcome.
Step 2
Commencing from the first section, study the learner’s guide and complete each activity at
the appropriate time. Feedback on the activities are given at the end of the learner’s guide.
Step 3
Complete the “Progress Check” at the end of each section and check your answers against
the feedback given at the end of the learner’s guide. This will enable you to assess if you
have attained the competence stated for the learning outcome(s) of that section. If you do
not do well in the progress check, study the section again.
General
As module SPC 075 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 4)is a pre-requisite for
this module, it is assumed that you are familiar with the fundamental concepts dealt in that
module. If you do have difficulty in dealing with the basic concepts, it is advisable for you
to revise them using the Learner’s Guide for SPC 075 Naval Architecture and Ship
Construction (Eng 4)
Make sure you complete each of the activities at the appropriate time, as they will help you
achieve the required competence. If required, you should obtain assistance from your
instructor during the study period and while carrying out activities.
When dealing with activities and questions involving calculations, we advise that you first
write down the information from the question on to your answer sheet. This gives you a
clearer ‘picture’ of the question, and helps you in sorting and using the information.

It is also recommended that all calculations are carried out in base units, as it will reduce
the possibility of errors due to the use of inappropriate units. To assist in this process,
always write down the information in base units.
Producing a sketch to represent the configuration or situation will give you a better
understanding of the problem, thus assisting you in solving it.
Solving questions involving calculations
1. Write down the information given, in base units.

2. Draw a sketch.
3. Write down what must be found.
4. Write down the formulae to be used.
5. Insert the relevant values into the formulae.
6. Perform the necessary calculations to solve the problem.
In addition:
• Show all your working so that your instructor will be able to follow it and help
you with any difficulties.
• Always remember to include the units of the properties that you are working
with.
• Convert units to basic units to avoid confusion.
• It is also very important to keep your working neat!
It is also recommended that you use an appropriate scientific calculator for all calculations.
This will reduce the chance of calculation errors in your answers.
Learner’s with Advance Knowledge

If you think that you already posses some or all of the competencies of the module, you
can assess this in the following manner.
• Read the learning outcomes and assessment criteria in each section.

• Identify the learning outcomes and assessment criteria that reflect the
competencies you may already have.
• Identify the sections that consist of these learning outcomes and assessment
criteria.
• Complete the ‘Progress Check’ in these relevant sections and check your answers
against those provided at the end of the learner’s guide.
• If you are successful, your have the competencies required for that section. You
can then go on to the next section.
Remember, this learner’s guide has been developed in a logical sequence. Therefore, you
may have difficulty in completing the later sections, if you do not have the competencies
of the previous sections.

Description of Icons
The icons shown below are located in the left margin of the learner’s guide. They advise
you on actions that are required and notices that you need to heed, during various stages of
your study.
Check your Progress icon Check Text icon
Caution/Beware icon Tips icon
Activity icon Key Point icon
Module Objectives
Module Purpose
To provide the learner with the knowledge and skills required to:
• Explain the basic principles involved in vessel form definition.
• Calculate the loading on structures due to liquid depths.
• Carry out basic stability calculations and assess the stability of the vessel.
• Calculate the basic ship resistance and propulsion requirements.
• Manage structural related requirements to maintain seaworthiness of a vessel.
Learning Outcomes
On completion of this module the learner will be able to:
• Determine the basic principles involved in vessel form and dimensions.
• Determine the change of hydrostatic pressure with liquid depth and the resulting
loading on structures.
• Carry out basic stability calculations and assess the stability of vessels.
• Carry out basic trim calculations and assess the trim and draft of the vessel.
• Determine the fundamental principles of ship resistance and propulsion requirements
on vessels.
• Identify and minimise the stresses acting on the vessel structure.
• Manage the survey and maintenance of major structural components of vessels.
• Manage the survey and maintenance of special structural requirements and
arrangements on various vessel types.

Assessment
Assessment Criteria and Conditions
Assessment criteria and conditions for each of the learning outcomes are given in the
relevant sections of this learner’s guide.
Learning and assessments will take place in a combination of classroom; laboratories;

appropriate vessels; and other suitable study environments.
Assessment Methods
To successfully pass this module, you must complete all events so you can be assessed:
competent / not yet competent.
The learning outcomes may be assessed through a combination of:

• written assessment
• calculations
• assignments
• oral assessment
• practical assessment

Section 1 Definition of the Hull Geometry
Section 1
Definition of the Hull

Geometry

Section Contents Page
Section 1: Definition of the Hull Geometry

Conditions 9
1. Revision 10
2. Form Coefficients 11
3. Tonne per Centimeter Immersion (TPC) 18
4. Change in Draft Due to Change in Fluid

Density 20
5. Wetted Surface Area (S) 23
6. Approximate Integration Methods 25
Section Summary 35
Progress Check 1 35

Learning Outcome 1
On completion of this section you will be able to determine the basic principles
involved in vessel form and dimensions..
Assessment Criteria
• The form coefficients and their relationships are established and related
problems solved.
• Approximate integration methods are explained.
• Using Simpson’s rules, typical shipboard areas, volumes, and displacement
are calculated.
• TPC is defined and related problems, involving waterplane area, draft
changes, and displacement, are solved.
Conditions
Learning and assessment will take place in a classroom and other suitable
study environments.
The learning outcome may be assessed on the job or off the job through :
• a written test involving the use of sketching, calculations and short answer
questions
You will be provided with :

• suitable classroom environment and answer booklet for written assessment
You will provide:

• writing and drawing instruments for written test
• a calculator
Section Introduction
In this section you will revise the terminology involved with vessel
dimensions. You will calculate the displacement and form coefficients of a
vessel and the TPC. The change in draught of vessel due to change in density
will also be calculated.
You will learn the methods to calculate the area under a curve and its centroid.
Wetted surface area will also be defined.

1. Revision
In SPC 075 Navel Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 4), basic
terminology used with vessel dimensions were defined. These have been
reproduced in Appendix 1 for reference.
1.1 Archimedes’ Principle

In SPC 075 Navel Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 4), you defined
and calculated the displacement, and its relationship to the immersed volume.
You should revise the relevant sections in that module before continuing this
section. Only a brief explanation will be given here.
When a solid is immersed in a fluid, it experiences an upwards force

equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.
When a partially or fully immersed body is floating freely in a fluid, the weight
of the body equals the buoyancy force. The buoyancy is equal to the weight of
the fluid displaced, (Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1
The law of flotation:
total buoyancy force = total weight of the vessel ---------------(1.1)

1.2. Relationship Between Immersed Volume

and Displacement
The total buoyancy force is calculated as the volume of the displaced fluid
times the density of the fluid. Thus,
∆ = ρ x ∇ ---------------(1.2)
where
∆ = total buoyancy force or displacement
∇ = volume of the displaced fluid (displacement volume)
ρ = density of the fluid
Density of fresh water is 1000 kg/ m3, (1.0 t/m3). Depending on the salinity of
the water, the density of salt water (or sea water) varies between 1000 kg/m3
and 1030 kg/m3. However, for practical purposes, the density of the sea water
can be taken as 1025 kg/m3, (1.025 t/m3).
To determine the underwater volume or displacement volume of a vessel in a

load condition, knowledge of the form coefficients as well as principal
dimensions of the vessel are required.
2. Form Coefficients
In the definition of hull geometry, there are certain coefficients which provide
values as guides to the fullness or slimness of the hull. These are:
• block coefficient;
• midship area coefficient;
• prismatic coefficient; and
• waterplane area coefficient.
2.1 Block Coefficient (CB)

Block coefficient is the most common form coefficients used to define the
fullness of the hull. It is the ratio of the volume of displacement to the volume
of a rectangular block whose sides are equal to the breadth extreme (B), draft
(T) and length between perpendiculars (L), (Figure 1.2).

∇
CB = ---------------(1.3)
LxBxT
Figure 1.2
By re-arranging Equation (1.3), a relationship between the volume of

displacement and block coefficient is obtained as,
Volume of displacement = ∇ = L x B x T x CB ---------------(1.4)
Typical values of block coefficient for different types of vessels are:
VLCC, Tanker 0.88 Bulk Carrier 0.85

Container Vessel 0.75 Small Coaster 0.72
Aircraft Carrier 0.60 Yacht 0.50
Example
A vessel of length 42 m and breadth 8 m is floating at a draught of 3 m in

seawater. The displacement of the vessel is 700 tonnes. Find the block
coefficient of the vessel.
Write down the information that has been given
L = 42 m B = 8m
T = 3m ∆ = 700 t

Write down what must be found
CB
Write down the formulae to be used [(1.2), (1.3)]
∆ = ρ x ∇ ---------------(1.2)
∇
CB = ---------------(1.3)
LxBxT
Insert the relevant values into the formulae and perform the necessary
calculations to solve the problem
Using Equation (1.2),
∆ = ρ x ∇
700 = 1.025 x ∇
700
∇ = = 682.93 m3
1.025
Now using equation (1.3),
∇ 682.93
CB = = = 0.677
LxBxT 42 x 8 x 3
Activity 1.1
A vessel of length 60 m and breadth 12 m is floating at a draft of 4.0 m in sea

water. The block coefficient is 0.73. Find the displacement in tonnes?

2.2 Midship Coefficient (CM)

The midship section coefficient, (CM), is the ratio of the midship section area
(AM) to the area of the rectangle whose sides are equal to the draft (T) and the
breadth amidships (B), (see Figure 1.3).
AM
CM = ---------------(1.5)
BxT
Figure 1.3
Midship section coefficient value usually exceeds 0.85 for ships other than
yachts.
2.3 Prismatic Coefficient (CP)

Prismatic Coefficient, (CP), is the ratio of the volume of displacement to the
volume of a prism having a length equal to the length between perpendiculars
and a uniform cross-section area equal to the amidships section area, AM.
Figure 1.4 shows an illustration about the definition of the prismatic
coefficient.
∇
CP = ---------------(1.6)
AM x L
Expected values of prismatic coefficient are generally greater than 0.55.
By re-arranging equation (1.5) we obtain,
AM = CM x B x T

Figure 1.4
and substituting this into equation (1.6) gives
∇
CP =
CM xBxTxL
Now from equation (1.3),
CB
CP =
CM
CB = CP x CM ---------------(1.7)
Thus, a relationship between CP, CB, and CM is established. Note: all these
coefficients have values between zero and one. Therefore, CM is always at
least equal to or greater than CB for a given ship.
2.4 Waterplane Area Coefficient (CW)

Waterplane area coefficient (CW) is the ratio of the area of the waterplane area
(AW) to the area of the rectangle whose sides are equal to length (L) and
extreme breadth (B) of the ship at that waterline, (see Figure 1.5).
AW
Cw = ---------------(1.8)
L WL x B

Figure 1.5
Example
A 100 m long barge has a uniform cross section as shown in Figure 1.6. If the
length to breadth ratio (L/B) is 8 and breadth and to draft ratio (B/T) is 2,
calculate the form coefficients.
Figure 1.6
L = 100 m L/B = 8 B/T = 2
CB, CM, CP, and CW
Write down the formulae to be used [(1.3), (1.5), (1.6), (1.7), (1.8)]
∇
CB = ---------------(1.3)
LxBxT
AM
CM = ---------------(1.5)
BxT
∇
CP = ---------------(1.6)
AM x L
CB = CP x CM ---------------(1.7)

AW
Cw = ---------------(1.8)
L WL x B
First find the other vessel dimensions. Since,
L L 100
= 8 ⇒ B = = = 12.5m
B 8 8
B B 12.5
= 2 ⇒ T = = = 6.25m
T 2 2
The midship cross-sectional area (AM) is a semi circle having a diameter equal
to the breadth, (B). Thus,
AM = ½ x π x r2 = ½ x π x (12.5/2)2 = 61.36 m2
Thus, the displacement volume (∇) is obtained by,
∇ = AM x L = 61.36 x 100 = 6136 m3
From equation (1.5) for CM,
AM 61.36
CM = = = 0.785
BxT 12.5 x 6.25
Using equation (1.6) for CP,
∇ 6136
CP = = = 1
AM x L 61.36 x 100
Note: CP is 1, since the vessel is of uniform sections along the full length.
Now using equation (1.7) for CB,
CB = CP x CM = 1 x 0.785 = 0.785
To use equation (1.8) for CW, we first need the waterplane area (AW). Since
the vessel is of uniform cross-sectional area its full length, AW is equal to a
rectangle. Thus,
AW = L x B = 100 x 12.5 = 1250 m2

Thus in equation (1.8),
AW 1250
Cw = = = 1
L WL x B 100 x 12.5
Activity 1.2
A 70 m long vessel has a beam of 9 m and it floats an even keel draft of 3.0 m
in fresh water. The midship underwater section area is 25 m2 and prismatic
coefficient is 0.76. Calculate displacement, block coefficient, midship area
coefficient of the vessel.
3. Tonne per Centimeter

Immersion (TPC)
TPC for any draft is defined as the weight in tonnes, which must be added to or
removed from a vessel to change its draft by one centimetre.
AW
TPC = ρ x ---------------(1.9)
100
where
AW = waterplane area (m2)
ρ = density of the fluid (t/m3)

For sea water, ρ = 1.025 t/m3. Thus, for sea water the TPC is,
AW
TPC = 1.025 x = 0.01025 x A W
100
For an addition weight of “W” to the vessel, the parallel sinkage in cm is given
by,
W
Sinkage (in cm) = ---------------(1.10)
TPC
In this equation, the ship is assumed to be wall sided. Even though this may
not be true the error is negligible, especially when the sinkage is small.
If weights are removed, then a parallel rise takes place. It however, follows the
same equation, with “W” being the eight removed.
Example
A vessel has a waterline area of 860 m2 at a particular draft. If the vessel is

floating in sea water of density 1.025 t/m3, calculate the TPC at that waterline.
AW = 860 m2 ρ = 1.025 t/m3
TPC
Write down the formulae to be used (1.9)
AW
TPC = ρ x ---------------(1.9)
100
Using equation (1.9), we obtain the TPC as,
AW 860
TPC = ρ x = 1.025 x = 1.025 x 8.6
100 100
= 8.815 t per cm

Activity 1.3
A vessel has a waterline area of 1250 m2 at a particular draft, when the vessel is
floating in sea water of density 1.025 t/m3. Calculate:
a) the TPC at that waterline; and
b) the sinkage, if a 120 tonne weight is loaded on to the ship.
4. Change in Draft Due to Change

in Fluid Density
Parallel sinkage or rise due to the addition or removal of weights were
discussed in the previous section. The vessel may also sink further or rise (ie.
change its draft) without addition or removing of cargo, if the density of the
fluid it is floating in changes.
Consider a vessel with a displacement of ∆, floating in water of density ρ1. It

then passes into water of lower density ρ2. This will cause the vessel to sink
deeper, because the water is less buoyant. The weight and buoyancy have not
changed since no weight has been added to the vessel or taken away. Thus, we
have
∆ = ∇ 1 x ρ1 = ∇ 2 x ρ2
By re-arranging the above equation, we can write the following relationship,
∇ 1 ρ1
=
∇ 2 ρ2
Thus, ∇1 is equal to,
ρ2
∇1 = ∇ 2 x
ρ1

Thus, the increased volume is,
⎛ ρ ⎞ ⎛ ρ ⎞
∇2 - ∇1 = ∇ 2 − ⎜⎜ ∇ 2 x 2 ⎟⎟ = ∇ 2 ⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ ρ1 ⎠ ⎝ ρ1 ⎠
If the change in draft is small, then the TPC can be assumed to be the same at
the two drafts. Thus, the change in draft (∆T) is equal to the change in
displacement divide by the TPC,
ρ 2 (∇ 2 − ∇1 )
∆T =
TPC
Thus, substituting from a above,
⎛ ρ ⎞
ρ 2 x ∇ 2 x ⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ ρ1 ⎠
∆T = ---------------(1.11)
TPC
This can be simplified to give,
⎛ ρ ⎞
∇ 2 x ⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ ρ1 ⎠
∆T = ---------------(1.12)
AW
When load line markings are located on the sides of a vessel, the change in
draft from sea water conditions to fresh water conditions is always given.
Example
A ship of 8000 tonne displacement has a waterplane area of 1250 m2. It sails
from a river with a water density of 1.005 t/m3 to sea, where the density is
1.025 t/m3. Calculate the change in mean draught.
∆ = 8000 t ρ1 = 1.005 t/m3 suffix 1 = river water

AW = 1250 m2 ρ2 = 1.025 t/m3 suffix 2 = sea water
∆T

∆ = ρ x ∇ ---------------(1.2)
⎛ ρ ⎞
∇ 2 x ⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ ρ1 ⎠
∆T = ---------------(1.12)
AW
To use equation (1.12), we need to calculate the displacement volume in sea

water (∇2). This can be obtained from equation (1.2),
∆ = ρ x ∇
8000 = 1.005 x ∇
8000
∇ = = 7960.2 m3
1.005
⎛ ρ ⎞ ⎛ 1.025 ⎞
∇ 2 x ⎜⎜1 − 2 ⎟⎟ 7960.2 x ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ ρ1 ⎠ ⎝ 1.005 ⎠
∆T = =
AW 1250
− 158.41
= = -0.1267 m = -12.67 cm
1250
The (-) indicates that the draught reduces.
Activity 1.4
A ship of 15000 tonne displacement has a waterplane area of 1800 m2. In

passing from sea water into fresh water of density 1.003 t/m3, there is an
increase in draught of 13 cm. Find the density of sea water.

5. Wetted Surface Area (S)

Wetted surface area (S) of a ship is the area of the ship's hull which is in
contact with the water. The determination of the wetted surface area is
particularly important for resistance calculations.
This area can be found by a process called integration, which is a complex

process. Therefore, several approximate formulae are proposed by various
authors. Two of them are given here:
Expression by Denny:
∇
S = 1.7 x L x T + ---------------(1.13)
T
Expression by Taylor:
S = cx ∆xL ---------------(1.14)
where
S = wetted surface area (m2)
c = constant, that depends on the shape of the vessel, (usually 2.62).
Example
A vessel 120 m long has a displacement of 4000 tonne at a draught of 7 m.

Density of the sea water is 1025 kg/m3. Calculate the wetted surface area of
the ship using:
a) Denny's expression; and
b) Taylor's expression, with c = 2.62.
L = 120 m ∆ = 4000 t c = 2.62

T = 7m ρ = 1.025 t/m3.
a) S by Danny’s expression, b) S by Taylor’s expression
Write down the formulae to be used [(1.2), (1.13), (1.14)]

∆ = ρ x ∇ ---------------(1.2)
∇
S = 1.7 x L x T + ---------------(1.13)
T
S = cx ∆xL ---------------(1.14)
a) S from Denny's expression. To use equation (1.13), we need the

displacement volume (∇). Thus, using equation (1.2),
∆ = ρ x ∇
4000 = 1.025 x ∇
4000
∇ = = 3902.44 m2
1.025
Now using equation (1.13), we obtain the wetted surface area as,
∇ 3902.44
S = 1.7 x L x T + = 1.7 x 120 x 7 + = 1985.5 m2
T 7
b) S from Taylor's Expression. Using equation (1.4),
S = c x ∆ x L = 2.62 x 4000 x 120

= 2.62 x 692.82 = 1815.2 m2
Activity 1.5
A ship 90 m long has a 3000 tonne displacement at a draught of 6 m.

Calculate the wetted surface area of the ship using:
a) Denny's expression; and
b) Taylor's expression, with c = 2.62.

6. Approximate Integration
Methods
The area under a curve is often used to refer to the area between a curve in
the x-y plane and the x-axis, as shown in Figure 1.7.
Figure 1.7
The area under the curve can be obtained by a process called integration. This
is a complex process and is beyond the scope of this text. For many purposes,
it is sufficient to find an approximate value for an area. Let us look at some of
the approximate methods available.
6.1 The Trapezoidal Rule

Consider Figure 1.8. The area under the curve is divided up into vertical strips
by a series of vertical lines, (parallel to the y-axis) and the small curved part at
the top of each strip is replaced by a straight line. Then each strip becomes a
trapezium.
Figure 1.8

Recall from your previous studies the area of a trapezium. Figure 1.9 shows a
trapezium, with the two parallel sides having lengths of “a” and “b”, while the
distance between the two sides is “h”.
Figure 1.9
The area of the trapezium is given by:
A = ½ x h x (a + b) ---------------(1.15)
Now let us see how we can utilise this to find the area in Figure 1.8. To make
our calculations easier, the are is divided into strips of equal width, (ie. h). The
number of strip are found to be “n”.
The y coordinates of vertical lines defining them are: yo, y1, and so on up to yn,
(note: a total of n + 1 coordinates). Thus, using equation (1.15), the areas of
each strip can be calculated as follows:
The area of the first strip is = ½ . h . (y0 + y1)
The area of the second strip is = ½ . h . (y1 + y2)
The area of the third strip is = ½ . h . (y2 + y3)
and so on up to,
The area of the nth strip is = ½ . h . (yn-1 + yn)
Adding them together to give the total area,
Trapezoidal Rule:
Total Area = ½ . h . [y0 + 2 y1 + 2 y2 + .…… + 2 yn-1 + yn]

---------------(1.16)

Example
Figure 1.10 shows the half waterplane area of a vessel. Using trapezoidal rule,
calculate the approximate half waterplane area and the waterplane area of the
vessel. All measurements are in metres.
Figure 1.10
h = 3m n = 6
y0 = 2.5 m y1 = 3.0 m y2 = 3.5 m y3 = 3.5 m
y4 = 3.0 m y5 = 2.0 m y6 = 0.0 m
half waterplane area (½ AW) and waterplane area (AW)
Total Area = ½ . h . [y0 + 2 y1 + 2 y2 + .…… + 2 yn-1 + yn]

---------------(1.16)
Using equation (1.16), the half wtaerplane area (½ AW) is obtained as,
½ AW = ½ . h . [y0 + 2 y1 + 2 y2 + .…… + 2 yn-1 + yn]
= ½ . 3 . [2.5 + (2x3) + (2x3.5) + (2x3.5) + (2x3) + (2x2) + 0]
= 0.5 x 3 x 32.5 = 48.75 m2
The waterplane area (AW) is twice the above, thus,
AW = 2 x 48.75 = 97.5 m2

6.2 Simpson's First Rule

An alternative procedure used to calculate the area under the curve is
Simpson’s First Rule. This requires an even number of strips, taken two at a
time. This time, we do not replace the curved lines at the top of the strips with
straight lines. Instead we approximate it to a second order (quadratic) curve
through the three coordinates (y values) as shown in Figure 1.11.
Figure 1.11
If the curve is quadratic, it can be shown from calculus that the total area of the
two strips is:
The area of the two strip:
h
A = x (y0 + 4 y1 + y2) ---------------(1.17)
3
Remember, the number of strips have to be even, ie. 4, 6, 8, etc. Referring

back to Figure 1.8, the areas obtained fro each pair of strips (from equation
(1.20)), can be added to give the total area as,
Simpson’s First Rule:
h
Total Area = [y0 + 4 y1 + 2y2 + 4 y3 + 2y4 + …. + 4 yn-1 + yn]
3
---------------(1.18)
Note the pattern of the Simpson's Multipliers:
1 4 2 4 ...... 2 4 1

Example
Find using Simpson's First Rule, the area of the half waterplane given in the
previous example.
n = 6 (even number) h = 3m
y0 = 2.5 m y1 = 3.0 m y2 = 3.5 m y3 = 3.5 m
y4 = 3.0 m y5 = 2.0 m y6 = 0.0 m
half waterplane area (½ AW)
h
3
---------------(1.18)
Using equation (1.18), the half wtaerplane area (½ AW) is obtained as,
h
½ AW = [y0 + 4 y1 + 2y2 + 4 y3 + 2y4 + …. + 4 yn-1 + yn]
3
3
= [2.5 + (4x3) + (2x3.5) + (4x3.5) + (2x3) + (4x2) + 0]
3
= 1 x 49.5 = 49.5 m2
Note: you need a minimum of three y values to perform Simpson’s first rule.
Also it can only be used if the number of y values is an odd number, 3,5,7, etc,
(ie. an even number of strips).
Example
At midships, a vessel has a draft of 3 m. The half beam values from the keel to
the 3 m draft at equal intervals at the midships are given below. Calculate the
whole area of the midship cross-section (AM).
Waterlines BL 1 2 3 4 5 6
½ beam (m) 0 1.5 2.5 3.25 4.0 4.5 5.0

See Figure 1.12

T = 3m n = 6 (even number) h = ?
y0 = 0.0 m y1 = 1.5 m y2 = 2.5 m y3 = 3.25 m
y4 = 4.0 m y5 = 4.5 m y6 = 5.0 m
AM
h
3
---------------(1.18)
First let us find the value of “h”. The draft (T) is given as 3 m. This has then
been divided into 6 strips, (see Figure 1.12).
Figure 1.12
Therefore, h is obtained as,
T 3
h = = = 0.5 m
6 6
It is easier to carry out such calculations using a table as shown below. This
reduces the risk of making mistakes and makes it easy to follow the
calculations. Note: S M stands for Simpson’s Multipliers.

The table consists of four columns. The first is the station numbers. The next
is the y values (ie. the half ordinates in this case), followed by the Simpson’s
multipliers (S M). The final column is the product of the previous two
columns.
Station y SM Product
(½ ordinates)
0 0 1 0
1 1.5 4 6.0
2 2.5 2 5.0
3 3.25 4 13.0
4 4.0 2 8.0
5 4.5 4 18.0
6 5.0 1 5.0
Sum (Σ) 55.0
Looking at equation (1.18),
h
3
The sum (Σ) obtained by adding column three is that within the square
brackets. Thus, the total area is obtained as,
h
Total Area = [Σ]
3
Thus, substituting, we obtain the area in Figure 1.12, which is half area of the
midship cross-sectional area, (½ AM). Thus,
h 0.5
½ AM = [Σ] = x 55.0 = 9.167 m2
3 3
Thus, the total midship cross-sectional area is twice the above value,
AM = 2 x 9.1667 = 18.333 m2

Let us now do one final example.
Example
A vessel of length 64 m, floats in sea water. Its half breadth values of the
loaded waterline of the vessel are given as follows:
Station AP 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 FP
½ 2.2 2.6 3.2 3.6 3.4 2.9 2.1 1.4 0
breadth
(m)
a) Calculate the waterplane area

b) Calculate TPC at the waterline
See table above.

L = 64 m n = 8 (even number) h = ?
y0 = 2.2 m y1 = 2.6 m y2 = 3.2 m y3 = 3.6 m y4 = 3.4 m
y5 = 2.9 m y6 = 2.1 m y7 = 1.4 m y8 = 0.0 m
a) AW, b) TPC
AW
TPC = ρ x ---------------(1.9)
100
h
3
---------------(1.18)
a) AW. First let us find the value of “h”. The length (L) is given as 64 m.
This has then been divided into 8 strips. Therefore, h is obtained as,
L 64
h = = = 8.0 m
8 8
We use a similar table to that used in the previous example. There values in
this case will be half breadth values of the waterplane area.

Station y SM Product
(½ breadth)
AP 2.2 1 2.2
1 2.6 4 10.4
2 3.2 2 6.4
3 3.6 4 14.4
4 3.4 2 6.8
5 2.9 4 11.6
6 2.1 2 4.2
7 1.4 4 5.6
FP 0 1 0
Sum (Σ) 61.6
h 8
½ Aw = [Σ] = x 61.6 = 164.267 m2
3 3
Thus, the total waterplane area (AW) is,
AW = 2 x 164.267 = 328.533 m2
b) TPC is obtained by equation (1.9),
AW 328.533
TPC = ρ x = 1.025 x = 3.367 t per cm
100 100
6.3 Centroid of Area

In some cases, it is required to calculate the centroid of an area that is not a
regular shape. For example, the centroid of area of a tank bulkhead, in order to
calculate the force on it due the liquid pressure. The centroid is obtained by
using the moment of area, that you would have studied in Applied Mechanics.
First Moment of Area

Centroid of Area = ---------------(1.19)
Total Area
This can be incorporated into the Simpson’s First rule to allow the calculation
of the centroid of areas not represented by regular shapes. However, the actual
procedure is beyond the scope of this Learner’s Guide.

Activity 1.6
Half breadth values of the loaded waterline of a ship is given as
Station 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
½ breadth (m) 0.6 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.45 1.1 0.9 0.4 0.
The vessel is 24 m in length and floats in sea water. Calculate:

a) the waterplane area; and
b) the TPC at the waterline
Note: Repeat the with activity with the Trapezoidal Rule, explained in sub-
section 6.1.

Section Summary
In this section you have learnt to determine the basic principles involved in
vessel form and dimensions. You should now refer to the learning outcome and
assessment criteria stated at the beginning of this section and ask yourself if
you can:
• establish the form coefficients and their relationships and solve related
problems;
• explain the approximate integration methods;
• calculate using Simpson’s rules, typical shipboard areas, volumes, and
displacement; and
• define TPC and solve related problems, involving waterplane area, draft
changes, and displacement.
If you have answered “no” to the above question, you should read through this
section again and work through the activities or approach your instructor. The
following “Check Your Progress” exercises will help you in self assessment.
Progress Check 1
Answer the questions carefully and check your answers with those provided at
the back of this learner’s guide.
1. A vessel has a length of 50 m, beam of 12 m and is floating at a draught of

4.5 m in salt water of density 1.025 t/m3. The block coefficient is 0.68.
Calculate the displacement of the vessel.
2. A 94 m long vessel has a beam of 11 m and it floats an even keel draught of

4.3 m in fresh water. The midship area coefficient is 0.92 and the prismatic
coefficient is 0.8. Calculate the block coefficient and the displacement of
the vessel.
3. A vessel 60 m long has a constant cross section in the form of a trapezoid 8

m wide at the top, 5m wide at the bottom and 6 m deep. It floats at a draft of
4 m in sea water. Calculate
a) the displacement volume of the vessel

b) the displacement
c) block coefficient
d) midship area coefficient
e) prismatic coefficient
f) waterplane area coefficient.

4. A vessel 80 m long has a constant cross section in the form of a triangle

with apex down 12 m wide at the top and 9 m deep. It floats at a draft of
6 m in sea water. Calculate
a) the displacement volume of the vessel

b) the displacement
c) block coefficient
d) midship area coefficient
e) prismatic coefficient
f) waterplane area coefficient.
5. The length of a ship is 9 times the breadth, while the breadth is 2.7 times the
draught. At the load waterline, the waterplane area coefficient is 0.83 and
the TPC in sea water is 20t per centimetre. Determine the length of the
ship.
6. A ship of 5000 t displacement has a waterplane area of 980 m2. The vessel
starts its journey in a river where the density of the water is 1.005 t/m3 and
proceeds to sea water with a density of 1.028 t/m3.
a) does the draft increase or decrease; and

b) calculate the amount of change in draft.
7. A ship of 6000 t displacement has a waterplane area of 1120 m2. The vessel
starts its journey in a sea where the density of the water is 1.025 t/m3 and
proceeds to fresh water with a density of 1.003 t/m3.
a) does it increase or decrease; and

b) calculate the amount of change in draft.
8. A ship of 8000t displacement has a waterplane area of 1450m2. The vessel

starts its journey in sea water of density 1.025 t/m3. When it proceeds to
river water, its draft increases by 9.5cm. Calculate the density of the river
water.
9. A fuel tank is 6m long and uniform cross section. The section is defined by
the following ordinates (widths) with a spacing between unit waterlines of
0.5 m.
Waterline BL WL 1 WL 2 WL 3 WL 4
Ordinate 610 1310 1760 2130 2470
(mm)
If the tank is filled with oil of specific gravity 0.88, calculate the mass of
oil and its vertical centre of gravity from the base line.

Section 2 Hydrostatic Pressure
Section 2
Hydrostatic Pressure

Section 2: Hydrostatic Pressure

Conditions 39
1. Pressure Exerted by a Liquid 40
2. Load on a Surface 42
3. Centre of Area (Centroid) 46
4. Centre of Pressure (CP) 55
Section Summary 60
Progress Check 2 60

Learning Outcome 2
On completion of this section you will be able to determine the change of
hydrostatic pressure with liquid depth and the resulting loading on structures.
Assessment Criteria
• The pressure of varying liquid depth is calculated.
• The centre of pressure of regular shapes (rectangular, triangular, and
circular) are calculated.
• The hydrostatics loads on immersed plates of regular shapes on board
vessels are calculated.
Conditions
Learning and assessment will take place in a classroom, on a vessel or
equipment laboratory, and other suitable study environments.
• a written test involving the use of sketching, diagram interpretation, short
answer questions
• assessment by observation and oral questioning during practical exercises

You will provide:

• a calculator
In this section you will lean to calculate the hydrostatic pressure at varying
liquid depths. You will also calculate the total load on surfaces due to this
pressure.
You will be introduced to the centre of pressure and obtain the centre of
pressure for common regular shapes encountered on vessels.

1. Pressure Exerted by a Liquid

The pressure is defined as the load per unit area. For a liquid, the load is that
exerted by the liquid. Thus,
Pressure:
Force
Pressure = ---------------(2.1)
Area
units: = N / m2 = Pascal (Pa)
A number of units are used for pressure. These include:
1 Pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m2

1 KPa = 1,000 Pa
1 MPa = 1,000 kPa = 1,000,000 Pa
1 Bar = 100,000 Pa = 100 kPa
Now let us look at the pressure due a liquid. Consider the liquid of density “ρ”
in a tank as shown in Figure 2.1. Let us look at a column of liquid shown in
the figure. It has a cross-sectional area of “A” and a height “h”, (from the
surface).
Figure 2.1
The column of liquid is in equilibrium under the action of two vertical forces,
ie.
• the gravitational force (W) acting downwards; and

• the upward force (B) exerted by the liquid on the bottom of the
cylinder.

For equilibrium,
B = W ---------------(2.2)
The gravitational force (W) is equal to the weight of the liquid column. Since
the cross-sectional area is “A” and the height is “h”, the volume of the column
is,
volume of the column = ∇ = A x h
Thus, the weight (W) of the column is,
W = ∇xρxg = Axhxρxg ---------------(2.3)
The upward force (B) is equal to the force acting on the area at the base of the
column due to the liquid pressure at that depth. Thus, from equation (2.1),
F = B = pxA ---------------(2.4)
where “p” is the liquid pressure at the base of the column. Now substituting
equations (2.3) and (2.4) in (2.2),
B = W
pxA = Axhxρxg
Cancelling the term “A” from the two side, we obtain the liquid pressure at the
depth of “h” as,
Liquid pressure at a depth of h:
p = h.ρ.g ---------------(2.5)
where
p = pressure (Pa)
h = liquid depth form the free surface (m)
ρ = liquid density (kg/m3)
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
Thus, the liquid pressure depends on:

• the density of fluid (ρ); and
• the vertical distance (h) of the point from the surface of the fluid.
This distance is known as head.

Note: the pressure is not dependent on the area of the liquid column. This is
made clearer by consider pressure at the bottom of containers shown in Figure
2.2.
Figure 2.2
The pressure at the bottom of all of the three containers in Figure 2.2 are
all equal. This is despite the amount of fluid in each case being different.
The pressure is dependent on the height of the liquid, which is the same in
all three cases.
Note: container (a) may represent a simple container filled with water,
container (b) may represent a supply and header tank used in most domestic
hot water systems, and container (c) may represent a double bottom tank
having a vertical overflow pipe.
2. Load on a Surface
The force exerted by the fluid on the surface is obtained by the area of the
surface multiplied by the pressure at the centroid of the surface. Thus,
Force Exerted on a Surface by Fluid Pressure:
F = pc x A ---------------(2.6)
where
F = force on surface due to liquid pressure (N)
pc = pressure at centroid of the surface (Pa)
A = area of surface (A)

Note: the surface does not have to have one edge on the surface. It can be
completely submerged. Equations (2.5) and (2.6) can be both used in these
situations.
The force in equation (2.6) will be the pressure at the centroid of the
submerged surface. This pressure is obtained from equation (2.5), with the “h”
representing the depth to the centroid from the free surface.
Example
A rectangular double bottom tank is 12 m long and 8 m wide and has a height
of 2 m. The tank is filled with sea water of density 1.025 t/m3. Calculate the
pressure in kN/m2 and the load in MN on the top and bottom of the tank if the
water is:
a) at the top of the tank; and
b) 6 m up the sounding pipe above the tank top.
length = 12 m breadth = 8 m
height = 2 m density = 1.025 t/m3
height of sounding pipe above the tank top = 6 m
pressure and force at the top of the tank
p = h.ρ.g ---------------(2.5)
F = pc x A ---------------(2.6)
a) Water filled to the top of the tank.

First calculate the pressure and force at the tank top. Thus, the depth to the
tank top from the liquid surface is,
h = 0m
Therefore, the pressure at the top of the tank is obtained from equation (2.5),
p = h . ρ . g = 0 x 1.025 x 9.81 = 0
Thus, the pressure is zero. Therefore, the force too will be zero, (ie. from
equation (2.6)).

Next to find the pressure and force at the bottom of the tank. The depth to
the bottom of the tank from the liquid surface is,
h = 2m
Therefore, the pressure at the bottom of the tank is obtained from equation
(2.5), (note, the density should be in kg/m2),
p = h . ρ . g = 2 x 1025 x 9.81 = 20110.5 Pa = 20.11 kPa
The force on the tank top is obtained from equation (2.6). However, to use
equation (2.6), we need the area of the bottom of the tank, (note this is the
same as the area at the tank top). Since the length of the tank is 12 m and
the breadth is 8 m, then the area is obtained as,
A = L x B = 12 x 8 = 96 m2
Thus, the force is obtained from equation (2.6) as,
F = pc x A = 20.11 x 96 = 1930.61 kN = 1.93 MN
b) Water filled to 6 m up the sounding pipe.

First calculate the pressure and force at the tank top. Thus, the depth to the
tank top from the liquid surface is,
h = 6m
Therefore, the pressure at the top of the tank is obtained from equation (2.5),
p = h . ρ . g = 6 x 1.025 x 9.81 = 60332 Pa = 60.332 kPa
The force is obtained from equation (2.6) as,
F = pc x A = 60.332 x 96 = 5791.8 kN = 5.79 MN
Next to find the pressure and force at the bottom of the tank. The depth to
the bottom of the tank from the liquid surface is the sounding pipe height
plus the tank height,
h = 6+2 = 8m
The pressure at the bottom of the tank is obtained from equation (2.5),
p = h . ρ . g = 8 x 1025 x 9.81 = 80442 Pa = 80.44 kPa
Thus, the force is obtained from equation (2.6) as,
F = pc x A = 80.44 x 96 = 7722.4 kN = 7.72 MN

Activity 2.1
A rectangular double bottom tank is 10 m long and 6 m wide and has a

height of 1.5 m. The tank is filled with sea water of density 1.025 t/m3.
Calculate the pressure in kN/m2 and the load in kN on the top and bottom of
the tank if the water is:
a) at the top of the tank; and
b) 5 m up the sounding pipe above the tank top.

3. Centre of Area (Centroid)

As seen in the previous sub-section (equation 2.6), this is required to calculate
force due to liquid pressure on the surface. In SPC 091 Applied Mechanics
(Eng 3) you would have determined centre of area of surfaces. Only a brief
revision is given here.
Since an area of a surface is represented on one plane, it is described by two

axes, ie. X and Y, as shown in Figure 2.3.
Y axis
Area = A
X axis
Figure 2.3
• If an objects has axis symmetry about one of the axes, then the
centroid will lie on that axis, (Figure 2.4(a)).
• If the object has axis symmetry about both axes, then the centroid
will lie at the intersection of the two axes, (Figure 2.4(b)).
Y axis Y axis
centre lies on axis centre lies at
of symmetry the intersection
of the axes
X axis X axis
symmetry about symmetry about
Y axis both axes
(a) (b)
Figure 2.4
3.1 Rectangles and Parallelograms

Since a rectangle has symmetry about both axes, the centroid is at the centre of
the rectangle. Consider the rectangle shown in Figure 2.5(a), having a breadth

“b” and height “h” respectively. The distance from the corner (origin) “O” to
the centroid “C” will be half the length along the horizontal and vertical axis
respectively.
breadth = b breadth = b
C C
height = h height = h
h/2 h/2
O O
b/2
(a) (b)
Figure 2.5
Centroid of a Rectangle of breadth “b” and height “h”:
b/2 along the X axis and h/2 along the Y axis ---------(2.7)
The centroid of a rectangle and a parallelogram can be found by the method

shown in Figure 2.5(b). First draw the two diagonals as shown. The
intersection of the two diagonals will give the centroid. The distances can then
be measured from “O”.
3.2 Centroids of Triangles

2:1
2/3
=
tio
Ra
1/3
height = h
C
h/3
base = b
Figure 2.6
Unless the triangle has equal lengths for its sides, it will not be axi-
symmetrical. Therefore, let us consider a general situation, ie. a non-
symmetrical triangle as shown in Figure 2.6.

To obtain the centroid, first draw a line from one corner to the centre of the
opposite side. Repeat the process for another corner. The intersection “C” of
the two lines will give the centroid.
By measuring, the centroid is found to be 1/3 of the height from the base, ie.
(h/3). Also by measuring, it is seen that the centroid divides the line from a
corner to the centre of the opposite side, by the ratio 2:1, (see Figure 2.6).
Centroid of a Triangle of base “b” and height “h”:
h/3 from the base along the line from the top corner to the centre of
the base.
--------------(2.8)
Note: if a line is drawn from the third corner to the centre of its opposite side,
this line too will pass through the centroid “C”. Thus, all three lines will
intersect at the centroid, with each having a ratio of 2:1.
3.3 Centroids of Circles
radius = r radius = r
radius = r
C C
diameter = d 4r 4r
C __ __
3π 3π
O O
4r
__
3π
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.7
Since a circle is completely symmetrical, the centroid “C” is located at its

centre as shown in Figure 2.7(a).
Centroid of a Circle having a radius “r”:
centre of the circle. --------------(2.9)
3.4 Centroids of Semi-Circles and Quadrants

Since the semi-circle shown in Figure 2.7(b) is symmetrical along the Y axis,
the centroid “C” will lie along the Y axis. The distance from the centre “O” to

4r
the centroid “C” is .
3π
Centroid of a Semi Circle having a radius “r”:
4r
a distance of from the centre the circle, along the vertical centre line.
3π
--------------(2.10)
A quadrant is shown in Figure 2.7(c). Its centroid is obtained as,
Centroid of a Quadrant having a radius “r”:
4r
a distance of from the centre of the circle, along both axes.
3π
--------------(2.11)
3.5 Centres of Area of Built up Shapes

This was explained in SPC 091 Applied Mechanics (Eng 3). The centre of area
of a complex shape can be obtained by first dividing the area into segments
representing regular shapes with known centroids. Then the centroid of the
complete shape is obtained by,
Centre of Area (Centroid) =

∑ moments of all area about an axis
total area
--------------(2.12)
Let us now look at an example.
Example
Calculate the centroid of the cable anchor point shown in Figure 2.8(a).
See Figure 2.8(a)

Location of the Centroid
Area of a Rectangle =
b x h
Area of a Triangle =
½ x b x h
Area of a Circle π x r2
=
Centroid of a Rectangle =
b/2 and h/2 ---------------(2.7)
Centroid of a Circle =
centre ---------------(2.9)
Centre of Area (Centroid) =

total area
--------------(2.12)
15 cm
4 cm 6 cm
C
D
8 cm
5 cm
B
3 cm
0.22 m 0.23 m
15 cm 0.165 m A
0.075 m
4 cm
(a) (b)
Figure 2.8
As the object is symmetrical about the vertical axis, we know that the centroid
of the total area (CT), will lie along the vertical centre line. However, we need
to calculate the height of the centroid from the base (O). The shape can be
divided into separate sections, each represented by a regular shape. These
sections are named as follows, (see Figure 2.8(b)):
A = vertical rectangle
B = horizontal rectangle

C = top rectangle
D = circle
Since we need to take moments about an axis, let us take the base “O” as the
reference axis. To use equation (2.12), we first need to calculate the areas of
all the components, together with the distances to each of their centroids,
(Figure 2.8(b)). Using the appropriate equations, let us now calculate these
values.
Rectangle “A”, Area (AA) and the distance to the centre of gravity (CA):
AA = 0.15 x 0.04 = 0.006 m2

CA = 0.075 m
Rectangle “B”, Area (AB) and the distance to the centre of gravity (CB):
AB = 0.15 x 0.03 = 0.0045 m2

CB = 0.165 m
Rectangle “C”, Area (AC) and the distance to the centre of gravity (CC):
AC = 0.06 x 0.08 = 0.0048 m2

CC = 0.22 m
Circle “D”, Area (AD) and the distance to the centre of gravity (CD):
AD = π x 0.022 = 0.0013 m2
CD = 0.23 m
Now to use equation (2.12). Remember that the circle has to be removed from
the object, therefore it has to be subtracted in the summation.
CT =
total area
(0.006 x 0.075) + (0.0045 x 0.165) + (0.0048 x 0.22) − (0.0013 x 0.23)

0.006 + 0.0045 + 0.0048 − 0.0013
0.00195
= = 0.139 m = 13.9 cm
0.014
Thus, the centroid is located 13.9 cm from the base, (ie. from “O”), along the
vertical axis.

Activity 2.2
Find the location of the centre of area from its top left hand corner of the
bulkhead shown below.
2.3 m
0.75 m
0.7 m
4.1 m 0.6 m
1.8 m

Example
A rectangular bulkhead is 8 m wide and 10 m deep. It is loaded on one side

with oil of relative density 0.8. Calculate the load on the bulkhead if the oil is:
a) just at the top of the bulkhead; and
b) 4 m up the sounding pipe.
width = 8 m depth = 10 m
density = 0.8 x 1000 = 800 kg/m3
height of sounding pipe above the tank top = 4 m
load on the bulkhead
p = h.ρ.g ---------------(2.5)
F = pc x A ---------------(2.6)
Centroid of a Rectangle = b/2 and h/2 ---------------(2.7)
Figure 2.9 shows the bulkhead.
area of rectangle = b x h
= 8 x 10
= 80 m2
10m 1
depth to its centroid = h
2
= 0.5 x 10 m
= 5m
8m
Figure 2.9
a) Load on bulkhead with oil to the top of the tank. First calculate the
pressure at the centroid. Using equation (2.5),

p = h . ρ . g = 5 x 800 x 9.81 = 39,240 Pa
Thus, using equation (2.6) to obtain the load,
F = pc x A = 39,240 x 80 m2 = 3,139,200 N = 3.14 MN
b) Load on bulkhead with oil 4 m up the sounding pipe. First calculate the
pressure at the centroid. To do this, we need the depth to the centroid, (ie.
the depth from the oil level in the sounding pipe),
h = 5 + 4 = 9m
p = h . ρ . g = 9 x 800 x 9.81 = 70,632 Pa
F = pc x A = 70,632 x 80 m2 = 5,650,560 N = 5.65 MN
Activity 2.3
A rectangular bulkhead of an oil tank is 10 m wide and 8 m deep. It is

loaded on one side with oil of relative density 0.85. Calculate the load on
the bulkhead if the oil is:
a) just at the top of the bulkhead; and
b) 3 m up the sounding pipe.

4. Centre of Pressure (CP)

Centre of pressure on an immersed plane is the point at which the
whole liquid may be assumed to be acting.
Considering Figure 2.10, it is seen that the pressure gradually increases with
the depth. Thus, the centre will be below the centroid of the surface. This is
due to the pressure at the bottom being greater than that at the top.
The actual calculation of the location of the centre of pressure is beyond the
scope of this Learner’s Guide. However we will define the position of the
centre of pressure of common regular shapes. Note: the centre of pressure will
vary depending on the depth the surface is below the water line. At this level,
we will only consider surfaces with their top edge at the free surface.
4.1.1. Centre of Pressure for a Rectangular

Figure 2.10 shows a rectangular surface with its upper edge at the free surface
of the liquid. As seen the pressure will increase with depth, starting at zero at
the top and reaching its maximum (Dρg) at the bottom.
Figure 2.10
Centre of Pressure for a Rectangular Surface:
2
CP = D ---------------(2.13)
3
where D is the depth rectangular surface.

4.1.2 Centre of Pressure for a Triangle

Let us first consider a triangle with its base at the free surface (an inverted
triangle), as shown in Figure 2.11. Again the pressure will be greater at the
bottom than the top.
Figure 2.11
Centre of Pressure for an Inverted Triangular Surface:
1
CP = D ---------------(2.14)
2
Now let us consider a triangle with its apex at the free surface as shown in
Figure 2.12.
Figure 2.12
Centre of Pressure for an Triangular Surface:
3
CP = D ---------------(2.15)
4

4.1.3 Centre of Pressure for a Circle

Centre of pressure for a circular plane with an edge at the surface as shown in
Figure 2.13 is obtained as,
Figure 2.13
Centre of Pressure for a Circular Surface:
5
CP = D ---------------(2.16)
8
where D is the depth (or the diameter) of the circular surface.
Example
A rectangular bulkhead of a sea water ballast tank is 4 m wide and 6 m deep.

If the tank is filled up to the upper surface, calculate:
a) the total load; and
b) center of pressure.
width = 4 m depth = 6 m density = 1025 kg/m3
total load and the centre of pressure
p = h.ρ.g ---------------(2.5)
F = pc x A ---------------(2.6)
2
CP = D ---------------(2.13)
3

Figure 2.14 shows the bulkhead with the top surface at the free surface.
Figure 2.14
a) Load on bulkhead with sea water at the top of the tank. First calculate the
pressure at the centroid. To do this, we need the depth to the centroid,
h = 3m
p = h . ρ . g = 3 x 1025 x 9.81 = 30,166 Pa
To use equation (2.6) for the load, we first need the area of the surface.
Thus,
A = 6 x 4 = 24 m2
F = pc x A = 30,166 x 24 m2 = 723,978 N = 724 kN
b) Centre of pressure from the free surface. This is obtained from equation
(2.13) as
2 2
CP = D = x 6 = 4m
3 3

Activity 2.4
A rectangular bulkhead is 6 m wide and 8 m deep. It is loaded on one side

with oil of density 0.85 t/m3. Calculate the total load and centre of pressure, if
the oil is just at the top of the bulkhead.

Section Summary
In this section you have learnt to determine the change of hydrostatic pressure
with liquid depth and the resulting loading on structures. You should now
refer to the learning outcome and assessment criteria stated at the beginning of
this section and ask yourself if you can:
• calculate the pressure of varying liquid depth;

• calculate the centre of pressure of regular shapes (rectangular, triangular,
and circular); and
• calculate the hydrostatics loads on immersed plates of regular shapes on
board vessels.
Progress Check 2
1. What happens to hydrostatic pressure at the bottom as the depth of the fluid
is increased?
2. A rectangular double bottom tank is 10 m long and 8 m wide and has a

height of 2 m. The tank is 75 % filled with sea water of density 1.025 t/m3.
Calculate the pressure in kN/m2 and the load in MN on the bottom of the
tank.
3. Calculate the centroid of "T" section shown in the figure below.
200mm
15mm
250 mm
20 mm
H
Chosen reference axis

4. A inverted triangular plane is 6 m wide at the top and the other two sides are
equal and 5 m each. Calculate the center of pressure, if the top edge of the
triangle is at the surface.
5. Calculate the total load and the centre of pressure on a circular bulkhead of
diameter 4 m, if one side of the bulkhead is completely filled with oil of
density 0.85 t/m3.
6. A rectangular bulkhead is 8 m wide and 10 m deep. It is loaded on one side

with oil of density 0.85 t/m3. Calculate:
a) the total load and center of pressure, if the oil is 3 m below the top of the
bulkhead
b) the total load if the oil is 3 m up the sounding pipe.


Section 3 Stability
Section 3
Stability

Section 3 Stability
Section 3: Stability
Conditions 65
1. Stability Terms 67
2. Statical Stability 71
3. Effects of Adding, Removing, and Shifting

Weights on Stability 74
4. Inclining Experiment 81
5. Effects of Slack Tanks on Stability 85
6. Effects of Bilging 89
7. Load Lines 92
Section Summary 96
Progress Check 3 96

Section 3 Stability
Learning Outcome 3
On completion of this section you will be able to carry out basic stability
calculations and assess the stability of vessels.
Assessment Criteria
• Terms commonly used in relation to stability, including, KM, KB, KG, GM,
and the righting lever, are defined and their relative positions established.
• Stability at small angles of heel is defined and related problems solved.
• Effects on the vessels stability due to: adding, removing, shifting weights,
and using vessel’s lifting gear to handle weights are calculated.
• The preparation and conduction of inclining experiments on a vessel in
accordance with statutory requirements are demonstrated.
• Effects of slack tanks on a vessel’s stability are calculated.
• Effects of bilging different compartments are explained and simple
problems involving box shaped vessels are solved.
• Assignment of load lines is explained.
• IMO stability criteria are described.
Conditions
answer questions

You will provide:

• a calculator

Section 3 Stability
In this section you will lean to evaluate the basic stability of a vessel. This will
include the definition of common terms and their application in stability
calculations. You will also carry out stability calculations at small angles of
heel, including the effect on the vessel’s stability due to adding, removing or
moving weights, slack tanks, and bilging compartments.
The procedure and precautions involved in inclining experiments will be

identified and the centre of gravity of the vessel will be calculated using test
results.
The relevant IMO stability criteria and the assignment of load lines will also be
identified.

Section 3 Stability
1. Stability Terms
In SPC 075 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 4) you were
introduced to the basic stability terms and principles. You should revise the
relevant sections in that module before commencing this section.
A transverse section of a vessel is shown in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1
WL represents the waterline at which the ship is floating.
K denotes the keel.
B is the position of the transverse centre of buoyancy usually just called

the centre of buoyancy. This is the centre of the underwater volume
of the vessel. It is the point through which the force of buoyancy
supporting the vessel acts vertically upwards.
G is the position of the transverse centre of gravity. It is the point

through which all of the weight of the vessel is considered to act
vertically downwards.
M is the metacentre. This is the point where the buoyancy force (acting
vertically upwards through the centre of buoyancy) cuts the centre line
of the vessel. The initial position of the vessel’s metacentre is
determined by the shape of the underwater portion of the hull.

Section 3 Stability
From Figure (3.1), the relationship amongst K, B and M can be written as;
KM = KB + BM ---------------(3.1)
KB is the vertical center of buoyancy from the keel, ie. the centroid of the
underwater volume. In regular shaped vessels, (ie. box or triangular shaped
hulls), KB is easily calculable, as the centroid of these shapes are known. In
more complex shapes, KB can be determining by Simpson’s rule. However,
the actual procedure of this is beyond the scope of this Learner’s Guide.
BM is a function of hull geometry and is calculated by the following formula,
I CL
BM = ---------------(3.2)
∇
where
ICL = second moment of area of the waterplane area about the center
line (m4)
∇ = displacement volume of the ship at that loading condition (m3).
ICL can be calculated using Simpson’s rule. However, at this level it is not
required to calculate ICL. If required this will be supplied.
1.1 Stability at Small Angles of Heel
Figure 3.2 Vessel Heeled

Section 3 Stability
In SPC 075 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 4) you were
introduced to the stability of vessels at small angles. This included the
righting lever (GZ), (shown in Figure 3.2), due to the vessel heeling. You
should revise this before continuing this section.
The stability of a vessel is measured by the righting lever, GZ. At small angles
of heel (θ), the relationship between GZ and GM may be written as,
GZ = GM x Sin θ ---------------(3.3)
Although GZ is a function of θ, GM is independent of θ. Therefore, it is

preferable to define the vessel’s statical stability in terms of GM. Thus,
If GM is positive, (ie. G below M), it is said that the vessel has a positive
stability.
If GM is negative, (ie. G above M), then the vessel has negative stability or is
in an unstable equilibrium condition.
From Figure (3.2) it is seen that as the vessel heels, the centre of buoyancy
moves from B to B1. However, if the angles θ is small, it is assumed that
BM = B1M
Example
A box barge of L = 80 m and B = 16 m, floats at a level draught of 6 m. The

second moment area of waterplane area about the centreline (ICL) is 27307 m4.
Calculate the height of the transverse metacenter above the keel, (KM).
L = 80 m B = 16 m
T = 6m ICL = 27307 m4
KM
KM = KB + BM ---------------(3.1)
I
BM = CL ---------------(3.2)
∇

Section 3 Stability
Figure 3.3 shows a sketch of the box barge.
Figure 3.3
To use equation (3.1), we first need KB and BM. Let us first find KB. Since
the underwater volume is of a rectangular cross section, the center of buoyancy
(centroid) will be half the height of the draft. Thus,
T 6
KB = = = 3m
2 2
Now to obtain BM. This can be obtained from equation (3.2), however, we
need ICL (given as 27307 m4) and the underwater displacement (∇). Since the
underwater volume is a rectangle, it’s volume is:
∇ = L x B x T = 80 x 16 x 6 = 7680 m3
I CL 27307
BM = = = 3.56 m
∇ 7680
Hence, using equation (3.1) for KM,
KM = KB + BM = 3 + 3.56 = 6.56 m

Section 3 Stability
Activity 3.1
A box barge of L = 60 m, B = 18 m floats at a level draft of 8 m. The second

moment area of waterplane area about the centreline (ICL) is 29160 m4.
Calculate the height of the transverse metacenter above the keel, (KM).
2. Statical Stability
When a vessel heels to an angle greater then 100, the stability principles
derived for small angles of heel are no longer valid. In this case, the variation
of GZ with the heel angle has to be determined by the following method:
• The position of the center of gravity is assumed at some convenient

position above the keel, since the actual position is not known.
• Ship sections are drawn and these are inclined to an angle, say 15o.
• GZ values are determined by taking the moments of the areas up to
different waterlines using either an instrument called the integrator or
by a computer program.
The same procedure is repeated for different angles of heel up to 90o and GZ
curves for different angles of heel against displacement are drawn. These
graphs are often called Cross-Curves of Stability.

Section 3 Stability
For a given loading condition, the displacement of the vessel and the center of
gravity are known. If the actual center of gravity is different to that assumed
and used to generate the Cross Curves of Stability, then a correction is
necessary.
By doing this correction on the GZ values and plotting the GZ values against
the heel angle, the “Statical Stability Curve” for the ship at this particular
load condition is produced.
Figure 3.4 shows a typical curve of statical stability of a vessel. As seen from
the figure, the GM value is also used to define the GZ curve. The value of GM
is marked on the graph at 57.30 (ie. 1 radian). A line is then drawn from this
point to the origin of the graph. The GZ curve for small heel angles (up to 8o),
is taken as a tangent to this line. The heel angle at which the GZ curve reaches
its maximum is called the angle of downturn.
GZ (m)
0.8
0.6
0.4 GM
GZmax
0.2
0o 15o 30o 45o 60o 75o 90o
Heel Angle
Figure 3.4
Statical stability of a vessel is then, assessed by the characteristics of the GZ

curve.
The shape of GZ curve depends heavily on the freeboard of the vessel. If the
weather deck edge becomes immersed, the shape of the curve changes
extensively.
Figure 3.5 shows GZ curves for two different vessels. As seen from the figure,
both vessels have the same initial GM value. Therefore, the stability at small
angles (less 80) are the same. However, as the angle of heel increases, it is
seen that vessel B has a lot less stability than vessel A. This is due to vessel B
having a lower freeboard.

Section 3 Stability
GZ (m)
0.8
0.6
0.4 GM
Ship B Ship A
0.2
0o 15o 30o 45o 60o 75o 90o
Heel Angle
Figure 3.5
Activity 3.2
The variation of GZ values with different heel angles for a vessel at a

particular load condition is given as below. The initial GM is 0.4 m.
Heel Angle 0o 15o 30o 45o 60o 75o 90o

GZ (m) 0 0.21 0.46 0.50 0.38 0.17 -0.16
Calculate the Statical Stability Curve.

Section 3 Stability
2.1 IMO Stability Criteria

The International Maritime Organisation, (IMO), defines how stable the vessel
is by investigating the area under the GZ curve.
1. The area under the GZ curve up to 300 should be at least 3.15

m.degrees.
2. The area under the GZ curve up to 400 or angle of downturn,

whichever is lesser should be at least 5.16 m.degrees.
3. The difference between items (1) and (2) should be at least 1.72
m.degrees.
4. The maximum GZ should be at least 0.2 m.
5. The maximum GZ should occur at an angle of heel exceeding 300.
6. The initial GM should not be less than 0.15 m, (or 0.35 m for fishing
vessels).
2.2 Stability of a Wall Sided Ship

If a vessel is assumed to be wall sided in the vicinity of the loaded waterline,
then the righting lever may be estimated from the following expression,
⎛ 1 ⎞
GZ = Sin θ ⎜ GM + BM Tan 2 θ ⎟ ---------------(3.4)
⎝ 2 ⎠
This formula is valid for small angles of θ, up to about 200.
3. Effects of Adding, Removing,

and Shifting Weights on
Stability
We have discussed previously the movement of the center of gravity by
adding, removing and shifting weights in SPC 075 Naval Architecture and
Ship Construction (Eng 4). Therefore, the following text will be based on that
knowledge. If you have any difficulty understanding the topic, you should
refer to the above mentioned Learners Guide.

Section 3 Stability
In summary, the centre of gravity of the vessel will be effected by loading or

discharging as follows:
1. The center of gravity moves towards an added weight.
2. The center of gravity moves away from a discharged weight.
3. The center of gravity moves parallel to the movement of a weight

that is already on board.
4. When a weight is suspended from a boom, the effect is as though

the weight was situated at the point of suspension, ie. the head of
the boom.
Since the stability of a vessel is defined by GM and/or GZ:
1. Stability improves if the centre of gravity, G is lowered, as this

increases the transverse metacentric height, GM.
2. Stability gets worse if centre of gravity, G is raised, as this

decreases the GM or even makes the GM negative.
3.1 Adding and Removing

Let us now determine the transverse metacentric height, GM, following
loading or discharging of a vessel. When masses are added/discharged to a
vessel whose total displacement and the center of gravity is known, the new
position of the center of gravity above the keel must be calculated. This is
obtained by taking moments about the keel. Consider Figure 3.6,
Initial Displacement = ∆
Figure 3.6

Section 3 Stability
It shows the cross section of a vessel, with the following:
∆ = initial displacement
K = keel
Gold = initial centre of gravity
Gnew = new centre of gravity
m = added/removed masses
g = centre of gravity of added/removed masses
As masses m1, m2, and m3 are added/removed to the positions g1, g2, and g3, the
vessel’s centre of gravity will shift from Gold to Gnew. The new centre of
gravity can be obtained by taking moments about the keel (K). This can be
expressed as,
Moment of Mass about the Keel

KGnew =
Final Mass
∆ old KG old + m1 Kg1 + m 2 Kg 2 + m 3 Kg 3 + ...

KGnew =
∆ + m1 + m 2 + m 3 + ...
---------------(3.5)
Note:
• KG or Kg represents the distance from the keel to the respective
centre of gravity.
• If a mass is removed, its sign will change to (-) ve, ie. -m1.
For the addition/removal of small masses, it can be assumed that the height of
the metacenter above the keel remains the same, ie. KM is constant. Thus,
referring to Figure 3.1,
KM = KG - GM ---------------(3.6)
If the number of weights added and/or discharged are more than one, it
is easier to carry out the calculations in a tabular form. This is
explained in the next example.

Section 3 Stability
Example
A ship of 7000 tonne displacement has its center of gravity 5.2 m above the
keel. The height of metacenter is 6.5 m above the keel. The following
loading/discharging operations are carried out:
• cargo of 500 t is loaded at a centre of gravity 3.2 m
• cargo of 150 t is loaded at a centre of gravity 5.4 m
• fuel of 300 t with its center of gravity 0.6 m is used.
Ignoring the free surface effects and assuming KM remains constant, calculate
the new centre of gravity and the metacentric height, GM.
∆ = 7000 t KM = 6.5 m KGold = 5.2 m

m1 = 500 t (loaded) Kg1 = 3.2 m
m2 = 150 t (loaded) Kg2 = 5.4 m
m3 = -300 t (discharged) Kg3 = 0.6 m (note: negative)
new KG and GM

KGnew = ------(3.5)
∆ + m1 + m 2 + m 3 + ...
KM = KG - GM ---------------(3.6)
As stated earlier, this is easier to carry out in a tabular form. The table consists
of four columns: description; mass (m); distance to the centre of gravity from
the keel (Kg); and the mass moment about the keel (m.Kg), which is the
product of the previous two columns.
Description Mass (t) Kg (m) Moment (t.m)
∆ 7000 5.2 36400

m1 500 3.2 1600
m2 150 5.4 810
m3 -300 0.6 -180
Totals 7350 38630
Note: column two (mass) is totalled to give the new displacement, while
column four (moments) is summed to give the total mass moments about the
keel.

Section 3 Stability
Now looking at equation (3.5),

KGnew =
∆ + m1 + m 2 + m 3 + ...
It is seen that the numerator is the total mass moments about the keel, ie. the
sum of column four, while the denominator is the new displacement, ie. the
sum of column two. Thus substituting,
38630
KGnew = = 5.26 m
7350
Now using equation (3.6), we obtain the new GM as,
GMnew = KM - KGnew = 6.5 - 5.26 = 1.24 m
Activity 3.3
A vessel with a displacement of 4800 t has its center of gravity is 5.8 m above
the keel. The following are then loaded/discharged.
• 1100 t weight is loaded in its cargo hold with the center of gravity 2.5 m
• 400 t of deck cargo is loaded with a center of gravity of 12 m
• 150 t of cargo is removed from a center of gravity 0.7 m.
Calculate the vessel’s new center of gravity.

Section 3 Stability
3.2 Shifting
Effect of shifting weights may be also be calculated in a similar way. In this
case, the new position of the center of gravity from the keel is given by,
wd
GG1 = ---------------(3.7)
∆
where
GG1 : shift in centre of gravity
w : weight shifted
d : distance shifted
Thus,
KGnew = KGold + GG1 ---------------(3.8)
Note: the shift in the centre of gravity (GG1), is in the direction of the
shift of the weight.
Example
For a vessel of 6400 tonne displacement, the centre of gravity is 3.4 m and the
GM is 0.65 m. A 250 tonne container is moved from the hold to the upper
deck. During this process, the centre of mass of the container is moved 11 m
vertically up. Calculate the new GM.
∆ = 6400 t KGold = 3.4 m GM = 0.65 m

w = 250 t d = 11 m vertically up
new GM
KM = KG - GM ---------------(3.6)
wd
GG1 = ---------------(3.7)
∆
KGnew = KGold + GG1 ---------------(3.8)

Section 3 Stability
Using equation (3.7), the shift in the centre of gravity is,
wd 250 x 11
GG1 = = = 0.43 m vertically up.
∆ 6400
Thus, in equation (3.8), we get the new KG as,
KGnew = KGold + GG1 = 3.4 + 0.43 = 3.83 m
To find the new GM, we first need KM. Since, KM = KG + GM, using the
original values,
KM = KG + GM = 3.4 + 0.65 = 4.05 m
KM will remain the same. Therefore, the new GM can be obtained from
equation (3.6) as,
GMnew = KM - KGnew = 4.05 - 3.83 = 0.22 m
Activity 3.4
A vessel has a displacement of 8700 tonne and its centre of gravity is 4.2 m
above the keel. 450 tonnes of cargo is m moved from deck down into a cargo
hold. If the vertical movement is equal to 7 m, calculate the new KG

Section 3 Stability
4. Inclining Experiment
The inclining experiment is carried out on a vessel when the vessel is near
completion, ie. as near to the lightship condition as possible. The immediate
purpose of the inclining experiment is to find out the GM value of the vessel,
but the ultimate aim is to determine the vertical center of gravity, KG of the
vessel.
Usually concrete blocks are used as weights and the inclination of the vessel is
measured by the movement of pendulums.
When the vessel is in an upright condition, a small weight (mass) is moved

transversely across the deck through a known distance. This causes the ship to
list. The resultant angle of heel is measured by means of pendulums or an
instrument called stabilograph, which directly gives the heeling angle of the
vessel in degrees.
If pendulums are used, they should be as long as possible and of fine wire
supporting a heavy bob weight. The deflection of the pendulum is measured
against a horizontal batten. From this the angle of heel (θ) can be obtained.
Figure 3.7
Procedure
As shown in Figure 3.7, a mass is moved transversely across the deck through
a known distance, d. As the mass, m is moved, the center of gravity moves
from G to G1. This movement can be calculated from equation (3.8) as,
md
GG1 = ---------------(3.9)
∆

Section 3 Stability
At the same time the ship will incline through an angle of θ, and will be in a
position of a stable equilibrium. The center of buoyancy, B will have to move
to B1 so as to be in the same vertical line as G1.
Looking at Figure 3.7, GG1 is parallel to the movement of the weight. Thus,
the angle G1GM is a right angle. Therefore, using trigonometric functions,
GG1 = GM x Tan θ ---------------(3.10)
Substituting GG1 from equation (3.9) into equation (3.10) and re-arranging, we
obtain,
md
GM = ---------------(3.11)
∆ Tan θ
If a pendulum is used, then the angle of heel (θ) is obtained as,
deflection of pendulum
Tan θ = ---------------(3.12)
length of pendulum
The following conditions should be met before and during the inclining
experiment, to ensure the accuracy of the experiment.
Conditions During Test
• vessel should be close as possible to lightship condition

• vessel should float freely with slack mooring lines and with sufficient
depth
• no other vessels alongside
• minimum wind and current, any wind should be a head on or stern.
• as few people as possible on board the vessel
• all weights secured in seagoing positions on board
• no free surfaces
Conducting of Test
• either more than one pendulum (fore and aft), or an accurate

inclinometer should be used
• the experiment is carried out with several shifts of mass from side to
side and the mean values are used for the calculations
• the vessel must be upright at the commencement of the test

Section 3 Stability
Calculation of Results
• weights of people on board should be accounted for.

• any weights which need to be added as part of the vessel’s final
displacement should be included in the calculations
• the displacement must be accurately estimated, thus the draughts must
be carefully measured and the density of the water in which the ship is
floating should be determined by a hydrometer.
Example
During an inclining experiment of a vessel, when a 4 tonne mass is moved a

distance of 12 m across the deck, a 3 m long pendulum deflects by 60 mm.
The vessel has a displacement of 3500 t at the time of the test. Calculate the
GM of the vessel.
∆ = 3500 t m = 4t d = 3m
pendulum length = 3 m deflection = 0.06 m
GM
md
GM = ---------------(3.11)
∆ Tan θ
deflection of pendulum
Tan θ = ---------------(3.12)
length of pendulum
Using equation (3.12), we obtain the angle as,
deflection of pendulum 0.06

Tan θ = = = 0.02
length of pendulum 3
The GM is determined using equation (3.11) as,
md 4 x 12 48
GM = = = = 0.686 m
∆ Tan θ 3500 x 0.02 70

Section 3 Stability
Activity 3.5
An inclining experiment is carried out on a vessel having a displacement of

9000 t. The test consists of a 12 tonne mass being moved a distance of 17 m
across the deck. This records a deflection of 120 mm on a 5 m long pendulum.
The KM of the vessel is 5.2 m. Calculate the center of gravity of the vessel
above the keel.
Activity 3.6
1. Organise and participate in an inclining experiment on a small vessel, (ask

your instructor to assist you with the test).
2. Record the experimental results and calculate the GM and KG of the vessel.
3. List the corrections that need to be carried out on the results.
4. List the precautions carried out before and during the test.
5. Ask your instructor to check your answers.

Section 3 Stability
5. Effects of Slack Tanks on

Stability
All liquids in partially-filled tanks have a free surface. Thus, the liquid is free
to slop backwards and forward as well as port and starboard, with the motion
of the ship. This free surface effect can cause a serious stability problem, if the
movement of the liquid is not contained.
Consider a vessel having slack tanks. The vessel first rolls slightly to a small
angle of heel as a result of wave forces. This will cause the liquid in the tank
to flow to the lower side of the tank, (Figure 3.8(a)). This will shift its centre
of gravity to the lower side, thus further increase the list of the vessel. If the
FSE. causes the vessel to list to large angles, it could capsize the vessel.
The free surface effect can be represented as a virtual reduction in metacentric

height. This results in a reduction the size of the vessel’s GM, and thus the size
of GZ. Consequently the ability of the vessel to return to the upright position is
reduced.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.8
Figure 3.8(b) illustrates movements of G and B when a vessel with free

surfaces heels. The center of buoyancy moves from B to B1. If there were no
free surfaces, G would remain in the same position.
However, a volume of liquid in the slack tank will move to the same side as the
vessel heeled. This moves G to G1. It means that the righting arm GZ is now
reduced to G1Z, (due to free surface).

Section 3 Stability
As seen from Figure 3.8(b), it is not easy to write an expression between G1Z
and GM. However, when we draw a vertical line from G1, it cuts the GM line
at point G2, giving,
G1Z = G2Z
It is now easy to write an expression as,
G2Z = G2M x Sin θ
GG2 is termed as the “virtual reduction in the metacentric height due to

free surface effect” or simply the “free surface effect”.
This virtual reduction in metacentric height is calculated as,
ρf i
GG2 = ---------------(3.13)
∆
where
ρf = density of the fluid inside the tank (t/ m3)
i = the second moment of area of the free surface about the centre line
of the tank (m4)
∆ = displacement of the vessel (t)
Note: at this level you will not be required to calculate “i”. It will be given if
required.
Example
A vessel of 6000 t displacement has a partially full oil tank carrying oil of
specific gravity 0.8. The second moment of area of the free surface about its
centre line is 864 m4. Calculate the virtual reduction in the metacentric
height of the vessel.
∆ = 6000 t ρf = 0.8 t/m3 i = 864 m4
GG2

Section 3 Stability
ρf i
GG2 = ---------------(3.13)
∆
Using equation (3.13),
ρf i 0.8 x 864 691.2

GG2 = = = = 0.115 m
∆ 6000 6000
Activity 3.7
A ship 8000 t displacement has a rectangular tank partially full of oil having a
specific gravity of 0.85. The second moment of area of the free surface about
its centre line is 667 m4. Calculate the virtual reduction in metacentric height.
5.1 The Effect of Tank Divisions on Free

Surface
Free surface effect is at a maximum in tanks which extend right across the
breadth of the vessel. Therefore, it is possible to reduce the FSE by
partitioning the tank longitudinally as shown in Figure 3.9. This restricts the
flow of liquid across the tank to the low side, when the ship is heeled. It
however, does not remove the FSE, but reduces it to an acceptable level.
Practically all tanks are longitudinally subdivided for this reason.
From an operational point, FSE can be reduced by having tanks either full or
empty.

Section 3 Stability
Top: no longitudinal subdivision. Bottom: two longitudinal bulkheads
Figure 3.9
The FSE on the GM in a partitioned tank is calculated in a similar manner.

Thus, the effect due to each segment of the partitioned tank is calculated and
the GM modified accordingly. This is repeated for all tank segments. It will
be seen that the reduction in GM in this case will be less than that of having a
non-partitioned tank.
Note: the second moment of area of the free surface about its centre line for
each tank segment is required.
• The depth or amount of liquid in the tank and position of the tank
do not affect the free surface to any great degree.
• Free surface area is the main factor and displacement of the ship
is also a contributing factor.
• Only a completely empty or completely full tank will have zero

free surface.

Section 3 Stability
6. Effects of Bilging
If a vessel is damaged and water enters a compartment, which was
previously watertight, the compartment is said to have been bilged.
When a compartment is bilged:
• the buoyancy provided by the underwater volume of that

compartment is lost; and
• the reserve buoyancy of the enclosed volume above the waterline of

that compartment is lost.
Figure 3.10
Before bilging, the reserve buoyancy was the entire enclosed volume above
the original waterline, (Figure 3.10). After bilging it is the enclosed volume
above the new intact water plane area.
If this compartment bilged, is to one side of the centre line, then the vessel will
take up an angle of list. Depending upon the location of the compartment, the
vessel may also trim by the bow or stern. In any case, the draught will
increase. This will reduce the freeboard, and thus the reserve buoyancy.
Hence, bilging will always to reduce stability.
The increase in draught depends on the permeability (µ). This is the volume
of a compartment into which water may flow, if the compartment is bilged.
volume of water
Permeability (µ) = x 100
total volume of compartment
---------------(3.14)

Section 3 Stability
If a middle compartment is bilged, the only change will be in the increased

draft of the vessel. This increase in draft is calculated as,
volume of lost buoyancy

Increase in Draft = ---------------(3.15)
area of int act waterplane
Let us look at the bilging of a vessel represented by a box barge. Consider the
vessel shown in Figure 3.11. The centre compartment is bilged, thus causing
the vessel’s draft to increase without effecting its trim.
Figure 3.11
The dimensions of the box barge are: length “L”, width “B”, and draft “T”.
The centre compartment that is bilged has a length of “l”. The permeability of
the compartment is µ. Thus, using equation (3.15),
volume of lost buoyancy

Increase in Draft =
area of int act waterplane
µlBT
=
(L − µl) B
Simplifying the above,
Bilging of a box barge:
µlT
L − µl

Section 3 Stability
Example
A box barge 80 m long and 20 m wide, floats at a level keel draft of 6 m. A 10

m long mid-length compartment having a permeability of 75 percent, is bilged.
Calculate the new draft of the box barge.
L = 80 m B = 20 m T = 6m
l = 10 m µ = 75% = 0.75
new draft
µlT
L − µl
Using equation (3.16), the increase in draft is,
µlT 0.75 x 10 x 6 45
Increase in Draft = = = = 0.62 m
L − µl 80 − 0.75 x 10 72.5
The new draft will be the old draft plus the increase in draft. Thus,
New draft = 6 + 0.64 = 6.62 m.
The bilging of end compartment, resulting in the increase in draft and change
in trim us explained in Section 4.
Activity 3.8
A box barge 60 m long and 16 m wide floats at a level keel draft of 6 m. A mid
length compartment is 12 m long. Calculate the new draft, if this compartment
is bilged with 85 percent permeability

Section 3 Stability
7. Load Lines
It is vital for the safety of a vessel that it should have an adequate freeboard at
all times. In other words, a vessel should never be overloaded. For the benefit
of all concerned, there should be a simple way of determining when a vessel is
overloaded and when it is not.
Marine authorities determine the freeboards that a vessel must have in different
parts of the world and at different times of the year. These freeboards are
indicated by loadline marks on the sides of the vessel. Freeboards are assigned
on the basis that a vessel complies with certain conditions.
7.1 Conditions of Assignment of Loadlines

Conditions of assignment are regulations to ensure that a vessel is provided
with efficient means of:
• protection for all openings to the hull and superstructure;

• protection of crew in heavy weather, and
• rapid freeing of water from the weather decks.
Freeboards of a vessel is assigned by an Authority under the terms of the

International Loadline Convention, 1966. These regulations do not apply to
fishing vessels or vessels of less than 24 metres in length. Freeboards are only
assigned when the Authority is satisfied that the vessel complies with the
conditions of assignment applicable, and that the vessel meets strength and
stability standards. Conditions of assignment deal with:
• stability information
• bulkheads at exposed ends of enclosed superstructures
• access openings in bulkheads
• cargo and other hatchways
• coamings of hatchways
• hatchway covers
• protection of openings
• ventilator coamings
• air pipes
• cargo ports
• discharges, inlets, and scuppers
• side scuttles
• protection for crew
• special conditions for type “A” vessels
• provision of loading information

Section 3 Stability
Type “A” vessel means a vessel:
• that is designed to carry only liquid cargoes in bulk;

• that has a high integrity of the exposed deck as cargo tanks have only
small access openings closed by watertight covers of steel or equivalent
material; and
• that has a high degree of safety against flooding, resulting from the low
permeability of loaded cargo spaces and the degree of sub-division
provided.
Type “B” vessel means a vessel other than a Type “A” vessel.
Once freeboards have been assigned, the following are to be marked on each
side of the vessel, (see Figure 3.12):
• deckline
• loadline disc and mark
• seasonal loadline marks
The mark of the assigning authority may be marked above, or above and below
the horizontal line that forms part of the loadline mark and alongside the
circular mark.
Figure 3.12 Loadlines
Figure 3.12 shows the typical loadlines for a vessel trading around Australia.
The abbreviations are as follows:
TF Tropical Fresh Water Mark

F Fresh Water Mark
T Tropical Mark
S Summer (Plimsoll) Mark
W Winter Mark

Section 3 Stability
• The tropical, summer, and winter are the marks which must not be
submerged when the vessel is trading in a designated tropical zone,
summer zone, or winter zone respectively.
• Fresh water and tropical fresh water marks indicate the drafts to which a
vessel may be loaded when floating in fresh water in designated summer
and tropical zones respectively.
• The vessel has an extra Winter North Atlantic freeboard mark, if it is

intended to be operated in the North Atlantic.
• The deckline is marked to show the position of the freeboard deck.
The names of the zones are only loosely related to the seasons of the year. It is
possible to have summer zones in winter and vice versa. Bad sea and weather
conditions are associated with winter zones; better weather with summer
zones, and good conditions with tropical zones. As a result, a greater freeboard
is required for the bad weather zones in comparison with good weather zones.
In all cases, the measurements are made to the tops of the lines.
The letters on either side of the disc indicate the marine authority that is
responsible for the survey of the vessel. Freeboards can also be assigned by a
classification society.
Activity 3.9
1. Inspect the Loadline certificate of a vessel of your vessel.

2. Identify if the vessel is classed as a type “A” or “B”.
3. Identify the assignment procedure and conditions for the certificate.
4. Ask your instructor to check your answer.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Section 3 Stability
Before the relevant authority issues the vessel with a loadline certificate, an
initial survey is carried out to ensure that:
• the vessel is structurally sound;

• Freeboards are assigned;
• the vessel has the appropriate loadline and associated marks;
• means of closing hatchways and other openings are tested for
weathertightness or watertightness; and
• the vessel has the following documents:
⇒ stability information,
⇒ loadline information, and
⇒ a statement setting out the conditions of assignment.
In addition to initially complying with the conditions of assignment, the vessel

must be maintained in a satisfactory condition at all times. The assigning
authority carries out annual surveys to ensure that conditions of assignment
are maintained in satisfactory condition for the continued validity of the
loadline certificate.
7.2 Overloading
A vessel is deemed to be overloaded when:
the appropriate loadline marked on either side of the vessel is

submerged, when the vessel is floating without a list in still saltwater of
specific gravity 1.025.
It may happen that a vessel may pass from one zone to the other during the
course of its voyage. In such cases, the necessary calculations must be
performed at the loading port to ensure that at no stage during the voyage, does
the vessel submerge the appropriate loadline.
For example a vessel may load at a port in a summer zone and its voyage may
take it through a winter zone. During the voyage from the loading port to the
winter zone, the vessel will consume fuel, stores, etc, and its freeboard will
increase. Therefore the vessel should sail from the loading port at a draft, such
that the consumption of fuel, etc., is sufficient to make it float at the winter
mark when it arrives in the winter zone.
It is an offence, if:
• an overloaded vessel goes to sea; or

• deck lines and loadlines are not marked

Section 3 Stability
Section Summary
In this section you have learnt to carry out basic stability calculations and
assess the stability of vessels. You should now refer to the learning outcome
and assessment criteria stated at the beginning of this section and ask yourself
if you can:
• define terms commonly used in relation to stability, including, KM, KB,

KG, GM, and the righting lever, and establish their relative positions;
• define stability at small angles of heel and solve related problems;
• calculate the effects on the vessels stability due to: adding, removing,
shifting weights, and using vessel’s lifting gear to handle weights;
• demonstrate the preparation and conduction of inclining experiments on a
vessel in accordance with statutory requirements;
• calculate the effects of slack tanks on a vessel’s stability;
• explain the effects of bilging different compartments and solve simple
problems involving box shaped vessels;
• explain the assignment of load lines;
• describe IMO stability criteria.;
Progress Check 3
1. A box barge of L = 100 m, B = 24 m floats at a level draught of 10 m.

Calculate the height of transverse metacentre above the keel.
2. A ship of 7000 tonne displacement has the centre of gravity 5.2 m above the
keel. The centre of buoyancy 3.12 m above the keel and the height of
metacentre 5.5 m above the keel. 300 tonnes of fuel with its centre of
gravity 1.2 m from the keel are now loaded. Ignoring the free surface
effects and assuming KM remains constant, calculate the new metacentric
height, GM.
3. The vessel has a displacement of 3600 t and its centre of gravity is 5.8 m
above the keel. In port, 2000 t of cargo is loaded in its cargo hold at a
centre of gravity 3.5 m, 500 t of deck cargo is loaded at a centre of gravity
of 12 m, and 320 t of cargo is unloaded from a location 8 m above the keel.
In addition, 250 t of fuel is loaded in fuel tanks at a centre of gravity 1.0 m.
All weights are at the centre line. Calculate the vessel’s new centre of
gravity.

Section 3 Stability
4. For a ship of 5000 tonne displacement, the GM is 0.84 m. A 400 tonne

container is moved from the hold to the upper deck. During this process, if
the centre of mass of the container is moved 8 m vertically, calculate the
new GM.
5. Explain the purpose of conducting an inclining experiment and describe the

conditions to be met during the inclining experiment.
6. A vessel of 8000 t displacement has its centre of gravity 4.6m above the
keel and its transverse metacentre 5.4 m above the keel. A centre tank
having a second moment of area of the free surface about its centre line of
427 m4, contains sea water.
A mass of 12 tonne is moved 12 m across the deck. Calculate the angle of

heel if:
• there is no free surface effect; and
• the tank is not completely full.
7. Using sketches and drawings, explain how the free surface effects due to
fluid in tanks change by longitudinal and transverse divisions.
8. Compare the free surface effects for a tank length l and width b, with no
tank division and with two equally spaced longitudinal bulkheads.
9. A box barge 90 m long and 20 m beam floats at a level keel draft of 6 m. It

has a mid length compartment 15 m long. Calculate the new draft if this
compartment is bilged with a 87% percent permeability.
10. Draw a sketch of a typical loadline marking and explain the meaning of the
various markings.

Section 3 Stability

Section 4 Trim
Section 4
Trim

Section 4 Trim
Section 4: Trim
Conditions 101
1. Trim 102
2. Trim Due to Shifting Weights 103
3. Trim Due to Adding/Removing Weights 107
4. Other Effects on Trim 112
Section Summary 114

Section 4 Trim
Learning Outcome 4
On completion of this section you will be able to carry out basic trim
calculations and assess the trim and draft of the vessel.
Assessment Criteria
• LCF is defined and its relative position is established.
• Trim, longitudinal BM and GM are explained and simple problems
involving box shaped vessels are solved.
• Moment to change trim 1 cm (MCTC) is defined and related simple
problems are solved.
• Effects on the vessels trim due to:
⇒ adding;
⇒ removing;
⇒ shifting weights; and
⇒ bilging
are explained and simple problems are solved.
Conditions
answer questions

You will provide:

• a calculator
In Section 3, you carried out basic transverse stability calculations. In this
section you will be introduced to trim and the change in trim due to the
moving, adding, or removing of weights.
You will also solve simple problems to calculate the change in trim and the
resulting drafts due to the above.

Section 4 Trim
1. Trim
If the aft and forward draughts of a vessel are different, the vessel is said to
have trim.
Trim is the difference between the aft and forward draughts.
• For example, if a vessel has a forward draught of 6 m and an aft draught of

5 m, the vessel is trimmed by 1 m by the head.
• If the aft draught is greater than the forward draught, the vessel is said to
trim by the stern.
When a mass is added, removed, or shifted along the length of the vessel, it
will trim about a transverse axis, that passes through the Longitudinal Centre
of Flotation (LCF), see Figure 4.1.
• The longitudinal centre of flotation (LCF) is defined as the centroid of

the waterplane area at which the vessel is floating.
• The LCF is measured from amidships and is usually taken as negative,

if it is aft of amidships.
Figure 4.1
The man draft is the draft that the vessel will lie at a level keel. Since the
draft at LCF will not change, (ie. the vessel pivots about it), this draft can be
taken as the mean draft.

Section 4 Trim
We shall examine the trim for two conditions dealing with small weights:
• trim due to the movement of weights longitudinally; and

• trim due to adding or removing weights.
2. Trim Due to Shifting Weights

Figure 4.2 shows a situation where a mass of “m” is moved from forward to
aft, a distance “d”. This move causes the vessel to trim by the stern.
The centre of gravity (G) and the centre of buoyancy (B) of the vessel will
move longitudinally to G1 and B1 respectively. For statical equilibrium, ML,
G1, and B1 should lie on the same vertical. (Note: the metacentre in this case is
the longitudinal metacentre, ML).
Figure 4.2
The total trim is calculated as,
Trim (t):
trim moment
Trim (t) = ---------------(4.1)
MCTC
where
t = total trim (m)
MCTC = moment to change trim by 1 cm (tonne-m/cm)
The units of the MCTC is tonne-m, and it is calculated as,

Section 4 Trim
∆ GM L
MCTC = ---------------(4.2)
100 L
where
MCTC = moment to change trim by 1 cm (tonne-m/cm)
∆ = displacement of the vessel (t)
L = length of the vessel (tonne-m)
GML = longitudinal metacentric height (m)
Trim moment, in this case is calculated as the mass times the distance it is
moved. Thus,
Trim Moment = m x d ---------------(4.3)
where
m = mass moved (t)
L = distance moved (m)
Once the total trim is found, then the change in the aft and forward draughts
can be determined. Thus,
t ⎛L ⎞
Change in Draft - aft = x ⎜ + LCF ⎟ -------------(4.4)
L x 100 ⎝ 2 ⎠
t ⎛L ⎞
Change in Draft - forward = x ⎜ − LCF ⎟ -------------(4.5)
L x 100 ⎝ 2 ⎠
Note: When adding/subtracting equations (4.4) and (4.5) to the old drafts, aft
and forward respectively, due respect must be paid to their signs.
If the trim is by the head:

• add the change in draft - forward, to the forward draft; and
• subtracted the change in draft - aft, from the aft draft.
If the trim is by the aft:

• subtracted the change in draft - forward, from the forward draft; and
• add the change in draft - aft, to the aft draft.

Section 4 Trim
Remember: if the LCF is aft of amidships, it is taken as negative.
Example
A vessel of displacement 6000 tonne and length 120 m, floats at an aft

draught of 6.4 m and a forward draught 5.8 m. The LCF is 2 m aft of
amidships and the MCTC is 300 t-m/cm. A 300 tonne container is moved 50
m from aft to forward. Calculate the trim and the new drafts, aft and forward.
∆ = 6000 t L = 120 m LCF = -2 m (aft)

TA = 6.4 m TF = 5.8 m MCTC = 300 t-m/cm
m = 300 t d = 50 m (forward)
t, and new TA and TF
Write down the formulae to be used [(4.1), (4.3), (4.4), (4.5)]
trim moment
Trim (t) = ---------------(4.1)
MCTC
Trim Moment = m x d ---------------(4.3)
t ⎛L ⎞
Change in Draft - aft = x ⎜ + LCF ⎟ ---------------(4.4)
L x 100 ⎝ 2 ⎠
t ⎛L ⎞
Change in Draft - forward = x ⎜ − LCF ⎟ ---------------
L x 100 ⎝ 2 ⎠
(4.5)
Using equation (4.3), we obtain the trim moment as,
Trim Moment = m x d = 300 x 50 = 15000 t-m (by the head)
Now using equation (4.1), we obtain the trim (t) as,
trim moment 15,000

Trim (t) = = = 50 cm, by the head
MCTC 300

Section 4 Trim
Now to obtain the change in drafts, aft and forward. First considering aft,
from equation (4.4),
t ⎛L ⎞
Change in Draft - aft = x ⎜ + LCF ⎟
L x 100 ⎝ 2 ⎠
50 ⎛ 120 ⎞
= x⎜ + (−2) ⎟ = 0.24 m
120 x 100 ⎝ 2 ⎠
Since the vessel is trimmed by the head, the new draft- aft is obtained by
subtracting the change in draft - aft from the old draft. Thus,
new draft - aft = 6.4 - 0.24 = 6.16 m
Next obtain the change in draft - forward. Using equation (4.5),
t ⎛L ⎞
Change in Draft - aft = x ⎜ − LCF ⎟
L x 100 ⎝ 2 ⎠
50 ⎛ 120 ⎞
= x⎜ − (−2) ⎟ = 0.26 m
120 x 100 ⎝ 2 ⎠
Since the vessel is trimmed by the head, the new draft- forward is obtained by
adding the change in draft - forward to the old draft. Thus,
new draft - forward = 5.8 + 0.26 = 6.06 m
Activity 4.1
A vessel has a length of 140 m and floats at an even keel draught of 6.2 m. The
LCF is 2 m forward of amidships and its MCTC is 260 t-m/cm. A 250 tonne
container is moved 50 m from forward to aft. Calculate the change in the aft
and forward draughts due to trim, and determine the final draughts.

Section 4 Trim
3. Trim Due to Adding/Removing

Weights
The Effect on a vessel’s draft due to adding or removing weights are two fold:
• parallel sinkage or rise; and

• trim.
Calculations involving trim due to adding or removing weights will be almost

identical to those described in the previous sub-section. The only difference
will be in the determination of the trim moment. The trim moment due to
adding weight at a position other than LCF is calculated as,
Trim Moment = w x d ---------------(4.6)
where
w = weight added to/removed from the vessel (t)
L = distance of centre of gravity of the weight from the LCF (m)

Section 4 Trim
The position of the centre of gravity of the weight in relation to the LCF and
the adding or removing of the weight defines the way the ship trims. Thus,
• If the centre of gravity of the weight added is aft of the LCF, the vessel
will trim by the stern.
• If the centre of gravity of the weight added is forward of the LCF, the
vessel will trim by the head.
• If the weight is removed, the trim will be opposite to those stated

above.
To determine the final draughts, we also need to consider the sinkage.

Sinkage due to added weight, w can be calculated from equation (1.10),
redefined as (4.7) for this section,
w
Sinkage (in cm) = ---------------(4.7)
TPC
where
TPC = Tonnes Per Centimetre immersion
w = weight added (t)
If the weight is removed, then the vessel will rise by the above value.
Thus, when the final forward and aft drafts are obtained, the sinkage
should be added on to them. If the vessel is raised, it should be subtracted
from them.
Thus, the equations required for trim calculations can be summarised as,
PTO

Section 4 Trim
trim moment
Trim (t) = ---------------(4.1)
MCTC
∆ GM L
MCTC = ---------------(4.2)
100 L
Trim Moment
mass moved (m)
Trim Moment = m x d ---------------(4.3)

or
mass added or removed (w)
Trim Moment = w x d ---------------(4.6)
t ⎛L ⎞
L x 100 ⎝ 2 ⎠
t ⎛L ⎞
Change in Draft - forward = x ⎜ − LCF ⎟ -----------
L x 100 ⎝ 2 ⎠
----(4.5)
w
Sinkage (in cm) = ---------------(4.7)
TPC
Example
A vessel 120 m long floats at draughts of 6.8 m forward and 7.4 m aft. The
MCTC (cm) is 150 t-m/cm, the TPC is 20 t (cm), and the longitudinal centre of
flotation 2.0 m aft of amidships. A 300 t mass is loaded on the deck with its
centre of gravity 30 m forward of amidships. Determine:
a) the sinkage and trim due to addition of mass; and
b) the final draughts.
L = 120 m LCF = -2 m (aft) TPC = 20 t/cm

TF = 6.8 m TA = 7.4 m MCTC = 150 t-m/cm
w = 300 t d = 30 + 2 = 32 m (forward of amidship)
Note: “d” is the distance from the LCF to the centre of gravity, hence 32 m.

Section 4 Trim
sinkage, t, and new TA and TF
Write down the formulae to be used [(4.1), (4.6), (4.4), (4.5), (4.7)]
trim moment
Trim (t) = ---------------(4.1)
MCTC
Trim Moment = w x d ---------------(4.6)
t ⎛L ⎞
L x 100 ⎝ 2 ⎠
t ⎛L ⎞
Change in Draft - forward = x ⎜ − LCF ⎟ ---------------
L x 100 ⎝ 2 ⎠
(4.5)
w
Sinkage (in cm) = ---------------(4.7)
TPC
a) Sinkage and trim. Sinkage is obtained from equation (4.7) as,
w 300
Sinkage (in cm) = = = 15 cm = 0.15 m
TPC 20
To find the trim, first find the trim moment. Using equations (4.6)
Trim Moment = w x d = 300 x 32 = 9600 t-m (by the head)
Now using equation (4.1), we obtain the trim (t) as,
trim moment 9600

Trim (t) = = = 64 cm, by the head
MCTC 150
b) Now to obtain the change in drafts, aft and forward. First considering aft,
from equation (4.4),
t ⎛L ⎞
Change in Draft - aft = x ⎜ + LCF ⎟
L x 100 ⎝ 2 ⎠
64 ⎛ 120 ⎞
= x⎜ + (−2) ⎟ = 0.309 m
120 x 100 ⎝ 2 ⎠

Section 4 Trim
Since the vessel is trimmed by the head, the new draft due to trim - aft is
obtained by subtracting the change in draft - aft from the old draft. Thus,
new draft due to trim - aft = 7.4 - 0.309 = 7.091 m
Now adding the sinkage,
new draft - aft = 7.091 + 0.15 = 7.241 m
Next obtain the change in draft - forward. Using equation (4.5),
t ⎛L ⎞
Change in Draft - aft = x ⎜ − LCF ⎟
L x 100 ⎝ 2 ⎠
64 ⎛ 120 ⎞
= x⎜ − (−2) ⎟ = 0.331 m
120 x 100 ⎝ 2 ⎠
Since the vessel is trimmed by the head, the new draft due to trim- forward
is obtained by adding the change in draft - forward to the old draft. Thus,
new draft due to trim - forward = 6.8 + 0.331 = 7.131 m
Now adding the sinkage,
new draft - aft = 7.131 + 0.15 = 7.281 m
Activity 4.2
A vessel 110 m long floats at draughts of 6.8 m forward and 7.5 m aft. The
MCTC (cm) is 180 t-m/cm, the TPC is 26 t (cm), and the longitudinal centre of
flotation 1.6 m aft of amidships. It is intended to level the draught by taking
ballast water into an empty double bottom tank having a centre of gravity 25 m
forward of amidships. Calculate:
• the mass of water which needs to be ballasted; and
• the final draughts.
PTO

Section 4 Trim
4. Other Effects on Trim

In the above two sub-sections, we dealt with the change of trim due to the
shifting, adding, or removing a small weight. However, there are other
conditions that effect the trim of the vessel. These include:
• In Section 1 we noted that when a vessel passes from water of one density
to another, it’s draft will either increase or decrease, depending on the
change in the water density. Since this change in draft, changes the
underwater volume, and hence the location of the longitudinal centre of
buoyancy, the trim of the vessel will change.
Figure 4.3

Section 4 Trim
Consider Figure 4.3, as the vessel moves from sea water to fresh water the
draft will increase, ie. the waterline will rise from W1L1 to W2L2. This
will cause the centre of buoyancy to move from B1 to B2. As the new
centre of buoyancy (B2) is not under the centre of gravity (G1), the vessel
will trim, by the head in this case. The vessel will continue to trim until
the centre of buoyancy moves back under the centre of gravity, ie. back in
equilibrium.
• If large weights are added or removed, then the draft change will be
significant. Therefore, the calculations explained in the previous sub-
sections are not valid, and the final drafts have to be calculated from first
principles using the hydrostatic curves of the vessel.
• Bilging of compartments located a distance from the LCF of the vessel

will result in a change in the vessel’s trim. In Section 3 you calculated
the change in draft due to the bilging of a compartment located at the
LCF, thus having no effect on the trim.
When an end compartment is bilged, as shown in Figure 34.4, the vessel

will also trim in addition to the increase in draft. The vessel will trim by
the head if the bilged compartment is at the fore end and vice versa.
W1 L1
W L
L1 1
L Damaged compartment
Figure 4.4
The change in trim in this case is given by,
Change in Trim due to Bilging of a box barge:
50 L l
Change in Trim = ---------------(4.8)
GM L
where GML is the longitudinal metacentric height.

Section 4 Trim
Section Summary
In this section you have learnt to carry out basic trim calculations and assess
the trim and draft of the vessel. You should now refer to the learning outcome
and assessment criteria stated at the beginning of this section and ask yourself
if you can:
• define LCF and establish its relative position;

• explain trim, longitudinal BM and GM and solve simple problems involving
box shaped vessels;
• define moment to change trim 1 cm (MCTC) and solve related simple
problems; and
• explain the effects on the vessels trim due to adding; removing; shifting
weights; and bilging, and solve simple problems.
Progress Check 4
1. A vessel 100 m long floats at draughts of 7.2 m forward and 6.8 m aft. The
MCTC (cm) is 180 t-m/cm, the TPC is 26 t (cm), and the longitudinal centre
of flotation 2.0 m forward of amidships. A 390 t mass is loaded on the deck
with its centre of gravity 20 m aft of amidships. Calculate:
a) the sinkage and trim due to the addition of the mass; and
2. A vessel 110 m long floats at draughts of 7.1 m forward and 6.6 m aft. The
MCTC (cm) is 150 t-m/cm, the TPC is 21 t (cm), and the longitudinal centre
of flotation 2.0 m forward of amidships. It is intended to level the draught
by emptying a double bottom ballast tank having a centre of gravity 30 m
forward of amidships. Calculate:
a) the mass of water that needs to be ballasted; and

Section 5 Resistance and Propulsion
Section 5
Resistance and
Propulsion

Section 5: Resistance and Propulsion

Conditions 117
1. Resistance 118
2. Model Experiments 121
3. Admiralty Coefficient 127
4. Propellers 129
5. Apparent Slip, Real Slip and Wake 131
6. Relationships between Powers 134
Section Summary 138

Learning Outcome 5
On completion of this learning outcome you will be able to determine the
fundamental principles of ship resistance and propulsion requirements on
vessels.
Assessment Criteria
• Dimensions and terms related to propellers, including diameter, pitch, pitch
angle, and cavitation, are defined.
• Wake, true slip, apparent slip, and there relationships are defined and
simple problems solved.
• Thrust, power, and their relationship are defined and calculated.
• Law of similarity is defined and simple problems solved.
• The total resistance of a vessel and it’s relationship to the wetted surface
are described.
• Admiralty coefficient is defined.
Conditions
a written test involving calculations and short answer questions
assessment by oral questioning

• suitable classroom environment and answer booklet for written
assessment
You will provide:

• a calculator
In this section you will be introduced to the terminology related to propellers.
You will also identify and calculate the efficiency of a propeller driven by a
vessel. This includes: wake, true slip, apparent slip, and their relationship.
The resistance of a vessel, required thrust, and power will also be estimated.
You will also define the law of similarity and use it to solve simple problems.

1. Resistance
When a ship advances through the water, a force or resistance is exerted on the
ship by the surrounding water. Therefore, the ship must exert an equal or
greater amount of thrust to overcome this resistance to travel.
The total resistance (RT), of a ship is divided into two main components:
• frictional resistance, (RF); and

• residuary resistance, (RR).
Thus, the total resistance (measured in Newtons) is,
RT = RF + RR ---------------(5.1)
We shall now examine these two resistance components separately.
1.1 Frictional Resistance (RF)

Frictional resistance is mainly caused by the friction between the underwater
surface of the hull and the water flowing around it. The frictional resistance of
a vessel depends on the following:
• speed of the ship;

• length of the ship;
• wetted surface area;
• roughness of the hull; and
• density of the water.
In a general form, the frictional resistance of a ship is given as,
RF = CF S V2 ---------------(5.2)
where
RF = frictional resistance (N)
S = wetted surface area (m2)
V = vessel’s speed (knots)
CF = coefficient, that is depended upon the length of the ship, roughness
of the hull surface, and the density of the water.

1.2 Residuary Resistance (RR)

Residuary resistance of a ship is caused by:
• the formation of the streamlines around the section, ie. due to the change
in direction of water;
• sudden changes in the form; and
• the formation of the waves.
At slow speeds, residuary resistance of a ship is small compared to the

frictional resistance. Frictional resistance could be as high as 75 percent of the
total resistance. However, at high speeds, residuary resistance of a ship
increases greatly. Figure 5.1 shows a typical variation of frictional and
residuary resistance components of a ship with the vessel’s forward speed.
Resistance
Residuary resistance
Frictional resistance
Speed
Figure 5.1 Resistance Components
1.3 Froude’s Law of Similarity

Let us assume that we have two geometrically similar vessels. That is, all
physical dimensions of the two vessels are proportionate to each other.
Let L1 be the length of vessel 1 and L2 be the length of vessel 2.
Then the similarity ratio is defined as,
L1
α= ---------------(5.3)
L2

The Froude Number for a vessel is defined as,
V
Fn = ---------------(5.4)
L
For two geometrically similar vessels, the Froude Law of Similarity states that
their Froude Numbers must be equal. Thus,
V1 V2
=
L1 L2
Rearranging,
V1 L1
=
V2 L
V1
= α ---------------(5.5)
V2
The speeds thus obtained are said to be corresponding speeds.
Activity 5.1
Two similar vessels, ie. vessel 1 and vessel 2, have lengths of 120 m and 160 m
respectively. If vessel 1 has a speed of 12 knots, calculate the corresponding
speed of vessel 2. (Note: since the vessels are similar, the Froude Number for
both vessel’s are same).
Residuary resistances of these two similar vessels also follow Froude’s Law of
Similarity. Thus, we can write the following relationship between the
residuary resistance of the two vessels as,

3
R R1 ⎛L ⎞
= ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
R R2 ⎝ L2 ⎠
R R1
= α3 ---------------(5.6)
R R2
Thus, it is possible to predict the residuary resistance of a vessel from a similar

vessel. This is used in practice in model testing as explained in the next sub-
section.
1.4 Wetted Surface Area and Similarity

As seen from equation (5.2), the frictional resistance of a vessel is directly
proportionate to the wetted surface. Therefore, the relationship between the
wetted surface areas of geometrically similar vessel’s are given by,
S1
= α2 ---------------(5.7)
S2
Activity 5.2
Two similar vessels, ie. vessel 1 and vessel 2 have lengths of 120 m and 160 m
respectively. If vessel 2 has a wetted surface area of 4250 m2, calculate the
wetted surface area of vessel 1.
2. Model Experiments
The total resistance of a ship must be predicted with accuracy during the early
stages of design, so that an appropriate engine and sufficient engine room
space can be provided. The only realistic way of determining the total
resistance of a vessel is to carry out experiments on scale models in a towing
tank.

Froude’s Law of Similarity between the model and the vessel is used to
predict the resistance of the actual vessel.
The procedure for a typical resistance calculation is as follows:
1. A geometrically similar model is constructed.
2. The model is towed at a corresponding speed in the towing tank. The

corresponding speed is calculated from equation (5.5).
3. The total resistance of the model is determined from the tests.
4. The frictional resistance of the model is then calculated using equation

(5.2). This is subtracted from the total resistance (see equation (5.1)), to
obtain the residuary resistance of the model.
5. The model’s residuary resistance is used in equation (5.6) to predict actual

vessel’s residuary resistance.
6. The wetted surface area of the actual vessel is predicted from the wetted
surface area of the model using equation (5.7).
7. The frictional resistance of the actual vessel is then calculated using

equation (5.2).
8. The total resistance of the actual vessel is obtained by summing the two
components, ie. the frictional and residuary resistance.
The power required to overcome the total resistance of the ship is then
determined. This is the effective power, which is calculated by,
Effective Power = RT . V ---------------(5.8)
where
RT = total resistance (N)
V = vessel speed (m/s)
Effective Power (W)
In most cases, the model is tested in fresh water, while the actual vessel sails in
salt water. Therefore, there will be an effect on the resistance due to the
change in the density of the water. This can be accommodated by the
following,

R TSW R TFW
= ---------------(5.9)
ρ SW ρ FW
where
RT = total resistance (N)
ρ = density (t/m3)
Example
A vessel model is 4 m long and has a wetted surface area of 5 m2. When towed
at 2.5 knots in fresh water, the total resistance is found to be 26 N. If the actual
vessel is 120 m long, calculate the effective power required for the vessel at the
corresponding speed. Take CF = 0.53 for the model and CF = 0.42 for the
vessel.
model (subscript 2) vessel (subscript 1)

L2 = 4 m L1 = 120 m
S2 = 5 m2 S1 = ?
V2 = 2.5 knots V1 = ?
RT2 = 26 N in fresh water RT1 = ?
CF2 = 0.53 CF1 = 0.42
Effective Power
Write down the formulae to be used [(5.1), (5.2), (5.3), (5.5), (5.6), (5.7),
(5.8), (5.9)]
RT = RF + RR ---------------(5.1)
RF = CF S V2 ---------------(5.2)
L
α= 1 ---------------(5.3)
L2
V1
= α ---------------(5.5)
V2
R R1
= α3 ---------------(5.6)
R R2
S1
= α2 ---------------(5.7)
S2

R TSW R TFW
= ---------------(5.9)
ρ SW ρ FW
Let us first obtain the corresponding speed and the wetted surface area of the
vessel. This will be required for later calculation of the resistance and power.
To carry out these calculations, we first need the scaling factor, α. Using (5.3),
L1 120
α= = = 30
L2 4
Thus, the corresponding vessel speed (V1) is obtained by equation (5.5) as,
V1
= α
V2
V1 = 30 x 2.5 = 13.7 knot
Now to obtain the wetted surface area (S1) from equation (5.7) as,
S1
= α2
S2
S1 = 302 x 5 = 4500 m2
Now to calculate the resistance of the vessel. The resistance of the model is
given at in fresh water. Therefore, we need to determine the total resistance of
the model in salt water. Thus, using equation (5.9),
R TSW R TFW
=
ρ SW ρ FW
R TSW = 26 N x 1.025 = 26.65 N
The frictional resistance of the model is calculated using equation (5.2),
RF2 = CF2 S2 V22 = 0.53 x 5 x 2.52 = 16.56 N
The residuary resistance of the model is then found from equation (5.1) as,
R R2 = R T2 − R F2 = 26.65 - 16.56 = 10.09 N

Now that we have the resistance of the model and the data of the vessel, let us
calculate the resistance of the vessel. First let us obtain the residuary
resistances. From equation (5.6),
R R1
= α3
R R2
R R1 = 303 x 10.09 = 272,430 N
Frictional resistance is obtained from equation (5.2),
R F1 = CF S1 V12 = 0.42 x 4500 x 13.72 = 354,734 N
Thus, the total resistance of the vessel is determined by adding the frictional
and residuary resistance components together, (equation (5.1)),
R R1 = R T1 + R F1 = 272,430 + 354,734 = 627,164 N
Finally, the effective power required is calculated using equation (5.8).

However, this requires the vessel speed in m/s. Thus, converting the speed of
the vessel of 13.7 N to m/s,
13.7 x 1852
vessel speed = 13.7 knots = = 7.048 m/s
3600
Effective Power = RT1 . V = 627,164 x 7.048 = 4,420,251 W
= 4420 kW
Activity 5.3
A vessel model is 3 m long and has a wetted surface area of 4 m2. When towed
at 2.0 knots in fresh water, the total resistance is found to be 20 N. If the actual
vessel is 150 m long, calculate the effective power required for the vessel at the
corresponding speed. Take CF = 0.53 for the model and CF = 0.42 for the
vessel.
PTO


3. Admiralty Coefficient
It is sometimes advantageous to obtain an approximation to the power of a ship
without resorting to model experiments. The admiralty method which is
essentially an empirical expression is specifically developed to achieve this.
The Admiralty Coefficient is expressed as,
∆2 / 3 V 3
C = ---------------(5.10)
SP
where
∆ = displacement (tonnes)
V = ship speed (knots)
SP = shaft power (kW)
Admiralty coefficient may be considered as constant for similar vessels at their

corresponding speed. The values for “C” vary between 350-600 for different
vessels. Higher the value, the more efficient the vessel is.
Example
A ship of 6000 t displacement has an admiralty coefficient of 400. Calculate

the shaft power required at 16 knots.
∆ = 6000 t C = 400 V = 16 knots
Shaft Power (SP)
∆2 / 3 V 3
C = ---------------(5.10)
SP
Using equation (5.9), we have,
∆2 / 3 V 3
C =
SP

6000 2 / 3 16 3 1352469.4
400 = =
SP SP
1352469.4
SP = = 3381 kW
400
Activity 5.4
A ship of 8000 t displacement has an admiralty coefficient of 450. Calculate

the shaft power required at 13.5 knots.
For small changes in speed, the Admiralty coefficient may be considered as

constant for any ship of a constant displacement. Thus, if the shaft power of
one ship is known, the shaft power of a similar ship may be obtained at the
corresponding speed, by
7/6
SP1 ⎛∆ ⎞
= ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ ---------------(5.11)
SP2 ⎝ ∆2 ⎠
Activity 5.5
A ship of 15000 t displacement requires 4200 kW at a particular speed.

Calculate the shaft power required by a similar ship of 20000 t displacement at
its corresponding speed.

4. Propellers
The force needed to propel the ship must be obtained from a reaction against
the water or air, by causing a stream of water or air to move in the opposite
direction. In some cases, this reaction is generated against the air. For
example, the sailing ships use air reaction. In most vessels, this reaction force
is obtained from the screw propeller.
Let us now look at the characteristics of a marine propeller.
A propeller fitted to the aft of the ship, may be regarded as part of a helical
surface, which on being rotated, “screws” its way through water by pushing the
water aft and the ship forward. This helical screw is formed by a number of
blades, varies between 3 and 7.
Propellers can be designed to turn in either direction to produce ahead thrust.

When viewed from aft, if they turn clockwise, they are said to be right-handed
propellers. If they turn anti-clockwise, they are said to be left-handed.
Some vessels are fitted with two or more propellers. In a twin screw vessel the
starboard propeller is normally right-handed and the port propeller is left–
handed. This provides an outward turning, which helps reduce cavitation.
(cavitation, which cause rapid erosion of the propeller material, will be
discussed later).
When viewed from aft, the surface seen is called the face of the blade or
driving surface of the blade. The other surface is called the back.
P = pitch
Back
D = diameter
Hub
Face
Figure 5.2 Propeller

We shall now define the terms and dimensions associated with propellers,
(Figure 5.2).
Diameter (D)
Diameter of a propeller is the diameter of the circle cut out by the blade tips.
Pitch (P)
If the propeller is assumed to work in a fluid when no thrust is generated, the

distance the propeller will move in one revolution is known as pitch.
P
Pitch Ratio ( )
D
The ratio of the face pitch to the propeller diameter is called the pitch ratio. In
modern propellers, the pitch varies with radius. Since it is important to define
the geometry of the propeller with minimum details, a nominal pitch value
usually at a radius of 0.7 times the maximum radius is used.
Pitch Angle (θ)
If the propeller is assumed to have no forward motion, then in one revolution, a

point at the tip of a blade will move a distance,
2πR
Where R is the radius of the propeller. If the propeller is now assumed to work
at the condition when no thrust is produced, it will move a distance equal to the
pitch, P. Using this information, the pitch angle is defined as,
P
Tan θ = ---------------(5.12)
2πR
There are several special types of propeller used in vessels. You would have
studied some of them in you Engineering Knowledge modules.

5. Apparent Slip, Real Slip and

Wake
Theoretical Speed
The distance the propeller would move in unit time, when working in a fluid
where no thrust is generated, is called theoretical slip.
Theoretical Speed = P x N
where
P = pitch (m)
N = rotational speed (RPM)
Theoretical Speed (metres per minute)
Converting it to knots,
P x N x 60
Theoretical Speed = ---------------(5.13)
1852
Apparent Slip
In practice, the propeller works in water, and when developing thrust, the
propeller’s advance per revolution is less than the theoretical speed. The
difference between the two speeds is known as the apparent slip speed. Thus,
Apparent Slip Speed = Theoretical Speed – Ship Speed
This information is often used as a ratio or percentage of the theoretical speed

and is called the Apparent Slip. Thus,
Theoretical Speed − Ship Speed

Apparent Slip = x 100
Theoretical Speed
---------------(5.14)
Wake
During its advance through water, the flow around the vessel is disturbed and it
creates friction between the hull and the water. This disturbed water is known
as the wake. Since the propeller works in wake water, it is important to take
this into account in propeller calculations.

Due to the presence of the wake, the vessel speed relative to the wake is termed
the speed of advance. Thus, the wake fraction is calculated as,
Ship Speed − Speed of Advance

Wake Fraction =
Ship Speed
---------------(5.15)
Real Slip or True Slip
The Real Slip or True Slip is defined as,
Theoretical Speed − Speed of Advance

True Slip = x 100
Theoretical Speed
---------------(5.16)
Example
A vessel propeller has a diameter of 4.0 m, pitch ratio of 0.7, and revolves at
150 RPM. If the vessel speed is 12 knots and the wake friction is 0.24,
calculate the apparent slip and true slip.
D = 4m P/D = 0.7 N = 150 RPM

V = 12 knots wake fraction = 0.24
apparent slip and true slip
Write down the formulae to be used [(5.13), (5.14), (5.15), (5.16)]
P x N x 60
Theoretical Speed = ---------------(5.13)
1852
Apparent Slip = x 100 --------(5.14)
Theoretical Speed
Wake Fraction = --------(5.15)
Ship Speed
True Slip = x 100 ----(5.16)
Theoretica l Speed

To use equations (5.14) and (5.16), we need to calculate the required speeds.
First, we need to determine the pitch. Since the pitch ratio is defined as,
P
Pitch Ratio =
D
P
0.7 =
4
P = 0.7 x 4 = 2.8 m
Now to calculate the Theoretical Speed, using equation (5.13),
P x N x 60 2.8 x 150 x 60
Theoretical Speed = = = 13.6 knots
1852 1852
Thus, the Apparent Slip is calculated from equation (5.14) as,

Apparent Slip = x 100
Theoretical Speed
13.6 − 12
= x 100 = 11.76%
13.6
To calculate the True Slip using equation (5.16), we need to obtain the Speed
of Advance. This can be obtained from equation (5.15) as,

Wake Fraction =
Ship Speed
12 − Speed of Advance
0.24 =
12
Speed of Advance = 12 - (0.24 x 12) = 9.12 knots
Now using equation (5.16), the True Slip is obtained as,

True Slip = x 100
Theoretica l Speed
13.6 − 9.12
= x 100 = 32.94%
13.6

Activity 5.6
A vessel’s propeller has a diameter of 4.5 m, pitch ratio of 0.7 and revolves at
120 rev/min. If the vessel speed is 11.5 knots and the wake fraction is 0.30,
6. Relationships between Powers

The various types of marine engines are not all rated on the same basis. For
example. steam reciprocating engines are usually rated in terms of Indicated
Power, while internal combustion engines are rated as Brake Power.
The term horse power is still commonly used as a power measure. The
relationship between horse power and kilowatt is,
1 horse power = 0.7457 kW ---------------(5.17)
Brake Power (BP)
Brake power is the power measured at the crankshaft coupling, ie. the output
from the engine. This can be obtained using a dynamometer (or a brake),
which absorbs and measures the engine power output.
Shaft Power (SP)
Shaft power is the power transmitted through the shaft to the propeller. It is
usually measured aboard the vessel as close as possible to the propeller, via a
torsion meter. Shaft power will be less than the brake power as there will be
some losses due to mechanical efficiency and transmission losses.

Delivered Power (DP)
There is some power lost in the stern tube bearing and in any shaft tunnel
bearing between the stern tube and the site of the torsion metre. The power
actually delivered to the propeller is, therefore, less than the shaft power. This
loss is usually between 3 to 5 per cent. Thus, the power delivered to the
propeller is the delivered power. Thus,
Delivered Power = Shaft Power x Transmission Efficiency

---------------(5.18)
6.1 Thrust (T)

The propeller converts the rotary power from the engine to linear thrust. Most
propellers have an efficiency of about 60 to 70 per cent. Thus, the thrust from
the propeller is,
Thrust = Delivered Power x Propeller Efficiency ---------------(5.19)
The action of the propeller in accelerating the water, creates a suction on the
after end of the vessel. Therefore, for the vessel to achieve the desired speed,
the thrust must exceed the total resistance on the vessel by this amount.
Thus, the relationship between the thrust (T) and the total resistance (RT) is
expressed as,
RT = T (1 - t) ---------------(5.20)
where
RT = total resistance
T = thrust
t = thrust deduction factor
The effective power is that used to overcome the resistance to motion at a

given vessel speed (V). This was given by equation (5.8) as,
Effective Power = RT . V
note: V is in m/s.

Since the thrust is greater than the effective power, the relationship between
them is,
Effective Power = Thrust x Hull Efficiency
Since the mechanical efficiencies, gear losses, shaft transmission losses, etc.
vary according to the vessel and the operating conditions, it is difficult to
define an efficiency term combining the hull, propeller, and transmission. A
much more meaningful measure will be to estimate the power required by the
machinery from the calculation of effective power. For this reason a Quasi
Propulsive Coefficient (QPC) is introduced. Thus,
Effective Power = Delivered Power x QPC ---------------(5.21)
Example
The total resistance of a ship at 13 knots is 230 kN. If the Quasi Propulsive
Coefficient is 0.7 and shaft losses are 5 per cent, calculate the required shaft
power of the machinery.
V = 13 knots RT = 230 N QPC = 0.7

shaft losses = 5%, therefore, transmission efficiency = 0.95
Shaft Power (SP)
Write down the formulae to be used [(5.8), 5.18), (5.21)]

---------------(5.18)
Effective Power = Delivered Power x QPC ---------------(5.21)
First we need to calculate the effective power from equation (5.8). However,
for this we need the vessel speed in m/s. Thus,
13 x 1852
vessel speed = 13 knots = = 6.69 m/s
3600
Effective Power = RT1 . V = 230 x 6.69 = 1538.7 kW

Now using equation (5.21) to obtain the delivered power,
Effective Power = Delivered Power x QPC

1538.7 kW = D P x 0.7
1538.7
DP = = 2198 kW
0 .7
Now, the shaft power is calculated from equation (5.18) as,

2198 kW = S P x 0.95
2198
SP = = 2314 kW
0.95
Activity 5.7
The total resistance of a ship at 13 knots is 420 kN. If the Quasi Propulsive
Coefficient is 0.72 and the shaft losses are 4 per cent, calculate the required
shaft power of the machinery.

Section Summary
In this section you have learnt to determine the fundamental principles of ship
resistance and propulsion requirements on vessels. You should now refer to
the learning outcome and assessment criteria stated at the beginning of this
section and ask yourself if you can:
• define dimensions and terms related to propellers, including diameter,

pitch, pitch angle, and cavitation;
• define wake, true slip, apparent slip, and there relationships and solve
simple problems;
• define and calculate thrust, power, and their relationship;
• define and solve simple problems involving Law of similarity;
• describe the total resistance of a vessel and it’s relationship to the wetted
surface; and
• define Admiralty coefficient.
Progress Check 5
1. Explain the factors influencing frictional resistance and residuary resistance.
2. A 1:50 scale model of a 180 m long ship is to be tested in the towing tank.
If the speed of the ship 14 knots, calculate the speed at which the model
needs to be towed in the tank.
3. Two similar ships, ship 1 and ship 2 have wetted surface areas 1250 m2 and
5000 m2 respectively. If the residuary resistance of ship 1 is 60 kN,
calculate the residuary resistance of ship 2.
4. Explain why model experiments are carried and outline the calculation
procedure for the determination of the total resistance of a ship from model
tests.
5. A ship model is 3.5 m long and has a wetted surface area of 6 m2. When
towed at 1.8 knots in fresh water, the total resistance is found to be 18N. If
the actual ship is 70 m long, calculate the effective power required for the
ship at the corresponding speed. Take CF = 0.53 for the model and CF =
0.44 for the ship.

6. A ship of 12000 t displacement has an admiralty coefficient of 420.

Calculate the shaft power required at 13 knots.
7. A ship of 8000 t displacement requires 2400 kW at a particular speed.

Calculate the shaft power required by a similar ship of 14000 t
displacement at its corresponding speed.
8. Explain the following terms related to propellers

• diameter
• pitch
• pitch ratio
• pitch angle
9. Explain the terms

• Apparent Slip
• Real Slip
10. A ship propeller has a diameter of 3.6 m, pitch ratio of 0.7 and revolves at
160 rev/min. If the ship speed is 12.5 knots and the wake friction is 0.24,
11. Explain the relationships between brake power, shaft power, delivered
power and thrust.
12. The total resistance of a ship at 15 knots is 500 kN. If the Quasi
Propulsive coefficient is 0.68 and shaft losses are 5 per cent, calculate the
required shaft power of the machinery.


Section 6 Ship Stresses
Section 6
Ship Stresses

Section 6: Ship Stresses

Conditions 143
Section introduction 144
1. Longitudinal Stresses 145
2. Transverse Stresses 150
3. Localised Stresses 152
Section Summary 157

Learning Outcome 6
On completion of this module the learner will be able to identify and minimise
the stresses acting on the vessel structure.
Assessment Criteria
• Dynamic and static stresses on the vessel structure are defined.
• Structural stresses, including those due to: longitudinal and transverse
forces; longitudinal bending; shear; water pressure; racking; torsion;
pounding; panting; localised and point loading; vibration and thermal
affects; and stress concentration are described.
• The effects of the stresses described above on the structure and strength of
the vessel, and appropriate stiffening arrangements in accordance with
accepted practices and statutory requirements are outlined.
• Factors contributing to high stress conditions of the structure are identified.
• Safe working practices to prevent high stress conditions are described.
Conditions
This learning outcome may be assessed on-the-job or off-the-job. Competence
may be assessed in the following situations:
• a vessel under survey;

• approved training vessel or facility;
• approved equipment laboratory.
The learning outcome may be assessed through a combination of:
• written test involving the use of sketching, diagram interpretation, short

answer questions, multiple choice questions;
• oral questioning.
• access to appropriate vessels or equipment;

• a vessel’s plans;
• a suitable classroom environment and answer booklet for written tests.
You will provide:
• writing and drawing instruments for written test.

Section introduction
All structures under a loading condition will be stressed. Ships are no
exception. Therefore, ships are built to withstand various loads and stresses.
This is referred as the structural strength.
In its basic form, any vessel is simply a floating watertight shell, attached to a
framework of structural components necessary to give it shape, size and
structural strength. The structure of any vessel is therefore dependent upon the
service it is to provide and the stresses it will be subjected to in its area of
operation. The stresses experienced by a vessel can be conveniently classified
as:
• longitudinal stresses;
• transverse stresses; and
• localised stresses.
Stresses are of three main types and are summarised in Table 6.1:
Tensile - forces acting in such a direction as to increase the length of an object.

Compressive - forces acting in such a direction as to decrease the length of an
object.
Shear - the effect of two forces acting in opposite directions parallel to each
other.
Tensile Force Compressive Force Shear Force
Table 6.1
For a small vessel, plating thicknesses and stiffening members are chosen such
that the local structural problems such as buckling of plates, excessive
deflection, etc do not occur. This generally provides sufficient global strength
and therefore, global strength calculations are not required for small vessels.
However, for large vessels, global responses such as bending moments, shear
forces, deflections, distortions, stresses, etc. becomes large and hence the
determination of such responses is a prime concern for the safe operation of a
vessel.
You should take every opportunity to familiarise yourself with the structural
components of as many different types of vessels as possible. Visits to dry
docking and ship-repair or shipbuilding facilities can provide valuable
opportunities to gain knowledge.

1. Longitudinal Stresses
Longitudinal stresses are those that affect a vessel along its length. They are
mainly caused due to the following reasons:
• longitudinal bending of the hull in still water;

• longitudinal bending of the hull in waves; and
• vessel's motion in a seaway such as surging, swaying and yawing.
1.1 Still Water Stresses

Static ship’s loads are mainly the loads, which change only when the total
weight of the ship changes as a result of loading/discharging of cargo,
consumption of fuel, or modification of the ship itself. The two primary cause
to static loads are:
• weight of the ship and its contents; and

• static buoyancy of the ship while at rest or moving.
This type of loading is experienced when the vessel is stationary or moving at

sea with no waves.
This condition is commonly referred as the still water condition, and the
corresponding bending moments and shear forces are called as still water
bending moments and shear forces.
1.2 Wave Induced Stresses

When a vessel is moving in waves, the still water loading condition is no
longer valid as the effects of waves has to be considered. Although, in reality,
wave loading on a vessel is dynamic and varies continuously with time, a
simplification is usually made in the calculations of wave loading.
Bending Stresses
Two bending conditions cause by wave forces are:
• A wave crest at amidships and hollows at both ends, referred to as a

hogging condition. Figure 6.1 shows a vessel in hogging condition.
• A hollow at amidships and crests at both ends, referred as sagging

condition. Figure 6.2 shows a vessel in sagging condition.

Since the buoyancy force is different to that of the vessel in still water, these
conditions produce additional forces and moments upon the ship.
Hogging is a bending stress that creates tensile stresses in the upper deck
plating and compressive forces in the bottom plating of a vessel. It tends to
create large stresses in the amidships region of a vessel. These stresses are
greatest, when the length of the wave from trough to trough is the same as that
of the vessel.
Figure 6.1 Hogging Condition
Sagging also creates large stresses around a ship’s amidships area. It results in
compressive stresses in the upper deck plating and tensile stresses in the
bottom plating.
Hogging and sagging affect a vessel along its entire length and the greatest
bending stresses are set up in the structural components nearest the weather
deck.
Figure 6.2 Sagging Condition.
Hogging and sagging stresses are counteracted by:

1. All continuous longitudinal structures such as:

• centre girder;
• inter coastal side girders;
• deck, side and bottom plating;
• longitudinal bulkheads in vessels such as tankers; and
• longitudinal frames.
2. An even distribution of cargo loads over the vessel’s length.
Shear Stresses
Shear forces are caused by a vessel having a large difference in the load in two
or more adjacent compartments. Shear forces act in the vertical plane and can
in certain circumstances, be large enough to “break the ship’s back”.
Any increase in length of a vessel increases the possible effect that loading can
have on its structure in the form of shear forces.
The load in a compartment:
difference between the weight (acting downwards) and buoyancy

forces (acting upwards).
Activity 6.1
1) Inspect the following drawing and work out the points where the maximum
shear forces will exist.
2) Would the ship be hogging or sagging?
1200 T 3000T 3000T 2000T

Shearing forces can be counteracted by:
1) Following good loading/unloading procedure, thus ensuring that the load

differences between adjacent compartments are reduced,
2) Structural components such as:

• centre girder,
• intercostal side girders;
• deck, side and bottom plating;
• longitudinal frames; and
• longitudinal bulkheads in tankers.
1.3 Surging
Surging is the slowing down and speeding up of a vessel caused by wave
action in a seaway. Surging causes horizontal longitudinal shear stresses.
In a head sea condition, a vessel will slow down, often suddenly and
dramatically, as the bows encounter a wave crest. It will then speed up again
once the crest has passed, (Figure 6.3 ‘A’).
In a following sea condition, the vessel will speed up on the front of a wave
crest and then slow down as the wave passes (Figure 6.3 ‘B’).
Figure 6.3 Surging Stresses.

1.4 Swaying
Swaying is the sideways motion of a vessel, usually present when the sea is
broad on the bows or after quarter. If the sideways action is unequal at both
ends of the vessel, eg. a following sea on the after quarter, then the hull has a
tendency to bend in a sideways direction as shown in Figure 6.4.
Figure 6.4 Swaying Stresses.
1.5 Yawing
Yawing is the sideways movement of a ship's head back and forth across the
course being steered in a seaway. It creates stresses in the longitudinal
structural components and steering structures, (Figure 6.5).
Figure 6.5 Yawing

2. Transverse Stresses
Transverse stresses are those that affect a vessel across its width from side to
side. Transverse stresses are mainly caused by:
• water pressure; and

• torsion and racking.
2.1 Collapsing (Water Pressure)

Water pressure causes collapsing stresses that act inward and upwards on a
vessel’s hull, along the larger flat areas of the underwater shell plating. This
can occur even when the vessel is at rest in calm waters, (Figure 6.6). These
loads are functions of draft and trim of the vessel, and they tend to cause
deformation on unsupported areas of hull plating.
These stress is countered by:
• transverse bulkheads;
• transverse side frames;
• underdeck beams;
• tankside brackets and beam knees;
• double bottom floors; and
• web framing.
Figure 6.6 Collapsing Stresses

2.2 Torsion
Torsion is a twisting effect that is applied to a ship’s hull as a result of:
• the movement of across an obliques sea; or

• when cargo is not loaded symmetrically about the centre line of a ship.
This twisting effect can cause transverse watertight bulkheads to buckle,

reducing transverse strength as well as affecting the watertight integrity of the
vessel.
Resistance to torsion of a ship depends greatly on the cross section. A closed

section ship such as a tanker would have very little torsional stresses. On the
other hand, torsion stresses are of greater concern in larger vessels, which have
large deck openings. Container ships and bulk carriers are two types of ship
prone to torsion stresses.
Torsion stresses can be countered by:
1. Careful loading and discharging of ships to ensure an even distribution of

weight on each side of the vessel’s centreline.
2. Using structures such as ‘torsion boxes’, and extra strengthening of double

bottoms and side tanks.
2.3 Racking
Figure 6.7 Racking

Racking is caused by the rolling of a vessel in a seaway. Rolling in beam seas

results in transverse deformation of the ship due to greater sideways
displacement of a vessel's upper hull and superstructure as compared to the
lower hull sections. This tends to be concentrated at the deck stringer/sheer
strake connection and at the turn of the bilge, (Figure 6.7).
Racking can be countered by the use of:
• transverse side frames;

• underdeck beams;
• tankside brackets and beam knees;
• double bottom floors; and
• web framing.
3. Localised Stresses
Stresses affecting particular areas of a vessel are mainly caused by:
• panting;
• pounding;
• deck and point loading;
• structural discontinuity’s;
• drydocking; and
• vibration
3.1 Panting
Figure 6.8 Panting

Panting is the in-and-out movement of the shell plating that results from
variations in water pressure as the vessel pitches in a seaway. This effect is
shown in Figure 6.8, and affects the forward 15% of a vessel.
Panting is generally countered by:
• using athwartships panting beams;

• longitudinal horizontal stringers;
• close frame spacing; and
• a fore and aft vertical wash bulkhead.
3.2 Pounding
Pounding (or slamming) results from the heaving and pitching of the vessel.
When the bow emerges from water and re-enters, it creates a large, relatively
high frequency responses, (Figure 6.9). This is usually confined to the forward
25-30% of the vessel’s bottom.
Although pounding is usually considered to be a local response, in some cases

it’s affects on the longitudinal bending moments and shear stresses are
significant.
Figure 6.9 Pounding
Pounding is countered by:
• increasing the thickness of bottom plating in forward areas;

• reducing frame spacing in forward areas;
• using solid floors at every frame space;
• using additional longitudinal and intercostal side girders; and
• using half height side girder between intercostals.

3.3 Deck and Point Loading

Localised loading caused by incorrect stowage of high density cargoes can
cause temporary or permanent distortion of the ship’s structure. Point loading
occurs when the weight of an object is distributed over an extremely small
area. Point loading is a feature of Container and Roll-on-Roll-off cargoes.
• In the case of containers, the weight of the container is transmitted through

the relatively small area provided by its four corners.
• Similarly, the weight of a vehicle used in the handling of roll-on-roll-off

cargoes, is transmitted to the deck through its wheels.
Information regarding the loading limits over various parts of a vessel can
be obtained from the vessel’s “capacity plan”.
This stress is countered by ensuring there is adequate localised strengthening

below the cargo area, likely to undergo point loads.
Activity 6.2
1. Inspect the relevant plans of your vessel and determine the deck and point
loading limits of the cargo spaces, main deck, and hatch covers.
2. Discuss them with your instructor.
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3.4 Structural Discontinuity’s

Because a ship cannot be constructed as one single uniform beam, there are
numerous breaks, sharp changes in shape, and openings, in its structure.
Stresses tend to be concentrated in these areas, and are greater than the rest of
the structure. This can result in cracks developing and spreading from a
discontinuity, (Figure 6.10).

Figure 6.10
The build up of stresses around structural discontinuity’s is countered by:
• increasing the thickness of plate in the area of the discontinuity;

• using doubling plates;
• using extra stiffening; and
• rounding off any breaks, corners, or hull openings to allow stresses to
“flow”.
3.5 Drydocking Stresses

Removing a ship from the water for drydocking or slipping will cause localised
loads. This is due to the uniform buoyancy force of the water being replaced
by a number of localised point loads where the vessel’s bottom is in contact
with the drydock keel and bilge blocks, (Figure 6.11).
Figure 6.11
This has the potential to damage the vessel’s structure. Vessel’s are built with
sufficient strength to allow for drydocking forces, as these are a regular part of
the vessel’s maintenance and survey requirements. However, before a vessel is
drydocked, certain load conditions must be met and the vessel’s drydocking
plan consulted.
Activity 6.3
1. Obtain a copy of a docking plan and familiarise yourself with the

information it contains.
2. Discuss these with your instructor.

3.6 Vibration Stresses

The cyclic motion of an elastic material about it’s position of equilibrium, is
referred to as oscillatory or vibratory motion. Vibration may be flexural
(either vertical or horizontal) or torsional (twisting). The frequency of
vibration will vary depending on its cause, but generally this type of vibration
has a relatively high frequency. They are caused by
• machinery;
• unbalanced shafts;
• propellers; and
• hull girders.
The effects of vibration on a ship include:
• physical discomfort;
• metal fatigue;
• mechanical failure;
• equipment failure; and
• false readings on equipment/instruments.
Eliminating vibration is not easy once a vessel has been built. Vibration that
can be foreseen can be eliminated during the design stage of a vessel.
Comparison with similar vessel types can also be used to predict like types of
vibration. Design measures can include:
• using alternative engines;

• modification of engine balancing and seating arrangements;
• using alternative propeller design;
• keep superstructures as low as possible;
• ensure overhangs are well supported; and
• avoiding stepping accommodation both transversely and
longitudinally on the same deck.

Section Summary
In this section you have learnt to identify and minimise the stresses acting on
the vessel structure. You should now refer to the learning outcome and
assessment criteria stated at the beginning of this section and ask yourself if
you can:
• define dynamic and static stresses on the vessel structure;

• describe structural stresses, including those due to: longitudinal and
transverse forces; longitudinal bending; shear; water pressure; racking;
torsion; pounding; panting; localised and point loading; vibration and
thermal affects; and stress concentration;
• outline the effects of the stresses described above on the structure and
strength of the vessel, and appropriate stiffening arrangements in
accordance with accepted practices and statutory requirements;
• identify factors contributing to high stress conditions of the structure; and
• describe safe working practices to prevent high stress conditions;
Progress Check 6
1. Explain why ships are stressed even in still water condition.
2. Explain a “Hogging Condition” of a ship and identify hogging stresses on

the deck and keel.
3. Explain a “Sagging Condition” of a ship and identify sagging stresses on the

deck and keel.
4. Considering longitudinal bending stresses, where do you think the stresses

would be the most severe. In practice, what are the structural changes in
that area to reduce the stresses.
5. Explain the stresses caused by:

• surging;
• swaying; and
• yawing.

7. Explain Torsion on a vessel. Why are containers ships prone to torsional

stresses?
8. Explain the stresses caused by:

• panting;
• pounding; and
• dry docking.
9. Explain the causes and consequences of vibrational stresses and design

measurers to avoid them.

Section 7 Vessel Structure
Section 7
Vessel Structure
SPC 095 Naval Architecture and Ship Constrution (Eng 3) 159

Section 7: Vessel Structure

Conditions 161
1. Shell Plating, Decks & Framing 163
2. Keels & Centre Girders 172
3. Double Bottom Structure 174
4. Subdivision 177
5. Fore End Construction 186
6. Aft End Structure 189
Section Summary 194

Learning Outcome 7
On completion of this module the learner will be able to manage the survey
and maintenance of major structural components of vessels.
Assessment Criteria
• Longitudinal, transverse, and composite systems of framing used in vessel
construction are identified.
• The affects of various sea conditions on the vessels structure are explained.
• The general requirements, arrangements, and basic repair of: keels; side
and bottom shells; shipside fittings; forward and aft sections; stern frames
and rudders; bulkheads; watertight doors; decks; hatches; and double
bottoms in accordance with statutory requirements, safe stress limits, and
accepted practices are described.
• Survey and drydocking requirements of the above items are explained.
• The structural arrangement to prevent the spreading of fire and flooding on
vessels in accordance with statutory requirements and established
emergency procedures are explained.
Conditions



You will provide:

This section is designed to make you familiar with the manner in which the
major parts of a vessel's structure are constructed. In its basic form, any vessel
is simply a floating watertight shell, attached to a framework of structural
components necessary to give it shape, size and structural strength. The
structure of any vessel is therefore dependent upon the service it is to provide
and the stresses it will be subjected to in its area of operation. These stresses
have been outlined in Section 6 of this learners guide. You may wish to review
that section as you progress through this section.
You should take every opportunity to familiarise yourself with the structural
components of as many different types of vessels as possible. Visits to dry
docking and ship-repair or shipbuilding facilities can provide valuable
opportunities to gain knowledge.
You should also revise the sections dealing with vessel structure in SPC 075
Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Engineer Class 4), before reading
through this section. It will be assumed that you are familiar with the terms
introduced in SPC 075.

1. Shell Plating, Decks &

Framing
1.1 Shell Plating
Shell plating forms the watertight skin of a ship. It also resist vertical shear
forces and contributes to longitudinal strength of a ship. Because of the large
area of shell plating required to cover a hull, shell plating is made up of many
plates (strakes) which are welded together in a fore and aft direction. The
horizontal welds are called ‘seams’. The vertical welds are called ‘butts’.
1.1.1 Bottom Shell Plating

The width and thickness of the keel plating remains constant. Its thickness is
never less than the adjoining bottom shell plating. Strakes of bottom plating to
the bilge have their greatest thickness over 40% of the ships midships length,
where the bending stresses are the greatest. The thickness tapers off over the
rest of the length, but thickens again in pounding regions.
1.1.2 Side Shell Plating
Figure 7.1
Like bottom plating, side shell plating is thicker over the 40% of the midships
length. It is also thicker in areas where higher vertical shear forces occur.
Other areas where thickness is increased includes:
• the stern frame connection;

• near the hawse pipe;
• panting areas;
• in the waterline region and forward bottom for ice strengthening; and
• the sheer strake

(Note: the shear strake is the upper strake of side shell plating. It is subject to
very large bending stresses and is sometimes constructed from high tensile
steel).
The region where the sheer strake meets the deck plating is called the
‘gunwale’, (see Figure 7.1).
1.2 Decks
The horizontal platform that completes the enclosure of the ship’s hull is called
a deck. Decks must provide:
• a solid working platform capable of supporting any design loads resting on

it; and
• a watertight top cover to the hull.
The weather deck of a ship is generally cambered to help with drainage of

water. However container ships tend to have horizontal decks due to the nature
of their cargo.
Decks may be stiffened either transversely or longitudinally. Where decks are

framed transversely, (Figure 7.2 (a)), they are fitted with deck beams at every
frame. Longitudinal deck girders support the transverse framing. In
longitudinal framed decks, deep transverse support the longitudinal framing,
(Figure 7.2 (b)).
The scantlings depend on:
• frame span;
• location on the ship;
• the spacing interval;
• the ship’s length;
• whether frames are inside or outside the line of hatch opening;
• the frame span; and
• deck loading.
1.2.1 Deck Plating

Deck plating is constructed from longitudinal strakes of plating. The strakes
nearest the deck edge are called ‘stringer plates’. These are thicker than the
other deck plates as they are involved in the join to the sheer strake. Deck
plating abreast of hatch openings are also thicker, to compensate for the loss
of strength due to the opening.

The thickness may also be increased in regions where higher stresses may be
encountered due to concentrated loads, point loads or structural discontinuity’s.
Figure 7.2 a and b
1.3 Deck Openings

All large openings in the deck are cut with rounded corners, which are fitted
with insert plates, see Figure 7.3.

1.3.1 Access Hatchways

Hatchways must have a raised coaming to reduce the amount of water that can
enter the ship from the deck. The height of the coaming varies according to the
ship’s length.
Figure 7.3
Figure 7.4
Figure 7.3 shows a cut away section of a hatchway coaming. When a

hatchway is cut into the deck of a vessel, the corners are rounded to reduce
stresses. The square coaming is welded on top of the opening and a reinforced
lid is made to fit, (Figure 7.4).

Doors providing access from the main deck to lower compartments must have
sills, which serve the same purpose as hatchway coamings. The sill heights
are the same as for hatch coamings.
1.3.2 Cargo Hatches

On earlier ships, cargo hatches were closed by hatch boards or steel pontoon
covers, and made weathertight by using tarpaulins. Steel hatch covers on
modern vessels generally consist of either: a single one-piece lift-off pontoon,
hinged pontoon sections which fold to the open position, rolling covers, or
covers which stow on to a drum. In most cases the covers are made
weathertight by a gasket resting against a hatch coaming steel bar, commonly
known as a compression bar. Figure 7.5 shows the location of the compression
bar on the hatch coaming.
Figure 7.5
Figure 7.6 shows how the connection between the hatch pontoon and hatch
coaming is made watertight.
The joints between adjacent hatch panels are made weathertight in a similar
manner. The compression bar is attached to one panel, and it bears on the
gasket set of the adjoining panel. The hatch panels are held in place by cleats.
It is important to realise that the purpose of these cleats is not to achieve
watertightness by physical compression of the gaskets, but to restrict the
movement of the hatch panels due to rolling and pitching of the vessel.

Figure 7.6
1.4 Framing
Framing is used to support the shell plating as well as to provide transverse and
longitudinal strength to a vessel.
1.4.1 Transverse System
Figure 7.7
Transverse framing is a system which consists of vertical stiffeners, attached to

the vessel’s shell plating. These are attached to transverse deck beams and
flooring structures by brackets as is shown in Figure 7.7. This system is
suitable for smaller vessels, (under about 120 m in length).

Frame spacing will vary depending on the area being framed:
Most of a ship’s body will have a frame spacing of about 1000 mm, however
this decreases to 610 mm in bow and stern areas. Once ships become longer,
longitudinal framing is required to cope with longitudinal stresses imposed by
the extra length.
The dimensions of the transverse frames depend on their depth and location.
Frames in tanks and those supporting hatch beams, tend to have larger
dimensions. Where larger loads are applied, the frames are reinforced using
plate web and face flat to create a web frame. This is deeper and stronger than
a normal transverse frame.
1.4.2 Longitudinal System

To overcome the stresses imposed with increasing lengths, longitudinal
framing is used, (Figure 7.8). This involves running frames in a fore and aft
direction (longitudinally). Transverse web frames are used at regular intervals
to ensure that adequate transverse strength is provided. This system is
common in larger container vessels, tankers and larger bulk carriers. However,
is not popular in general cargo ships, where it transverse webs tend to interfere
with cargo stowage.
Figure 7.8

Activity 7.1
1. Compare Figure 7.8 and 7.9 and identify the relevant structures.
2. Ask your instructor check you answer.
Figure 7.9
1.4.3 Combined System

This system was introduced to overcome the disadvantages imposed by
longitudinal framing on dry cargo ships. It uses longitudinal framing in the
ship’s bottom and under the main deck, (and in some cases inside topside
tanks). Transverse framing is then used to support the ships side, where
longitudinal forces are less, (Figure 7.10).

Courtesy MIIU.
Figure 7.10

2. Keels & Centre Girders

The keel of a ship is often likened it’s backbone. This is because it contributes
a large amount to the ship’s longitudinal strength. It extends from the stern
frame to the stem bar or stem plate, running along the centre line of the bottom
structure.
2.1 Flat Plate Keel

This type of keel consists of a flat plate running in a fore and aft direction
along the centre line of the vessels bottom. This plate is thicker than normal
shell plating to allow for corrosion, maintenance difficulties during docking
(the presence of keel blocks), and higher stress levels.
A watertight longitudinal division known as a centre girder or vertical keel is

fitted at right angles to the keel plate. This provides additional longitudinal
strength.
Where a ship is fitted with double bottoms, the centre line strake of the tank
top plating acts to form an “I” section shaped keel girder, adding even more
strength to the keel structure, (Figure 7.11).
Figure 7.11
2.2 Duct Keel

A duct keel is constructed by using two longitudinal girders spaced up to 2
metres apart. They are not spaced an further as they must be close enough to
both be supported by the keel blocks during drydocking.

The keel plate, tank top plate, and side plating combine to make the ‘duct’.
Stiffeners are fitted to the shell and bottom plating and are bracketed to the
longitudinal girders. The tank top and keel plate are thicker to compensate for
the reduced strength of transverse floors used in double bottom construction,
(Figure 7.12).
A duct keel has the advantage of providing a watertight access way from the
engine room bulkhead to the collision bulkhead which can be used for: piping,
tank sounding systems, access to remotely operated valves, control lines, and
double bottom tank access covers.
Figure 7.12

3. Double Bottom Structure

The inclusion of a double bottom in a ship’s structure provides:
• An extra margin of safety in the event of the outer bottom shell plating
becoming damaged. Provided the inner bottom plating remains intact, any
flooding is restricted to the space between the outer and inner bottom
plating.
• The option of using the structure for water ballast and fuel tanks.
(Note: see Figures 7.8, 7.10, & 7.12 and Activities 7.2 & 7.3 for details of
double bottoms).
Refer to SOLAS Regulation 12-1 of Chapter 2-1 for information relating

to double bottom tanks.
The minimum depth of a double bottom will vary depending on:
• classification society requirements for the depth of the keel centre

girder; and
• the required tank capacity of a double bottom tank.
Where there is an increase in the depth of a double bottom tank, the change in
depth is gradual in the longitudinal direction. This prevents any sudden
discontinuity’s in the structure.
The tank top (ie. the top of the double bottom tank), is fitted to the side plate in
accordance to one of the following methods:
• A sloping margin leading to the bilge, which requires the use of margin
pates to connect up to the side framing and to act as water collection points.
• A continuous double bottom that extends to the side shell. This requires the
fitting of bilge wells or drain hats for water collection.
3.1 Transversely Framed Double Bottoms

As mentioned earlier, transverse framing systems are normally used for vessels
up to about 120 metres in length. This system makes use of transverse solid
plate floors and bracket floors, with transverse frames to provide the main
support for the inner bottom.

The bracket floors are fitted in between the solid floors, which are widely
spaced. In areas that are likely to experience high loads, solid floors are fitted
at every frame space.
Activity 7.2
List the areas of a ship that require solid floors at every frame space.
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Side girders are fitted in a longitudinal direction in order to provide

longitudinal strength to the transverse framing. The number will vary,
depending on the width of the ship. These are broken either side of the
transverse floors, and as a result are called “intercostal side girders”. Areas
subject to high loads are also required to be fitted with extra side girders.
Activity 7.3
Label the following features on the transversely framed double bottom shown
below
Margin plate, solid floor, tank top bracket floor, continuous centre girder,
intercostal side girder

3.2 Longitudinally Framed Double Bottoms

This system is used to provide the extra longitudinal strength required on larger
vessels. In this case offset bulb plates are used as longitudinal stiffeners on the
shell and inner bottom plating.
Solid floors are used to provide support at regular intervals along the ship’s
length including under transverse bulkheads. Brackets are fitted at the centre
girder and side shell at frame spaces between the solid floors. These extend to
the first longitudinal.
Where floors are widely spaced, vertical channel bars or bar struts are fitted to
provide additional support to the structure.
Intercostal side girders are also fitted to provide longitudinal support. The
number depending on the width of the vessel and classification society rules.
Activity 7.4
Label the following features on the longitudinally framed double bottom

shown below:
Bottom longitudinals, inner bottom longitudinals, solid floor, tank top, bracket
floors, continuous centre girder, intercostal side girder.

3.3 Double Bottom Tanks

Where a ship uses a double bottom structure for tanks, the following features
are included in the structure:
• Access holes are usually cut into the tank top, or in the longitudinal side
girder if access is via a duct keel. These access holes are jointed and
suitably bolted to the tank to ensure they are completely watertight
when not in use.
• Drain pugs called ‘docking plugs’ are fitted in each tank. These allow
the tanks to be completely drained when the vessel is in drydock.
• Air (vent) pipes are fitted to each tank to ensure air to enter and escape
from the tank during discharge and filling operations.
• Sounding pipes are fitted to allow the depth of liquid in the tank to be
measured using a sounding rod/tape.
• A plate called a ‘striker plate’ is fitted to the tank bottom below the
sounding pipe. This prevents the frequent striking of the sounding rod
from damaging the outer hull plating.
4. Subdivision
4.1 General Requirements for Subdivision
All ships are required to be subdivided into a number of watertight
compartments. Subdivision is required for the following reasons:
• transverse and longitudinal strength;

• watertight integrity and reserve buoyancy;
• separation of machinery and cargo spaces;
• containment and prevention of spread of fire; and
• separation of cargo spaces.
Watertight bulkheads are fitted to vessels at intervals dictated in class society

rules. They are fitted within the vessel to a height equal to the uppermost
continuous deck.
The minimum number of transverse watertight vessels fitted to a ship includes:
Collision Bulkhead: This is of heavier and stronger construction than other

bulkheads. It has to withstand a collision impact, and as such is not located too
far forward as it may be damaged on impact. However, it cannot be located
too far aft due to loss of cargo carrying capacity and possible adverse trim by
the head if the forepeak area becomes flooded.

After Peak Bulkhead: This is intended to enclose the stern tube, preventing
leakage where the propeller shaft passes through the stern. It is located well aft
so that any flooding will not cause any excessive stern trim.
Machinery Space Bulkheads: These are bulkheads at each end of the

machinery space. If the machinery space is located aft, it may coincide with
the after peak bulkhead.
Additional bulkheads are required to ensure the loaded ship will remain afloat
and stable if any one compartment is flooded. The number will depend on the
vessel’s length and its operation.
Activity 7.5
1. Inspect your vessel's General Arrangement plan which shows the profile
view of the vessel.
2. Reproduce a simple sketch of the profile and highlight the watertight
bulkheads.
3. Ask your instructor to check your answer.
4.2 Openings in Watertight Bulkheads

Wherever possible, piping and ventilation trunks should not pass through
watertight bulkheads. Where this cannot be avoided, the following measures
must be adopted.

• Openings must be small as possible and located as high as

possible.
• They must retain the strength, watertight integrity, and fire

resistance.
• Pipes must be flanged to the bulkhead, not pass through it.
• Ventilation trunks must be fitted with a watertight shutter.
• If the collision bulkhead is to be pierced by a pipe, a valve must be

fitted at the bulkhead. This valve should normally be kept closed
and may be operated by remote control and/or an extended
spindle.
4.2.1 Doors in Watertight Bulkheads

In some cases it is unavoidable that large hole is required in a watertight
bulkhead. In such cases, the opening must be fitted with a watertight door,
which complies with the following requirements:
• The opening must be framed, and thicker plating used around the
opening.
• The opening must be as small as possible.
• Below the load waterline, doors must be of the sliding type.
• Sliding doors must be capable of operation with a 150 list on the
vessel.
• Doors must be able to be operated both remotely and locally.
• Hydraulically-operated doors must be fitted with local alarms at
each door to warn of closing/opening by remote control.
• Doors are tested by hose testing, except for passenger vessels
where the doors are required to be tested under a head of water
equal to the height of the bulkhead in which the door is to be
fitted. Hose testing requires a jet of water is directed at the door in
the closed position at a specified pressure, and the door sealing
arrangement is checked for leaks.
• Above the load waterline, hinged doors are permitted, provided
that the hinges are made of suitable non-corrosive material.
4.2.2 Bulkhead and Tank Testing

The collision bulkhead, the forepeak bulkhead, and the after peak bulkhead are
tested for watertightness by filling the peaks with water up to the level of the
load waterline.

Where the bulkheads form the boundaries of deep tanks, they are tested by
filling them with water up to the top of the air pipe. Double bottom tanks are
tested to a head sufficient to give maximum pressure that can be experienced in
service. Tanks are normally tested every five years.
Other watertight bulkheads of compartments not forming the boundaries of

liquid-carrying spaces are simply tested by hose testing.
Electrical cables, water or fuel pipes, personnel access ways, and ventilation
trunking sometimes must pass through watertight bulkheads. Where this
occurs, additional precautions must be taken to ensure that watertight integrity
is not lost.
For example, if a pipe must pass through a collision bulkhead, a valve must be
fitted at the collision bulkhead. This valve must be kept closed when not in
use.
Activity 7.6
1. Refer to SOLAS Chapter 2 Regulation 25-9, which refers to openings in

watertight bulkheads and internal decks in cargo ships.
2. Summarise the main points in the space provided below.
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4.3 Plain Watertight Bulkheads

Due to their large size, watertight bulkheads are constructed from several
horizontal strakes that are stiffened vertically. These are welded to the shell,
deck, and tank top plating. As a flooded compartment produces greater water
pressure at the bottom, the thickness of the horizontal strakes near the base of
the bulkhead is increased. Stiffeners in holds are bracketed to the tank top and
deck underside, (Figure 7.13).

Figure 7.13
4.4 Corrugated Watertight Bulkheads

By using either corrugations or swedges in a plate, a very strong bulkhead can
be constructed with a reduced weight. The troughs are generally vertical (see
Figures 7.10 & 7.14) on transverse bulkheads, but must be horizontal on
longitudinal bulkheads (to add to the longitudinal strength of the ship).
Horizontal corrugated bulkheads are sometimes used on bulk carriers, (Figure
7.15), as the smooth surfaces enables easier loading/discharging.
Figure 7.14

The thickness of the corrugated bulkhead plating, is uniform vertically due to

the prefabrication process. This results in the entire bulkhead having the
thickness required at the base. The bulkhead may joins the shell plating via
stiffened flat plates.
A watertight floor is fitted in the double bottom beneath every main transverse
bulkhead (Figure 7.15)
Figure 7.15
4.4 Structural Fire Protection

A fire on board a vessel is a serious event. It has the potential to put the whole
vessel and crew at risk. Regulations are in place to ensure that during the
design stage, adequate structural arrangements are made to restrict, retard, and
control the spread of fire, should one break out aboard the vessel.
The three basic principles underlying fire retardation are:
• separation of spaces within the vessel by thermal and structural

boundaries;
• containment, extinction, or detection of any fire in the space of origin;

and
• protection of the means of escape.

The requirements for structural fire protection are based on SOLAS Ch II-2.
These are summarised below.
Category Description
(1) Control Stations Wheelhouse, radio room, fire control

station.
(2) Corridors Corridors, stairways, lobbies.
(3) Accommodation Spaces Sleeping rooms, mess rooms, public spaces,

storerooms (in which flammable products
are not stored).
(4) Machinery Spaces (a) Spaces containing internal combustion

machinery for:
(i ) main propulsion,
(ii) other purposes when such machinery
in the aggregate has a total power
output of not less than 375 kW, or
(b) spaces which contain any oil fired
boiler.
(5) High Risk Spaces (a) Spaces containing internal combustion

machinery other than as defined in (4)
(b) Separate galleys
(c) Storerooms containing flammable
products.
(6) Cargo Spaces All spaces used for the carriage of cargo.
These categories of spaces must be separated by bulkheads and decks which

are classed as ‘A’, ‘B’ or ‘C’ class divisions, depending upon their fire
retardation properties.
4.4.1 “A” Class Divisions

These bulkheads are:
• made of steel or equivalent material;

• may be insulated insulated;
• suitably stiffened;
• capable of preventing the passage of smoke and flame up to the end
of the 1 hour standard fire test; and
• must prevent heat transfer to the unexposed side for a specified
time. The temperature of the unexposed side must not exceed 139
0
C on average during the fire test.

“A” class divisions are rated depending on their degree of insulation:
• A-60 will not reach 139 degrees for 60 minutes

• A-0 is uninsulated
4.4.2 “B” Class Divisions

• made of incombustible material; and

• capable of preventing the passage of flame up to the end of the first
½ hour of the standard fire test, and may also be insulated.
“B” class divisions must not reach an average temperature of 139 0C on the
unexposed side within a specified time during a fire test as follows:
• B-15 for 15 minutes

• B-0 (uninsulated)
4.4.3 “C” Class divisions

• made of combustible materials;

• they may allow the passage of flame and smoke;
• they are not required to be insulated; and
• approved combustible veneers may be used.
4.4.4 Standard Fire Test

A “standard fire test” consists of a test section of the division material being
exposed to heat as shown in Table 7.1.
TIME ELAPSED TEMPERATURE

5 minutes 556 degrees C.
Table 7.1

4.4.5 General Requirements

• Accommodation spaces should be separated from the machinery spaces and
cargo spaces by ‘A’ class bulkheads and decks.
• High risk spaces should be separated from the accommodation by ‘B’ class
bulkheads and ‘A’ class decks.
• As an alternative to the requirements for structural fire protection; automatic

fire detection systems, or automatic sprinkler systems may be provided.
However, the machinery space of all vessels must be protected by an
automatic fire detection system and a fixed fire extinguishing installation.
• All means of escape should be clearly marked.
• Where the divisions are penetrated by ventilators, pipes, and cables,

arrangements should be made to ensure that fire resistance is not impaired.
• Paints or varnishes containing a highly flammable base, are not to be used.
Activity 7.7
To complete this activity you need access a ship’s ‘Fire Control Plan’
1. Study the plan and identify the location of ‘A’ and ‘B’ class divisions on
the vessel.
2. How does the types of divisions shown on the plan compare to the
requirements laid out in SOLAS II-2 Regulation 44?
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5. Fore End Construction

The forward end of a ship is considered to be the area forward of the collision
bulkhead. It’s function is to:
• Provide smooth entry into the water and allow a streamlined flow along
the ship. On many vessels a bulbous bow is used to assist this.
• Deflect sea water and spray away from the ship in heavy weather.
• Provide a readily collapsible area to absorb the impact of a collision.
• Provide a mounting point for the ships anchoring and mooring
equipment including cable lockers.
5.1 Features of Fore End Structures

5.1.1 The Stem
The stem is the terminating point of the forward shell plating. It is the
backbone of the bow section. It is constructed from a solid round stem bar
from the keel end to the load waterline. In some vessels the lower stem section
consists of a cast section instead of a stem bar. Stiffened plates are used for the
section from the load waterline up to the forecastle deck. This plate stem rakes
well forward to create extra deck space and a collapsible area to absorb
collision damage. The stem plate structure is stiffened using curved horizontal
flange plates known as ‘breast hooks’
5.1.2 Panting Structure

Panting was described in Section 6 of this learner’s guide. To overcome the
loads imposed on the bow structure by panting, the structure must be
strengthened for 15-20% the ships length from the stem. This strengthening
consists of:
• Horizontal stringers referred to as panting stringers. These are fitted at

intervals of about 2 metres below the lowest deck of the fore end
structure.
• Horizontal beams referred to a ‘panting beams’ are fitted across the bow
structure at alternate frame spaces. They are bracketed to the panting
beams.
• Brackets are used to connect intermediate frames to the panting stringers.
• A partial wash bulk head or a series of vertical pillars is fitted at the

centreline of the structure to add extra support.

• Perforated flats may be fitted instead of beams provided they are not
more than 2.5 metres apart. The perforations are required to reduce the
liquid pressure on the plate.
• Panting stringers are continued up to 0.15 of the vessel’s length aft of the
collision bulkhead unless plate thickness is increased in this area.
Activity 7.8
Label the following features on the fore end structure shown below
Plate stem, stem bar, floors, panting stringers, collision bulkhead, bulkhead
stiffeners, wash plate, chain locker.
5.1.3 Pounding Region

To overcome the potential damage to the bottom plating and girders due to
pounding and slamming, 25-30% of a ships length aft of the forward
perpendicular is provided with additional strengthening structures. These
include:
• Thicker shell plating either side of the keel.
• Reduced frame spacing.
• Stronger connections between shell plating and bottom girders.

• In transversely framed double bottoms:

a) solid floors are fitted at every frame space;
b) extra intercostal side girders are fitted; and
c) half height side girders are fitted midway between full height side
girders.
• In longitudinally framed double bottoms:

a) solid floors are fitted at alternate frame spaces; and
b) extra intercostal side girders are fitted.
5.1.4 Bulbous Bow

Where a bulbous bow is fitted, it must be integrated efficiently with the rest of
the bow structure. Structural features include:
• transverse floors are fitted at every frame space;

• horizontal diaphragm plates spaced every 1 metre are used to strengthen
the for part of the bulb;
• a deep centreline web is fitted;
• if the bulb is long, transverse wash bulkheads or substantial frame may
be fitted about every 5 frame spaces; and
• plating on the bulb is thicker to protect against anchor cable damage.
A bulbous bow arrangement is shown in Figure 7.16.
Figure 7.16

6. Aft End Structure

The after end or stern structure of a vessel is designed to:
• Allow a smooth flow of water into and away from the propeller.
• Support the ship’s propeller and rudder mounting structures.
• Provide space for steering gear below deck.
• Provide space for mooring gear above deck.
• Support structures such as stern doors on ro-ro vessels.
• Create space for an after peak tank.
The stern structure is required to have a degree of overhang to meet the above
requirements. As a result, large slamming and panting forces can be imposed
by a seaway. To overcome these forces, the stern structure must be adequately
stiffened.
6.1 Stern Frame

The shell plating at the after end terminates at the ‘stern frame’. This is
usually a casting, but forgings and fabrications are also used. Features of the
stern frame include:
• It extends sufficiently forward to provide a good connection to the flat

plate keel for at least 2 or 3 frame spaces. The after most plate of the
keel will be “dished” around the stern frame extension.
• Designed to have sufficient clearance from the propeller blades so as to

reduce vibration problems.
• A boss is fitted on the centreline of the stern frame so that the tail shaft
can pass through it.
• In some cases, the lower part of the stern frame is designed to provide
support for the rudder post. This depends on the type of rudder being
used.
• Provision of suitable connecting points for the floors used in the stern
structure. Two important connections are the transom post and the
vibration post. Strong connections are made at these posts to keep
propeller induced vibrations to a minimum.
• Side shell plates are directly welded to the stern frame.

6.2 Transom Sterns

A transom stern (see Figure in Activity 7.9), has the advantage of providing a
large deck area aft. It is relatively simple to construct, but requires the
following stiffening arrangements:
• Deep solid floors and a centreline girder at the lower areas.

• Vertical stiffeners fitted around the shell plating. These are bracketed to
the floor and to the deck beams, which run transversely across the stern.
• A deep horizontal stringer may be used to provide extra stiffening for the
shell plating if required.
• A deep centre girder is fitted below each of the decks. This is bracketed
to a deep web at the centreline of the after shell plating.
• A web at the centreline of the after shell plating is bracketed to floors in
the stern and to the solid plate floor beneath.
Activity 7.9
Label the following features on the aft end structure shown below
Rudder trunk, after peak bulkhead, boss, stern frame, bracket, solid floor,
transom post, vibration post.

6.3 Rudders
The function of a rudder is to allow a ship the be steered. The effectiveness of
a rudder will depend on its area. There are three types of rudders, each has a
different arrangement about the turning axis.
6.3.1 Unbalanced Rudder

This rudder has all of its area behind the turning axis, (Figure 7.17).
Figure 7.17
6.3.2 Semi Balanced Rudder

This has a small part of its area forward of the turning axis, (Figure 7.18).
Figure 7.18

6.3.3 Balanced Rudder

The rudder has more than 25% of its area forward of the turning axis. This
type has the advantage of no torques being placed on the rudder stock at certain
rudder angles.
6.3.4 The Rudder Stock

This is constructed from cast or forged steel. It is connected to the rudder as
well as to the steering gear, passing through the rudder trunk.
6.3.5 The Rudder Trunk

This is an opening in the hull that allows the rudder stock to pass from the
steering gear to the rudder. The lower end is generally not water tight, but a
water tight gland is fitted at the top end, (Figure 7.19).
Figure 7.19

Activity 7.10
1. You need to have access to a vessel in dry dock for this activity.
2. Access information on the dry docked vessel, including the vessel’s
general arrangement plan and drydocking/maintenance/survey
requirements.
3. Obtain information on the statutory surveys requirements on the vessel’s
structure.
4. Identify the various structural components requiring surveys, inspections,
and maintenance, and explain the actions required.
5. Discuss these with your instructor.

Section Summary
In this section you have learnt to manage the survey and maintenance of major
structural components of vessels. You should now refer to the learning
outcome and assessment criteria stated at the beginning of this section and ask
yourself if you can:
• identify longitudinal, transverse, and composite systems of framing used in

vessel construction;
• explain the affects of various sea conditions on the vessels structure;
• describe the general requirements, arrangements, and basic repair of: keels,
side and bottom shells, shipside fittings, forward and aft sections, stern
frames and rudders, bulkheads, watertight doors, decks, hatches, and
double bottoms in accordance with statutory requirements, safe stress
limits, and accepted practices; and
• explain survey and drydocking requirements of the above items; and
• explain the structural arrangement to prevent the spreading of fire and
flooding on vessels in accordance with statutory requirements and
established emergency procedures.
Progress Check 7
1. Describe in your own word what longitudinal and transverse framing

systems are structured.
2. Describe the properties of an A-30 and a B-15 division on a ship.
3. Describe the main construction features of a vessels bow structure (the fore
peak area).
4. Describe the main differences between an unbalanced and semi balanced

rudder.
5. List the advantages of double bottom structures.
6. What extra fittings are required for a double bottom structure that is to be
used as a tank?

Section 8 Specialised Structures
Section 8
Specialised Structures

Section 8: Specialised Structures

Conditions 197
1. General Cargo Vessels 199
2. Container Vessels 200
3. Bulk Carriers 203
4. Ro-Ro Vessels 205
5. Tankers 207
6. Offshore Vessels 211
Section Summary 214

Learning Outcome 8
On completion of this module the learner will be able to manage the survey
and maintenance of special structural requirements and arrangements on
various vessel types.
Assessment Criteria
• Special structural requirements of: general cargo vessels; container vessels;
bulk carriers; ro-ro vessels; tankers; and offshore tenders in accordance with
established practices are outlined.
• Structural layout of the vessels described above are described.
Conditions



You will provide:

In Section 7 you learnt the requirements associated with general vessel
construction. However, the method of construction actually used will depend
on the purpose for which the ship is being built. A vessel built for a particular
cargo type or trade, may result in the ship being more prone to stresses that
would not affect other designs. In this section will look at some of the special
structural requirements and typical construction features of:
• general cargo vessels;

• container vessels;
• bulk carriers;
• ro-ro vessels;
• tankers; and
• offshore tenders.

1. General Cargo Vessels

This type of a vessel usually sails on a fixed schedule, at specified ports,
regardless of the quantity of cargo available. Thus, a general cargo carrier
would carry a wide range of cargoes ranging from grain, timber, food,
manufactured goods, semi-processed materials, etc.
Many of the older general cargo carriers have accommodation for up to 12

passengers, 12 being the maximum number of passengers that a ship can carry
before it is legally classified as a passenger ship.
Figure 8.1 General Cargo Vessel – Midship Section
To be able to carry certain goods, a small amount of refrigerated cargo space is

usually built into these ships. Usually, a general cargo carrier has its own
cargo handling gear such as derricks or cranes. Cargo carrying capacity for
these vessels are usually much smaller than some of the other types such as
bulk carriers and VLCC tankers.

Figure 8.1 shows a typical midship section of a general cargo carriers. As

shown in the figure, the vessel has longitudinal framing at the decks and in the
double bottom. However transverse framing is used at the sides to assist with
loading/discharging operations. This is a typical combination system of
framing.
Longitudinal framing is not common at the sides of general cargo carriers,

since it would require deep web transverses to be constructed. These would
result in a large amount of broken stowage and leaving considerable amount of
void spaces.
Activity 8.1
1. Obtain a general arrangement plan for a general cargo vessel.

2. Identify the construction features discussed above.
2. Container Vessels
The need for quicker transport of goods by sea led to the development of the
container vessel. As these vessels are designed to carry a maximum number of
modularised shipping containers, cargo is carried below decks in holds as well
as above deck on hatch covers.
Because containers are lowered vertically into the holds, the size of the holds is
determined by the size of the hatch openings. As a result, the holds on
container ships are long and extend across most of the width of the vessel.
This arrangement results in the ship being prone to torsion and racking
forces.
The problems associated with torsion are overcome by the use of thicker deck
plating, rigid hatch covers, and structures known as torsion boxes.
Torsion boxes are strong longitudinal box girders that are fitted on each side of
the ship. They are made up of the upper deck, top part of the longitudinal
bulkhead (of the holds), sheer strake, and the upper platform. High tensile
steels are used to form the box girder. These box girders are often used as a
passageway underneath the upper deck to provide safe all weather access to
cargo holds.

Hatch coamings are subjected to extra loads due to the stacking of containers
on top of hatch covers. As a result, they are reinforced. Hatch covers on a
container vessel are usually of the pontoon type. This results in a solid hatch
cover that must be lifted off the ship by a gantry or crane and placed ashore.
The rigid hatch structure helps to overcome the transverse weakness caused by
the large holds and longitudinal framing used in container ships.
Figure 8.2 shows a profile view of a container vessel, while Figure 8.3 shows a
midship cross section.
The holds of container ships are fitted with a series of cell guides that serve the
dual purpose of guiding containers vertically into and out of the hold, as well
as helping to secure the containers within the hold. Containers stowed on deck
are secured using a combination of ‘twistlock’ locking devices together with
lashing systems using steel rods, chains, and tensioning devices such a
turnbuckles.
The spaces adjacent to the holds comprise the box girders, and side tanks that
can be used as heeling tanks to assist cargo operations.
The double bottom arrangement is designed to withstand the impacts and point
loads from containers. Side girders and additional transverse stiffening are
fitted under container seats to distribute the loads more evenly.
New generation of short sea container ships are built without hatch covers.
The advantages of hatch coverless construction are:
• the time and labour savings for hatch opening/closing and container
lashing/unlashing;
• provides a lower centre of gravity that is crucial in terms of vessel’s
stability; and
• due to strength requirements, the weight of hatch covers may often be at
the limit of shore side canes lifting capacity.
In a hatch coverless design, all holds are open to weather, and protected by the
high sided walls. Any water shipped on board is drained by a ducted tank top
structure to large drain wells at two or three positions in each hold. The water
is then pumped overboard via large dedicated pumps.
Activity 8.2
1. Obtain a general arrangement plan for a container vessel.


Figure 8.2 Profile View of a Container Ship

Figure 8.3 Container Ship- Midship Section
3. Bulk Carriers
Bulk carriers are vessels designed to carry a range of dry bulk cargoes. These
include iron ore, coal, grain, bauxite, sugar, etc. These ships make up the
major part of the world bulk carriers fleet.
The modern concept of bulk cargo, requires it to be loaded and discharged

quickly into single deck dry cargo vessel. This offers the advantage of
economics, due to the transportation of bulk raw materials.
The ability to carry a variety of dry bulk cargoes presents some problems to the
designers, as the specific gravity and stowage factors for different cargoes can
vary greatly. In the past, when dense (heavy) cargoes, such as ores were
carried, they were often loaded in alternate holds for ease of cargo operations.

This created large shear forces and moments, that in some cases resulted in the
loss of bulk carriers. Therefore, alternate loading is no longer allowed by
statutory authorities.
Let us now look at the common construction features of a bulk carrier, (note: a
typical cross section is shown in Figure 8.4).
Holds extending most of the width of the vessel, separated by transverse

corrugated bulkheads and sometimes void spaces. Large hatch openings allow
the loading and discharging operations to be carried out easily with the use of
large grabs.
Bottom construction usually consist of a double bottom, allowing strength and

large water ballast capacity.
When heavy bulk cargo such as iron ore is loaded, the vessel’s centre of
gravity will move very low, making the vessel very stiff. To raise the centre of
gravity to a desired location, topside tanks or wing tanks are incorporated.
Double bottom tanks with lower hopper tanks extending to the sides of the
holds are also common.
Figure 8.4 Bulk Carrier - Midship Section
As seen from Figure 8.4, wing tanks and lower hopper tanks are considerably
large. These also allow sufficient water ballast to be carried when the vessel’s

holds are empty. In some cases, one or more cargo holds are used to carry
water ballast. It is not unusual for a 130,000 DWT vessel to carry in the order
of 85,000T of water ballast.
Although general bulk carriers can transport a variety of cargoes, the vast
majority still have a ballast leg to during most voyages. In order to overcome
this, specialised ore carriers are designed with small holds and large wing
tanks, that can be used to carry bulk liquid cargoes, when not carrying ore.
There are two major types of specialised bulk carriers:
• the oil/bulk/ore (OBO); and

• oil/ore (O/O) carriers.
These vessels do not carry liquid and dry bulk cargoes at the same time.
However, they carry different cargoes during different legs of the voyage. In
practice, when the bulk rates are high, these vessels are traded as bulk carriers,
and when tanker rates are high they are traded as oil tankers.
Bulk carriers generally use a combination system of framing. Double bottoms

are reinforced to allow for loads imposed by falling cargo during loading and
trimming by bulldozers. The plating on the double bottom tank tops is also
thickened to withstand impacts from grabs and damage from bulldozer tracks.
Due to the nature of the cargoes carried, corrosion is a common concern in

ageing bulk carriers. It is considered to be a major contributing factor into the
high rate of bulk carrier losses in recent years. Therefore, classification
societies and IMO have placed a lot of emphasis on more frequent and proper
inspections, surveys, and maintenance of the hull.
Activity 8.3
1. Obtain a general arrangement plan for a bulk carrier.

4. Ro-Ro Vessels
This type of ship was originally designed to carry cargoes, which were secured
to truck trailers. The trucks delivers the cargo to the wharf, where the trailers
are then towed aboard and secured prior to the voyage. The reverse occurs at
the discharge port.
The success of a Ro-Ro vessel depends largely on the efficiency of the

equipment used to move the vehicles from ashore to the ship and the

distribution of the vehicles throughout the cargo spaces within the ship.
Hence, a variety of transfer and access gear is used to achieve a fast turn-
around time. These include, stern ramps, stern doors, internal ramps, hoists,
bulkhead doors, side ramps, bow ramps, bow doors, etc.
Figure 8.5 Ro-Ro Midship Section
A typical midship section of a Ro-Ro vessel is shown in Figure 8.5. Some of

the important features of Ro-Ro vessels are described below.
• Clear decks, running the length of the vessel uninterrupted by transverse

bulkheads.
• Sufficient deckhead clearance to allow trucks and folk lifts to operate on

the vehicle decks.
• Engine room casings and centre line pillars are sometimes used to
provide additional support to the large open structure that makes up the
vehicle deck.
• Some lower vehicle decks are segregated into smaller compartments by

large watertight doors.
• Side tanks may be provided to be used as heeling tanks. Double bottom

tanks are provided for water ballast and fuel storage.

• Decks are sufficiently strong to withstand the forces imposed by

vehicular traffic and point loading from cargo including: cars, trucks,
containers, and break bulk cargoes.
• Internal ramps or elevators are provided to allow vehicles access to crane

decks, car flats, and lower vehicle decks.
• There is little loss of continuity due to hatches, although some ro-ro ships
do have one hatch lid in the crane deck to allow crane access to the upper
vehicle deck.
• Transverse strength is maintained through the use of deep closely spaced

web frames, in conjunction with deep beams.
• A weakness associated with ro-ro ships is the need for vehicle access.
This is achieved by use of an access ramp and a stern door or bow door.
A major safety concern is the failure or loss of bow or stern door of a Ro-Ro
vessel, as was illustrated with the 1994 loss of the ro-ro passenger ferry Estonia
in which nearly 900 people lost their lives.
Recent amendments to SOLAS regulations require alarm systems and other

remote monitoring of shell openings. New and existing vessels are also being
fitted with hemicyclic doors, which help to break up the large free surface area
associated with vehicle decks.
Activity 8.4
1. Obtain a general arrangement plan for a Ro-Ro vessel.

5. Tankers
5.1 Bulk Liquid Tankers
Due to the nature of bulk liquid cargoes carried, it is not required for tankers to
have large openings in the deck plating to allow access to the tanks. Cargo is
pumped in and out of the vessels via a system of pumps, pipes, and valves.

The only openings required in the main deck are small access hatches,
sounding pipes, tank washing, and venting arrangements.
Tankers are usually fitted with longitudinal bulkheads. A deep centreline

girder is fitted at the keel and deck, connected to a vertical web on the
transverse bulkhead. This web is only required on one side of the bulkhead.
The top and bottom girders act as supports. Large flats are fitted to their face
edges and continued around the bulkhead web to form almost a complete
vertical ring. The bottom centre girder is stiffened by brackets midway
between the transverses, extending from the centre girder to the adjacent
longitudinal to provide sufficient support for dry docking loads.
In some larger vessels full height perforated bulkheads are used in place of
centre girders. Oil tight bulkheads in tankers may be either horizontally
corrugated or plane.
Cofferdams must be fitted at the forward and after ends of the total cargo
spaces.
5.1.1 Framing
Longitudinal Framing
The deck, bottom shell and longitudinal bulkheads are stiffened longitudinally.
Deep transverse webs, forming a ring structure around the ship are used to
support the longitudinal bulkheads.
Figure 8.6 Tanker Midship Section

This system provides adequate longitudinal strength, but the horizontal side
frames and bulkhead stiffeners tend to retain liquid making tanks difficult to
clean and increasing the chances of corrosion.
The longitudinals used are usually bulb plates, or in some cases flat plates.
The bottom longitudinals are much heavier than the deck longitudinals, with a
gradual increase in thickness of the side longitudinals with tank depth.
The transverse webs are stiffened by the use of face flats and are supported by
two or three horizontal struts.
Figure 8.6 shows a typical midship cross section of a tanker.
Combined Framing
The deck and bottom shells are framed longitudinally, with transverse side
frames and vertical stiffeners on the longitudinal bulkheads. Side framing is
supported by horizontal stringers, the lower stringers are heavier than the upper
stringers. This system has the advantage of providing sufficient longitudinal
strength and good tank drainage due to the vertical side frames and stiffeners.
After the “Exxon Valdez “ disaster in Alaska in March 1989, which resulted in
a large quantity of oil spillage, International bodies and especially the United
States government enforced the use of safer tanker designs. Among all other
considerations, double hull tanker design was favoured. As a result of that,
today, all new tankers are constructed as double hull tankers.
Activity 8.5
1. Obtain a general arrangement plan for a bulk liquid tanker.

5.2 Gas Carriers

These type of tankers carry gas in liquid form. There are two main types of
gas carriers, ie. LPG and LNG tankers. LPG tankers carry Liquid Propene and
butane Gas, while the LNG tankers carry Liquid Natural Gas, mainly methane.
The gas is kept in liquid form by applying either:

• high pressure at ambient temperature;
• low temperature at ambient pressure: or
• a combination of the two.

Figure 8.7 LNG Carrier

Construction of these ships is technically challenging and complicated, due to

the requirement of the materials necessary to withstand either low temperatures
or high pressures. Figure 8.7 shows a profile view of a LNG gas carrier.
These vessels are usually operated between specialised terminals. They can
only carry what they are designed to carry, and are normally built to operate
for a particular trade for the whole of their life.
6. Offshore Vessels
In line with the development of the oil extraction from the sea, specialised new
ships types were constructed to support offshore platforms. Some of these
include:
• offshore supply vessels;

• deep sea offshore support vessels;
• floating production ships; and
• heavy lift ships.
Offshore supply vessels and deep sea offshore support vessels are primarily
used to carry spare parts and supplies to offshore fields. Since, it may be
required to carry and lift heavy cargoes, a large crane is usually a feature on
these vessels. They often have large deck spaces.
Special vessels are also built to carry out exploration and also as oil production
ships.
Heavy lift ships are designed to transport heavy offshore modules and
complete units such as jack-ups. The deck loads on such vessels are in the
order of 20-30 tonnes per square metre. Therefore, the deck structure has to be
strengthened to support such loads. They also have large ballast capacity for
loading and unloading of the cargo. The cargo is usually floating and the ship
sinks by taking ballast and goes under the cargo. After positioning it self, the
heavy lift ship is floated again by de-ballasting, thus rising with the cargo.
Figure 8.8 shows a profile view of a deep sea offshore support vessel and
Figure 8.9 shows the midship cross section view.
Activity 8.6
1. Obtain a general arrangement plan for a offshore supply vessel.


Figure 8.8 Deep Sea Offshore Support Vessel

Figure 8.9 Deep Sea Offshore Support Vessel Midship Section

Section Summary
In this section you have learnt to manage the survey and maintenance of
special structural requirements and arrangements on various vessel types. You
should now refer to the learning outcome and assessment criteria stated at the
beginning of this section and ask yourself if you can:
• outline special structural requirements of: general cargo vessels; container

vessels; bulk carriers; ro-ro vessels; tankers; and offshore tenders in
accordance with established practices; and
• describe structural layout of the vessels described above.
Progress Check 8
1. Sketch a typical cross section of a general cargo carrier and explain some
of the structural requirements and special design features of a general
cargo carrier.
2. Sketch a typical cross section of a container ship and explain some of the
structural requirements and special design features of a container ship.
3. Sketch a typical cross section of a general bulk carrier and explain some of
the structural requirements and special design features of a bulk carrier.
4. Sketch a typical cross section of a tanker and explain some of the

structural requirements and special design features of a general tanker.
5. Explain the reasons why LNG and LPG tanker designs are different than
the conventional tanker design.
6. Sketch a typical cross section of a ro-ro ferry and explain some of the
structural requirements and special design features of a ro-ro ship.
7. Explain some of the structural requirements and special design features of

an offshore support / supply vessels.

Feedback to Activities
Section 1
Activity 1.1
2155 t
Activity 1.2
∆ = 1330 t, CB = 0.704, CM = 0.926
Activity 1.3
a) 12.81 t per centimetre, b) 9.36 cm
Activity 1.4
1.019 t/m3
Activity 1.5
a) 1405.8 m2, b) 1361.4 m2
Activity 1.6
a) 55.2 m2, b) 0.5658 tonnes per cm
Section 2
Activity 2.1
a) top: p = 0, L = 0, bottom: p = 15.08 kN/m2, L = 905 kN
b) top: p = 50.3 kN/m2, L = 3016 kN, bottom: p = 65.4 kN/m2, L = 3921 kN
Activity 2.2
X = 0.944 m, Y = 1.835 m
Activity 2.3
a) 2668 kN, b) 4669 kN
Activity 2.4
1601 kN, 5.33 m
Section 3
Activity 3.1
7.375 m

Activity 3.2
Activity 3.3
5.74 m
Activity 3.4
3.84 m
Activity 3.5
4.26 m
Activity 3.6
Instructor to check answer.
Activity 3.7
0.07 m
Activity 3.8
7.23 m
Activity 3.9
Section 4
Activity 4.1
aft: change = 0.247 m, draft = 6.447 m,
forward: change = 0.234 m, draft = 5.967 m
Activity 4.2
mass = 538.5 t, draft = 7.347 m
Section 5
Activity 5.1
13.86 knots

Activity 5.2
2390.6 m2
Activity 5.3
17040 kW
Activity 5.4
2187 kW
Activity 5.5
5875 kW
Activity 5.6
6.09%, 34.26%
Activity 5.7
4063.4 kW
Section 6
Activity 6.1
a) shear forces will be maximum between: hold 1 and 2, hold 3 and 4, and
hold 4 and accommodation.
b) sagging
Activity 6.2 and 6.3

Section 7
Activity 7.1
Activity 7.2
Under all watertight bulkheads and tank bulkheads
Activity 7.3

Activity 7.4
Activity 7.5 to 7.7

Activity 7.8
Activity 7.9
Activity 7.10
Section 8
Activity 8.1 to 8.6


Feedback to Progress Checks
Progress Check 1
1. 1881.9 t
2. CB = 0.736 m, ∆ = 3272.4 t
3. a) 1440 m3, b) 1476 t, c) 0.857, d) 0.857, e) 1, f) 1
4. a) 1920 m3, b) 1968 t, c) 0.5, d) 0.5, e) 1, f) 1
5. 28 tonnes
6. a) draft decreases, b) 11.36 cm
7. a) draft increases, b) 11.47
8. 1.0072 t/m3
9. 17.92 t
Progress Check 2
1. Hydrostatic pressure increases linearly as the depth of the fluid is

increased.
2. Pressure = 15.08 kN/m2, Load = 1.206 MN
3. 166.2 mm from the base.
4. 2 m from the surface.
5. 209.6 kN, 2.5 m from the top.
6. a) 1634 kN, 4.67 m from the liquid surface, b) 5336.6 kN
Progress Check 3
1. 9.8 m
2. 0.46 m
3. 5.236 m
4. 0.2 m

5. See sub-section 4.
6. 1.280 (10 17’), 1.380 (10 23’)
9. 7.018 m
10. See Figure 3.12.
Progress Check 4
1. a) sinkage = 15 cm, trim = 47.67 cm

b) draft aft = 7.198 m, draft forward = 7.121 m
2. a) mass = 267.86 t, b) 6.712 m
Progress Check 5
2. 1.98 knots
3. 480 kN
5. 553.2 kW
6. 2741.6 kW
7. 4610.6 kW
10. 4.3%, 27.3%
12. 5972.1 kW

Progress Check 6
See the relevant sub-sections in Section 6.
Progress Check 7
Progress Check 8

References
NFITC An Introduction to Fishing Vessel Stability. Newtone Press. 1983
Queensland Transport, Small Ships Manual, Department of Transport Brisbane QLD.,
1993
Derret D.R., Ship Stability for Masters and Mates. Stanford Maritime Ltd, London
1990
Pursey, H.J., Merchant Ship Construction Brown, Son and Ferguson Ltd., Glasgow
1991.
Kemp J. and Young P. Ship Stability Notes and Examples, Stanford maritime Ltd,
London 1971
Hind A.J., Stability and Trim of Fishing Vessels, Fishing News Books Ltd., London
1982
Eyres D.J. Ship Construction, William Heinemann Ltd., London 1982
Kemp J. and Young P Ship Construction Notes & Sketches. Stanford Maritime Ltd,
London 1971
Taylor D.A., Merchant Ship Construction, IME London 1992
FAO, 1985 Design of Small Fishing Vessels, Fishing News (Books) Ltd, Surrey. 1985
Course Note, Australian Maritime College.
Acknowledgment
Some illustrations have been reproduced from the text listed above.

Appendix 1
Dimensions and Terminology
A1.1 Principal Dimensions of a Vessel
In this section we will explain common terms used to define dimensions of a
vessel.
Measured Length
The distance from the fore part of the hull to the after part of the hull, taken at
the upperside of the uppermost watertight deck, or, in the case of open deck
vessels, at the height of the gunwale, (Figure A1.1).
Length between Perpendiculars (LBP)
The distance from the forward perpendicular to the after perpendicular is

defined as the Length between perpendiculars. The forward perpendicular is a
vertical line drawn through the point where the load waterline cuts the stem.
The after perpendicular is defined with a vertical line drawn at the after end
of the rudder post, (Figure A1.1).
Length Overall (LOA)
The length from the extreme tip of the bow to the aftermost point of the stern,
(Figure A1.1).
Freeboard
The distance from the freeboard deck to load waterline. For every commercial
vessel of 24 m in length and over, there is a requirement for a minimum
freeboard to ensure that a minimum reserve buoyancy is achieved. Freeboard
deck is the uppermost deck open to weather and sea, and where all openings
are made watertight.
Depth
The depth of a vessel is usually measured at the side and amidships. It is the
distance from the deck to keel, (Figure A1.1).
Beam or Breadth (B)
Breadth is the greatest width from one side of the vessel to the other, (Figure
A1.1).

Figure A1.1
Waterline and Draft (T)
A vessel in a normally loaded condition is said to be floating at its Load

Waterline or Design Waterline, (Figure A1.1). In the above condition, the
draft at which the vessel floats is called the Loaded Draft or Service Draft.
The Draft is measured from the waterline to the deepest point of the vessel's
hull, usually the underside of the keel.
Activity A1.1
You have learnt the meaning of terms Draft, Freeboard and Depth. What is
the relationship between these three terms?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
A1.2 Common Terminology

When facing forward, the part of the vessel on the left hand side is called the
port side, the part on the right hand side is called the starboard side, (Figure
A1.2).
The bow is the region at the front of a vessel. The stern is the region at the
back of a vessel. A person moving towards the bow is said to be going
forward. A person moving towards the stern is said to be going aft. These
terms are illustrated in Figures A1.2 and A1.3.
Figure A1.2
Figure A1.3

When moving along the length of a vessel a person is said to be moving in the
longitudinal direction. Similarly, when moving across a vessel a person is
said to be moving in the transverse direction.
Amidships
It is the middle of the vessel in the longitudinal direction. Frequently it

defines the mid point of the length between perpendiculars (LBP). Figures
A1.1 and A1.3 show the position of amidships.
Rise of Floor (Deadrise)
If the bottom of a vessel rises from the centre line (keel) to the bilge as shown
in Figure A1.4, it is referred to as a Rise of Floor or Deadrise. The angle, the
bottom of the vessel makes with the horizontal is called the deadrise angle.
Bilge
The rounded part of the hull, where the side meets the bottom is called the
bilge. Although it is difficult to construct it, a rounded bilge provides strength
and reduces hull stresses, (Figure A1.4).
Figure A1.4
Camber
If the deck of a vessel has a transverse upward curve, it is said to have a

camber, (Figure A1.4). This helps water to run off the deck and increases the
load carrying capacity of the deck.
Sheer
In some vessels, the deck line is raised forward and aft. This is called sheer.
It aids water run off and contributes to reserve buoyancy, (Figure A1.5).

Tumblehome
Tumblehome is when the sides of a vessel, 'falls-in' towards the centre line, as
they rise up to the deck-edge, (Figure A1.2). This is not common in modern
vessels.
Figure A1.5
Bulwark
A Bulwark is a planked or plated extension of a vessel’s top sides above the

sheer line, (Figure A1.5). The bulwark must be fitted with water shedding
openings at deck level known as scupper ports or scuppers. It is also usually
fitted with a capping piece or rail at the top.
Scuppers
Scupper are drains or discharge ports capable of rapidly freeing the deck of
excess water under all sea conditions, (Figure A1.5). Scuppers may consist
of ports that remain open at all times, or have hinged doors to reduce water
returning bach onto the deck
Figure A1.6
Superstructure
A superstructure is a multi-level deck house rising from the main deck of a

vessel. It usually houses the bridge, galley, saloon, and accommodation,
(Figure A1.6). Smaller vessels may be fitted with a wheel-house, deck house
or a combination of both, (Figure A1.7).

Wheel house
Figure A1.7
Flare
The outward flowing of the bow (sometimes called Flare) forces water
outwards and away, promoting deck dryness and assisting the bow to lift over
waves, (see Figure A1.7).
Activity A1.2
1. Identify and locate the following on an actual vessel or on a vessel’s

drawing:
length overall, length between perpendiculars, depth, beam, load
waterline, draft, freeboard, amidships, bilge, rise of floor,
camber, sheer, bulwark, scupper, and flare.

.
.

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Engineer Class 3 /

Regional Maritime Programme

Regional Maritime Programme

SPC 095 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 3)

First printed, April 1998

Original text: English

Secretariat of the Pacific Community

Authors: Dr Seref Asku and Tony Boyle, Australian Maritime College

Editor: Dev Ranmuthugala, Australian Maritime College

Note: Some copyright clearances are pending.

SPC 095 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 3)

Section 1: Definition of the Hull Geometry 7

SPC 095 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 3) i

ii SPC 095 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 3)

Section 6: Ship Stresses 141

Section 7: Vessel Structure 159

SPC 095 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 3) iii

iv SPC 095 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 3)

SPC 095 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 3) 1

2 SPC 095 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 3)

How to Use the Learner’s Guide

SPC 095 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 3) 3

Solving questions involving calculations

1. Write down the information given, in base units.

Learner’s with Advance Knowledge

• Read the learning outcomes and assessment criteria in each section.

4 SPC 095 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 3)

Check your Progress icon Check Text icon

Caution/Beware icon Tips icon

Activity icon Key Point icon

SPC 095 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 3) 5

Learning and assessments will take place in a combination of classroom; laboratories;

The learning outcomes may be assessed through a combination of:

6 SPC 095 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 3)

Definition of the Hull

SPC 095 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 3) 7

Section Contents Page

Section 1: Definition of the Hull Geometry

3. Tonne per Centimeter Immersion (TPC) 18

4. Change in Draft Due to Change in Fluid

5. Wetted Surface Area (S) 23

6. Approximate Integration Methods 25

8 SPC 095 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 3)

You will be provided with :

You will provide:

SPC 095 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 3) 9

1.1 Archimedes’ Principle

When a solid is immersed in a fluid, it experiences an upwards force

The law of flotation:

total buoyancy force = total weight of the vessel ---------------(1.1)

10 SPC 095 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 3)

1.2. Relationship Between Immersed Volume

To determine the underwater volume or displacement volume of a vessel in a

2.1 Block Coefficient (CB)

SPC 095 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 3) 11

By re-arranging Equation (1.3), a relationship between the volume of

Volume of displacement = ∇ = L x B x T x CB ---------------(1.4)

Typical values of block coefficient for different types of vessels are:

VLCC, Tanker 0.88 Bulk Carrier 0.85

A vessel of length 42 m and breadth 8 m is floating at a draught of 3 m in

Write down the information that has been given

12 SPC 095 Naval Architecture and Ship Construction (Eng 3)

Write down what must be found