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Available online 2 June 2008 Tremendous efforts have been devoted to improve our understanding of the anthropogenic
effects on the atmos
c
S CI EN C E OF TH E T OTAL EN V I RO N M EN T 4 0 7 ( 2 0 09 ) 31 4 2– 3 15 2 3143
2007; Liu et al., 2007; Stathopoulou and Cartalis, 2007) and included in the GHCN. Unfortunately, there are no other rural
downward into the subsurface (Bodri and Cermak, 1999; stations in the GHCN that are located within the immediate
Changnon, 1999; Baker and Baker, 2002; Ferguson and Wood- vicinity of the Osaka metropolitan area.
bury, 2004; Taniguchi et al., 2005). For this study, we analyze the trends in annual mean
With the increasing trend in urbanization worldwide, temperature, annual mean maximum temperature, annual
tremendous efforts have been devoted to improve our under- mean minimum temperature, and the diurnal temperature
standing of the urban heat island effects. However, most of the range for the selected stations. The monthly mean temperature,
research efforts so far have been focused on the atmospheric mean maximum temperature, and mean minimum tempera-
aspects of the urban heat island effects (Jones et al., 1990; Kalnay ture time series of the selected GHCN stations are available at
and Cai, 2003; Peterson, 2003; Trenberth, 2004; Zhou et al., 2004; the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) website http://www.
Brohan et al., 2006; Parker, 2006; Jenerette et al., 2007). The urban data.jma.go.jp/obd/stats/data/en/smp/index.html. These
heat island effects on the subsurface temperature and their meteorological records have been aggregated to generate
environmental consequences are poorly understood. corresponding annual time series. We further derived the
The objective of this study is to analyze meteorological annual mean diurnal temperature range time series from the
records and surface temperature data for the detection of the aggregated annual maximum and minimum records.
urbanization effects on the thermal environment across the All of the four urban/suburban stations are still in active
ground surface in Osaka metropolitan area in Japan. service and have annual data up to 2006 by the time of this
Osaka is the second largest metropolis in the country and study. The Osaka time series started in 1883, and the Kyoto
has a population growing from 8.67 million in 1985 to record started two years earlier in 1881. However, both of the
8.82 million in 2006 (http://www.citypopulation.de/). We two rural stations have been out of service since 2001. The
analyze the trends in the annual mean temperature, the temporal lengths covered by the selected meteorological
mean maximum and minimum temperatures, and the mean records range from 52 years (Nara) to 125 years (Kyoto). All of
diurnal temperature range recorded in 6 meteorological the selected meteorological records show overall warming
stations around Osaka. We use a high quality subset of trends in the annual mean temperature, maximum tempera-
borehole temperature data reported in two previous studies ture, and minimum temperature time series over their
(Taniguchi and Uemura, 2005; Taniguchi et al., 2005) to detect observation periods (Fig. 2).
the subsurface warming in Osaka. We calculate the transient The Osaka station shows a warming trend of 1.99 °C/100a
impacts of the urban annual time series on subsurface over the 124 year period from 1883 to 2006, more than triple
temperature distribution, and compare the calculated subsur- the 20th century global warming rate 0.6 °C/100a (IPCC, 2001).
face temperatures to the borehole measurements. The anomalous urban warming is consistently recorded in the
Although borehole temperatures can be used for a recon- records from the nearby urban/suburban stations, of which
struction of surface temperature history (e.g., Huang et al., 2000), the warming rates are 2.24 °C/100a for Kyoto, 1.45 °C/100a for
climate reconstruction is the focus of the paper by Yamano et al. Kobe, and 1.96 °C/100a for Nara, respectively. In comparison,
(this issue) in this special issue. Readers interested in climate the warming rates recorded in the two rural stations are more
reconstruction based on borehole temperatures from Osaka and diverse. Over its 55-year life span, the Tsurugisan station
several other Asian cities are referred to Yamano et al. (this showed a warming rate of 0.47 °C/100a which is slightly lower
issue) for additional information and results. than the global average; whereas the 82-year Ibukiyama
This study is part of an on-going effort of the multi- record showed a 1.60 °C/100a warming rate that is much
disciplinary research project “Human impacts on urban greater than the global average.
subsurface environment” which has Tokyo, Osaka, Bangkok, To reduce the ambiguity of comparing records of different
Seoul, Taipei, Manila, and Jakarta as its target research areas. temporal lengths, we have also analyzed the records over the
1954–2000 period covered by all of the 6 selected stations. The
trends derived from the records over the entire observation
2. Meteorological records periods and over the 1954–2000 common-period are summar-
ized in Table 1 for comparison. A more vigorous yet consistent
In addition to the surface air temperature time series from the urban warming trend and a more moderate yet diverse rural
Osaka meteorological station, we select meteorological warming are reconfirmed by the common-period data
records from two urban stations (Kyoto and Kobe) and one analysis.
suburban station (Nara) around Osaka, and two rural stations The change in the diurnal temperature range appears to be
(Tsurugisan and Ibukiyama) in more remote areas for this another important indicator of urban heat island effects in
study (Fig. 1). All the selected meteorological stations are the this region. In both entire-period and common-period ana-
member stations of the Global Historical Climatological Net- lyses, Osaka and the other two urban stations show a
work (GHCN) (Peterson and Vose, 1997). decreasing trend in the diurnal temperature range, apparently
The Osaka meteorological observatory is located in the due to nighttime warming being more significant than
downtown area of the Osaka city. The Kyoto, Kobe, and Nara daytime warming in urban areas (Kalnay and Cai, 2003; Zhou
stations are the GHCN stations closest to Osaka, located et al., 2004). In contrast, the trends in the diurnal temperature
respectively in the northern Kyoto city, the shore area of the range for the two rural stations are mild over their entire
Kobe city, and the hilly area of the Nara city. The two rural observation periods, and positive over the 1954–2000 period
stations selected for comparison are the rural stations closest (Table 1). In these two rural sites, the nighttime (minimum
to Osaka among the 167 Japanese meteorological stations temperature) warming trends are comparable to or less
3144 S CI EN CE OF T H E T OTAL EN V I RO N M EN T 4 0 7 ( 2 0 09 ) 31 4 2– 3 15 2
Fig. 1 – Satellite photos showing the location of the six selected meteorological stations. The locations of the individual stations
are detailed in the six smaller photos. Each small photo covers an area of about 5 km × 7 km. The photos are generated with
online mapping tool Google Earth.
S CI EN C E OF TH E T OTAL EN V I RO N M EN T 4 0 7 ( 2 0 09 ) 31 4 2– 3 15 2 3145
Fig. 2 – The annual mean (green dot), maximum (purple diamond), minimum (blue cross), and annual temperature range (red
triangle) time series and the linear regression trends for the selected meteorological stations. The equations for the trend lines
are shown with the same color scheme. The meteorological data were retrieved from the Japan Meteorological Agency website
at http://www.data.jma.go.jp/obd/stats/data/en/smp/index.html. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
significant than the daytime (maximum temperature) warm- similar to the urban stations and a positive trend in the
ing trends. diurnal temperature range that is characteristic of the two
The record from the Nara station embraces a strong rural stations. The Nara station is classified in the GHCN
warming trend in the annual mean temperature that is inventory as an urban station based on the population of Nara
3146 S CI EN CE OF T H E T OTAL EN V I RO N M EN T 4 0 7 ( 2 0 09 ) 31 4 2– 3 15 2
North East Mean Max Min Range Mean Max Min Range
Osaka Urban 34°40.9′ 135°31.1′ 1883–2006 1.99 1.35 2.71 −1.36 2.90 1.58 4.17 −2.59
Kyoto Urban 35°0.9′ 135°43.9′ 1881–2006 2.24 0.94 3.55 −2.61 2.43 0.68 3.25 −2.57
Kobe Urban 34°41.8′ 135°12.7′ 1897–2006 1.45 0.66 1.95 −1.29 1.81 1.49 1.57 −0.08
Nara Suburban 34°41.6′ 135°49.6′ 1954–2006 1.96 1.93 1.43 0.50 1.81 1.69 1.13 0.55
Tsurugisan Rural 33°51.2′ 134°5.8′ 1946–2000 0.47 0.71 0.11 0.41 0.18 0.89 −0.33 1.22
Ibukiyama Rural 35°25′ 136°24.4′ 1919–2000 1.60 1.72 1.88 −0.17 1.62 1.95 0.89 1.06
city it is associated with. The GHCN uses a tripartite In the field, however, subsurface temperature is also
classification of stations by population, with less than 10,000 subject to other perturbations related to site-specific environ-
as Rural, 10,000 to 50,000 as Small Town and over 50,000 as Urban. mental settings including land cover, land use, and ground-
The city of Nara has a population of over 300,000. However, in water movement (Pollack and Huang, 2000; Goto et al., 2005;
contrast to Osaka, Kyoto, and Kobe, the Nara meteorological Taniguchi and Uemura, 2005; Bartlett et al., 2006). 6 out of the
station is not within an urban center. We reclassify Nara station 34 borehole temperature profiles obtained by Taniguchi
as suburban for its location in the hilly area near the margin of the project team over the 2003 field campaign (Taniguchi and
city (see Fig. 1). The positive trend in the diurnal temperature Uemura, 2005) in Osaka meet the basic data requirements for
range is consistent with this reclassification. the objective of detecting urban heat island effects.
Borehole drilling is very expensive and is generally unafford-
able to researchers from an academic institution. Temperature
3. Borehole data logging for scientific research has to rely mostly on the boreholes
drilled for industrial or civil purposes. As such, many borehole
The six boreholes from which temperature measurements are temperature measurements from undesired settings may be not
analyzed in this study are located within the densely useful to the specific research purpose due to high level of noise.
populated Osaka urban area (Fig. 3). Osaka city occupies an The boreholes available for logging in Osaka at the time are
area of 220 km2 of the 1600 km2 Osaka alluvial plain which is groundwater monitoring wells. Many borehole temperature
open to the Osaka Bay to the west, and surrounded by data are excluded from the analysis of this study due to severe
Hokuetsu and Rokko Mountains to the north, Ikoma Mountain perturbations from groundwater flows (Taniguchi and Uemura,
to the east, and Izumi Mountain to the south. The plain is 2005; Taniguchi et al., 2005). Temperature changes at the ground
covered by Pleistocene Osaka group and the later sediments to surface can only impose smooth transient perturbations to the
a thickness over 600 m in the central part of the plain. The subsurface temperature field. However, groundwater flows can
underlying bedrocks of the Osaka plain are Mesozoic volcanic cause both smooth and abrupt changes to a temperature profile.
rocks and granites. All the boreholes were drilled at least In our borehole data selection, an abrupt change is taken as an
20 years ago in the Quaternary sedimentary rocks. identifier of ground water perturbation.
The borehole temperature profiles (Fig. 4) used in this Another factor leading to the rejection of some borehole
analysis are selected from the borehole temperatures mea- temperature profiles is the borehole depth. Temperature mea-
sured during the field campaign from August to October 2003. surements from shallow boreholes would not allow separation of
Subsurface temperatures from these boreholes were mea- the steady steady-state geothermal gradient from the climate/
sured at 1 m intervals with a logger of 0.01 K accuracy. urbanization related transient components. In this study, we only
Additional information regarding the geological settings of the use temperature profiles that extend to the depth of 180 m.
borehole sites and the technical aspects of the temperature Although the temperature profiles selected for this study
measurements can be found in Taniguchi and Uemura (2005). comprise a high quality subset of the Osaka borehole data archive,
In principle, the distribution of temperature in the subsur- they are not free of non-climate perturbations, as evidenced in the
face is controlled in part by the heat flowing from deep interior irregular variation in the profiles. Nevertheless, the level of the
of Earth, and in part by the temperature history at the ground noise is much lower than the transient signals in the selected
surface (Cermak et al., 1992; Huang et al., 2000; Pollack and profiles. All six profiles bend towards higher temperature at
Huang, 2000; Harris and Chapman, 2001; Smerdon et al., 2006). If shallower depths, a clear signature of ground warming in Osaka.
the surface temperature never changes, the distribution of the
subsurface temperature would be a linear function of depth
with the geothermal gradient as its slope (Fig. 5). However, if the 4. Urban heat island effects in surface air
surface temperature changes with time, the distribution of the temperature
subsurface temperature would depart from linearity. A pro-
gressive cooling at the ground surface would result in a A wide range of the urbanization effects in surface air
temperature profile bending towards lower temperature as temperature have been reported by different groups, from
illustrated in Fig. 5 in blue. Conversely, a warming at the ground negligible (Peterson, 2003; Parker, 2004; Peterson and Owen,
surface would force a temperature profile to bow towards higher 2005; Parker, 2006) to very significant (Kato, 1996; Kalnay and
temperature at shallow depths (red curve in Fig. 5). Cai, 2003; Li et al., 2004; Zhou et al., 2004; Kalnay et al., 2006).
S CI EN C E OF TH E T OTAL EN V I RO N M EN T 4 0 7 ( 2 0 09 ) 31 4 2– 3 15 2 3147
Fig. 3 – Satellite photos showing the location of the six selected boreholes. The location of the Osaka (o), Kobe (b), and Nara (n)
meteorological stations are shown on the top map for reference. The locations of the individual borehole sites are detailed in the
five smaller photos. Each small photo covers an area of about 5 km × 7 km. The photos are generated with online mapping tool
Google Earth.
3148 S CI EN CE OF T H E T OTAL EN V I RO N M EN T 4 0 7 ( 2 0 09 ) 31 4 2– 3 15 2
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